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What does "Dungan language" mean?

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

Dungan language

belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Writing based on the Russian alphabet.

Wikipedia

Dungan language

Dungan language- the language of the Dungans, descendants of speakers Chinese Muslims hui(Huizu), who moved to the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan after the suppression of the Muslim uprising in northwestern China in 1862-1877. Belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. In the USSR, during the process of national-state delimitation in Central Asia, initiated in 1924, the ethnonym “Dungan” was chosen as the official name for Chinese-speaking Muslim migrants, used in Russian. Dungan). This ethnonym was not known in inner China. In Xinjiang it appeared as the name of those Huizu, which were massively displaced from the provinces of Gansu and Shaanxi - mainly in 1764 during the formation of the Ili General Government with its center in Ghulja. According to one version, the word “Dungan” is of Turkic origin. According to another, it goes back to Chinese word Tunken- “military settlements of border lands”, widespread in Xinjiang (modern Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region) during the period of its development by China during the Qing dynasty. The self-names of the Dungans of the USSR/CIS, used to this day, are Huihui, Huiming"Hui people" Luo Huihui"venerable Huihui"["Hui" means Muslims in Chinese. "Lo-hui" - "old Muslims - Turkic peoples Turkestan] or hun-yan zhyn. They call their language accordingly “the language of the nationality hui» ( huizu yyan) or "language of the Central Plain" ( hun-yang hua).

National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic

Institute of Linguistics

As a manuscript

1SHCHAZOV MUKHAME KHUSEZOVICH

GRAMMAR OF THE DUNGAN LANGUAGE

Specialty 02/10/02. - National languages/Dungan language/

A second abstract of the dissertation and competition for an academic degree, Doctor of Philological Sciences

Bishkek 1994

The work was carried out in the Department of Education and Science of the Institute of Economics and Foreign Experience of the HAH Kyrgyz Republic

Official opponents:

Doctor of Philology, Professor A.O. Orusblev

Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor Hu Chienhua Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor M.I. Trofimov

Founding organization: Uyghur Institute HAH Resluolyaki Kzzahstzi

The defense will take place "3t" j/i.. Xg. at the meeting of the specialized council DL0.93.20 for the defense of dissertations for the degree of Doctor of Philology at the Institute of Linguistics HAH of the Kyrgyz Republic at the address: 720071, Bishkek, Chui Avenue, 26t> -

The dissertation can be found in the library of the HAH of the Kyrgyz Republic

Scientific Secretary ^

specialized council,

Candidate of Philological Sciences, "¿iVil G.S" zdykoe

The Dungan language is the language of the Central Asian Hui (Dungans). Typologically similar to Chinese. Some scholars consider it a dialect of Chinese. At the same time, it is also classified as independent language. The Central Asian Dungans lost contact with hieroglyphic writing and literary Chinese. They created their own phonetic writing, as well as literature. Their language developed in complete isolation from Chinese. It was a means of communication only for the Hui (Dungans) of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. As a result of all this, a lot of things have appeared in it that distinguishes it from the Chinese language. These differences relate most of all to vocabulary and phonetics. The Dungan vocabulary contains a significant number of Turkic, Russian, Arabic and Persian borrowings, which is almost never observed in Chinese. In the phonetics of the Dungan language, there is a clear opposition between the consonants of hardness and softness, which is absent in the Chinese language. Discrepancies also concern the tonal system: in the Dungan language there are three gonas, in Chinese there are four. There are also differences in grammar, which are expressed primarily in the presence in many cases of formal indicators in the Dungan language, on the one hand, and in their absence in Chinese, on the other.

A lot of special works have already been devoted to the description of the Dungan language. It has since been studied by world-famous scientists N.S. Trubetskoy and E.D. Pelivanoy, A.A. Reformatsky and A.A. Dragunov. Certain aspects of it were also studied by many other domestic and foreign linguists: P.NurMekund and B.Yu.Gorodetsky, S.E.Yakhontov and T.S.Zevakhiny, Y.TsunVazo and A.Nalimov, A.Mansuea and Hashimoto Montera, Ollie Oalmi and S. Dyer. And yet the Dungan language is one of the insufficiently studied languages. At the same time, due to its typological characteristics, it introduces many new and general phenomena and attracts everything more attention both domestic and foreign researchers. Therefore very important task is the most complete and comprehensive description of it, and first of all a description grammatical structure, which is needed by both the theory of general linguistics and the practice of language functioning.

The relevance of the reviewed research is thus determined by the needs linguistic theory and language practice - the growing interest of linguists and general linguistics in typological features of the Dungan language and the lack of works that fully reflect these features, as well as the need to create a solid long-term basis for writing Dungan normative grammar and reliable prerequisites for the unification of Dungan orthography and spelling, development and improvement of the literary language.

The relevance of the topic determined the goal of this study - a complete systematic description of the grammatical structure of the Dungan language (of course, within the framework of the material available today). In accordance with the set goal? During the study, it was necessary to solve the following main problems:

Define and describe lexical and grammatical classes of words;

Establish inventories of generalized meanings and inventories of formal indicators in the Dungan language;

Describe the morphological structure of the Dungan word; .

Establish and study the main types of phrases in the Dungan language;

Identify and describe the types and types of Dungan sentences.

The main linguistic method used in peer-reviewed work - method synchronous description. Elements of other methods are also used: descriptive, structural, comparative. The predominant method of description in the dissertation is from meaning to form.

The source of the research was materials from living colloquial speech And fiction, as well as folklore and journalism.

Scientific but in and. The point is that for the first time in the history of domestic and world linguistics, a complete systematic description of the grammatical structure of the Dungan language is being attempted. In particular, it can be traced in the consideration of the problem of the structure of the Dungan word and the question of grammatical forms and ways of expressing them, the problem of simple and complex sentences and the question of minor members of a sentence, etc. Scientific novelty also presented

the following provisions submitted for defense;

Dungan words, despite the absence in most cases of a grammatical form, are still divided into certain lexical and grammatical classes; /

The problem of “separateness of the word” in the Dungan language exists, but it is completely solvable).

Being, by its main typological characteristics, isolating/absent in many cases morphological indicators words, the presence of a relatively large amount of monosil-

Labov, etc./, the Dungan language at the same time contains many elements of inflection and individual phenomena of agglutination;

In the language under study, processes of transition of word-forming elements into inflectional elements, and vice versa, of inflectional elements into word-forming elements, are observed.

Gr&Nits of morphemes and syllables in the Dungan language are the same)

A characteristic feature of Dungan syntax is a strictly regulated word order, both in simple and

■ next sentence;

In Dungan grammar there is a synthetic way of connecting the main and subordinate clauses.

Theoretical Significance: characteristics the Dungan language, as an Isolating type language, discussed in dissertations, can be used in general linguistics: Of great interest to the latter are the problem of morphemes and words, the problem of word boundaries and others, which are reflected in the work. Topics for further developments For specialists may include questions about grammatical forms and the means of their expression, the problem of parts of speech, as well as questions about minor members proposals and others, which were also considered 8 dissertations.

Practical knowledge: subcervical results are needed when compiling textbooks teaching aids in the Dungan language and in the practice of teaching, and can also be used for the unification of Dungan spelling and "orthoepy, development and overhaul of the Literary language. They can and should be used in the practice of the Dungan language

lexicography, when compiling various modern dictionaries, in which grammatical marks are necessary and mandatory. In addition, given the current state of knowledge of the Dungan language, they are needed primarily by practical teachers, workers in the press, radio and television, etc.

The reliability and validity of the results obtained is ensured by the fact that they are sufficiently tested and supported by the scientific community and practitioners in connection with the publication of the monographs “Essays on the Morphology of the Dungan Language” (1982),” Essays on the syntax of the Dungan language" (1987), "Phonetics of the Dungan language" (1975), "Spelling of the Dungan language" (1977), brochures "Fundamentals of Dungan phonetics" (1972) And a number of scientific articles, as well as two school textbooks and two textbooks on the Dungan language. In addition, some of its provisions and conclusions of the dissertation were tested: at the 31st International Congress of Orientalists (Tokyo, 1983); At the "4th All-Union Conference" Current issues Chinese linguistics" (Moscow, 1988); At the 5th All-Union conference "Current issues of Chinese linguistics" (Moscow, 1990); - at the All-Union conference "Dragunov's Chechens" (Frunze, 1990); at the 6th All-Russian Conference"Current issues of Chinese linguistics" (Moscow, 1992). The materials of the reviewed research were also used as the basis for the lecture course “Dungan Language”, which has been taught by the author since 1989. In groups with additional specialization in the Dungan language at the Faculty of Russian Philology of the Kyrgyz state university. They were presented by the dissertation author and at inter-republican advanced training courses for Dungan language teachers in 1984, 1989, at permanent inter-republican seminars for Dungan language teachers in 1990-1992.

Scope and structure of work. The dissertation under review consists of an introduction, four chapters and a conclusion. The work ends with a list of the main literature used, containing 278 titles in Russian, Dungan, Japanese and Western European languages. The volume of the dissertation is 414 pages of typescript.

The introduction justifies the choice of the dissertation and its

The purpose and objectives of the research are stated, the sources and methods used in the work are indicated, as well as the main provisions submitted for defense.

The first chapter discusses common problems studying the Dungan language and describing Dungan grammar, the presentation of which is preceded by information about the Dungan speakers of the language being studied, about their writing and literature." It is noted that the Dungans are known under different ethnonyms: t u r -gan, dun gan, hue y. They themselves call themselves l o h u -ey h u e y or h u e y ts y Most of the Dungans live in the People's Republic of China (where they are called Hue y). Total number hui has been defined differently by researchers. Some believed that there were 30-40 million of them living in China, others - 4-6 million. According to the latest data, about 8 million Hui currently live in China. Most of them live in the Ningxia Hui and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Regions and in the provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi and Qinghai. Significant groups of Hui are also found in the provinces of Henan, Hzbei, Shandong, as well as in the south of Strena. A small number of them also live in the countries of South-East Asia - Birmyoch Malaya, Indonesia, Singapore, Laos, Kampuchea.

The Dungans of Central Asia and Kazakhstan are the descendants of direct participants in the uprising of the population of Northwestern China in 1862-1877, known in world history as the Dungan. As a result of the resettlement of part of the Hui within the boundaries of what was then Russia, a number of their villages were formed on the territory of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. According to the 1989 USSR Population Census, about 70 thousand lived in the country."69.323) DuNgan.

The Dungans had their own written language. A small part of them used hieroglyphic, Arabic and Russian writing. They found it relatively recently. First (in 1927-1928) an attempt was made to adapt the Arabic alphabet to the Dungan language, and then (in 1928-1932) an alphabet was compiled based on the Latin script. The Dungans used this writing in one way or another around Otvert centuries. Later (in 195E-19b4G4) a written language was created based on Russian graphics, which is still in use today. Dungan writing is ukical.

phenomenon. This is perhaps one of the few in the world and the only one in the territory former USSR an actively functioning phonetic writing system serving an isolating type of language.

Along with the letter, the Dungans received the opportunity to develop their national literature, which had a reliable base - centuries-old folklore traditions. The Dungan folklore genre is rich and varied. Fairy tales and legends, myths and legends - all this was created through the veins and passed on from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. The foundation of written Dungan literature was laid by a group of writers in the late 20s and early 30s, starting with the publication of a handwritten magazine and publications in the Gaetian page. Today, the works of some Dungan writers and poets are known not only in Central Asia and Kazakhstan, but also far beyond their borders.

Much space in this chapter is devoted to a review of the literature on the Dungan language and consideration of the degree of knowledge of the language under study. The author tries to appreciate the work of his penitent predecessor and at the same time notice what, one way or another, remained outside the field of view of the researcher. In his opinion, a review of the literature on the Dungan language indicates that although many of the most important problems have already received definite coverage in it, there are still many issues that have either not been studied at all, or have been studied extremely poorly. From here it is clear that the complete decomposition of the Dungan language still remains a question of the future, the solution of which, of course, will require a lot of effort and painstaking work of more than one generation of researchers, just as it is clear that its solution is still necessary as in the general theoretical p~ both (general linguistics needs it), and in practical terms (school, press, radio and television need it).

A description of the connection between word formation and morphology is also reflected here. It is noted that in the language there are processes of transition of word-forming elements into inflectional elements, on the contrary, inflectional elements into word-forming ones: - di, for example, as a structural means in some cases it is word-forming (chy "eat" - chydi "food"), in others it serves form-formation ( gonza "bucket" - gonza dy "buckets").

“The Ungan morpheme, as a rule, is equal to the syllable / and ^kG,Li" osg opoe g? goy I are only root morphemes such as lova "crow" and borrowings such as erlin "knowledge", each of which is athymologically indecomposable and perceived.as a single whole/; that in the language there are three morphological types of simple words: Type I ~ words that are morphologically indivisible and grammatically unchangeable / th and "one" er "two"/; And type - words that are morphologically indivisible, but grammatically changeable / b a l and “glass” - be..*: go “glass” - beli sh o n “on the glass”, etc./; Ш type - words that are morphologically segmented and grammatically variable / von ha gzabyt" - von n-khali "forgot", von khani "will be*, etc.,/.

In close connection with the problem of word structure, the problem of “word isolation” was considered, which in the language under study comes down to the distinction compound word and phrases, on the one hand, and to the distinction between a word and a part of a word /i.e. words, and moral terms/ - on the other. Specific criteria for their delimitation were proposed. It was proposed, for example, to distinguish between an attributive combination of two nouns and a complex word of an attributive-nominal formation by setting -di between the component parts, in which the phrase does not change, but the word, in fact, is destroyed: l o n dong "wolf's hole" - l o. n.g^i dun "wolf's but -. ra", but y u s a n. "cloak" - y / d and san / does not mean anything/. And the distinction between a word and its part, which in a language comes down to the distinction between a counting word and a counting suffix, was proposed to be done by replacing the latter with the suffix - g. If such a suede is possible, then this is a counting suffix, but if such a replacement is impossible, then this is a counting word; about NTZ y ""three liters of paper" -san gas y /means nothing/.

The existence of parts of speech in the language is substantiated. Using semantic, syntactic and morphological criteria when identifying them, the idea was consistently pursued that all words, despite the absence in many cases of formal indicators, are divided into certain lexico-grammatical classes, that each separate word, according to its characteristics, gravitates towards one or to another of them. So, for example, words like dezy “plate” and fon oy “house” have the meaning of objectivity. Each of them in a sentence can function as a subject or object. Unlike others, these e-

va do not combine with negative particle b y "not". They may also contain what is commonly called case endings: d e z "b1 "plate", d e z d and "plates", d e z y tone "on the plate" d e z i "in the plate"1 Words with named characteristics are usually classified as nouns.

The second chapter proves the existence of separate grammatical categories. It is noted, for example, that various real quantitative relations are expressed in different ways in gratification. A set of people, say, is conveyed, as a rule, by means of the affix -mu / g u n z y n “worker” - g u n z n n m_u "workers", v a "child" -Va mu "children"/, and many" objects - by doubling the stem of the noun / t a "pack" - t a t a "packs", ly n "hillock" - ly n lyn "bumps"/, pronouns formed on sh e /l and "pear" - n e s h eli "those pears"/, etc. In other words, the ways of expressing plurality in language are diverse, and all of them can be recognized as grammatical / morphological and syntactic /.

The connection of nouns with other words is also expressed in different ways: from endings /-di, -shon, -ni/, prepositions /ba, gi, fyn, etc./ and postpositions /gynni, litu, etc./. That is, formal meanings in the Dungan language, in addition to inflectional morphemes, are expressed by service words. Consequently, we can talk about the presence in the language under study, such as, for example, in Russian, two ways of expressing formal meanings: synthetic and analytical. But if in the Russian language the case form is mainly expressed in a synthetic way /book, book, book, etc./, then in Dungan it is mainly analytical /f u "book", b a^f u "book", "n a^f y "book", etc./. In Russian the meaning is indirect cases pour unchangeable nouns is determined by the meanings of prepositions * and in Dungan - this “meaning in most cases is conveyed through prepositions and postpositions;.

Each part of speech is described in detail separately. When considering nouns, in addition to the issues just raised, the word formation of this part of the word is analyzed. as well as its features separate groups. It is emphasized that nouns denoting persons and nouns denoting non-persons differ very significantly from each other. The first ones answer the question with n y "who"? and are capable of attaching grammatical indicator identical number -od /s y f u "teacher" - s y f u m_u "teacher"/, and the second

/including those that denote living beings/ answer the question with “what”? and the affix -chu are not formed /ch in n that wall*, g u v a z and "puppy*/- The affix -mu and its absence in nouns in this case serve* as both forms of expression of the category of number and forms of expression of the category of animacy - inanimateness. The largest group of nouns consists of terms of kinship, the cohort is used in a reduced form: m y y m y "young se -tra". normal and in redundant form. In nervous cases, they act only as an application^/X a l i m a n e n letters. “Halima - aunt” i.tsr./, in the second - both as an appendix and as a defined word /Halima n yon No n yon “Holima - aunt” and “Aunt Khalkmn/. It was noted that in a productive way word formation of nouns is syntactic, consisting in the connection of two and<5олее основ в одну лексическую единицу /г у н "труд* + ч я н "деньги" = г.у н ч я и "зарплата" и Др./. Весьма продуктивным способом словообразования существИтель -ных является также морфологический, точнее.суффиксальный способ. От основ различных частей речи с помощью суффиксов -аы, -жён, ~кя, -ТУ л др. образовано большое количество существительных: х у о н.-з н "желток" /к у. о и "желтый/, т е жён "кузнец" /те "железо"/, щ е "писатель" /щ ё "писат^"/, г у е т у "очаг" /г у э "котел»/ и др. Образуются дунганские существительные и синтаксйко-морфологи-чесиим способом, т.е. сложением двух односложных основ с последую -щим присоединением ко второму компоненту того ила иного суффикса: х у а ч ё н з ы "изгородь цветника" /х у.а "цветок", ч ё и "стена"/ и др. Образуются они также путем редупликации основ и "черный*-х и. х * ."сажа"/ или посредством удвоения с-последующим присоединением суффикс? -аы или -р /д о "нож1 - д о д о "ножик", т у "рука" - ш у ш у р "ручонка"/. Изредка встречаются существительные, образованные в процессе лексикалиэации целого предложения М У ** Ы л ё "свинья ест корм" - зц у ч ы л ё "желудь" и др./

When describing adjectives, it is noted that the latter come in two forms! with and without the suffix -di /or -r/. In the function of definition, the adjective always appears in a short form, without a suffix. Prila: khtelnoe is used in full form /with the suffix/ only-; but in two cases: when transferring / S a h u a r d u i n i: , h u n d_i, h u o n d_i, la i d_k z.d. "There are different colors: red "me"

yellow, blue, etc. / and when it acts as a nominal part of a compound nominal predicate / D y ge tsu n s n h o d i “This glass is good,” lit. “This glass is horovtiy”/. Adjectives have positive, comparative and superlative degrees of comparison: g o “high”, g o shch z r “higher”, go dii h-n “highest”. The comparative degree of an adjective can be simple / n s h e r “harder”/ and complex / b i ten n i n “harder than iron”/ forms. ■ And the superlative degree of the adjective also comes in simple /go d i h -y n “highest”/, and merged /din godi “highest”/ forms.

The most interesting features of Dungan numerals are examined, which are divided into quantitative and ordinal, abstract and concrete. Externally, ordinal numbers differ from cardinal numbers mainly by the presence of one of the auxiliary morphemes t u, .di~, chu: y and g in "one" - t_u y and g e "first", s a n g "e "three" ~d i s a n g e “third”, s s y “four” - ch_u s y “fourth”, etc. Concrete numerals always denote a certain number of certain objects and are used in quantitative definition with a subject or object expressed by a noun. Abstract numerals are used with gatematic counting /san h i - e r-sh y and “triads seven - twenty-one”/, as well as within the number series /i, z r, s a, k z.d. “one, dpa, three etc."/. The external feature that distinguishes concrete numerals from abstract ones is the suffix - G_8. in y "five" - ​​in y g^e "five", s y sh y "forty" - s y sh y-g 8 "forty", etc. Numerals are simple, complex and composite. Numbers o-I to 10 are designated by simple numerals /I - th and g e "one", ?.. - l e n g e "two", etc. d./, all round numbers, except for the South-complex /20 - z r sh y g e "twenty". 400 - syby "four hundred", 8000 - bachyan "eight thousand", 10,000 - Y ivan "ten thousand", etc./, and the rest - compound /555 - vuby wushi wu “five hundred fifty-five”, etc./.

When considering pronouns, it is indicated that personal, possessive and demonstrative pronouns, unlike others, have a singular form and a plural form: n and “you” - n and -

“you”, n i d and “your” -ni m_u d and “your”, n e g e “that* - n e -g $ “those”, etc. Possessive pronouns almost always contain the morpheme -di Only in one case are they used without -di, namely: when they serve as a definition of the subject or object expressed by a noun that is a term of kinship or

The title of the part is the theme: For e l in l and “My grandfather has come”; T a i U m u d 6, l and “His hand went numb1.

A lot of attention is paid to verbs. At the same time, the most interesting and difficult moments are especially noted. Lak, when considering the category of voice, the need to distinguish between the full and short participles (matching in sound composition) was emphasized; pbs.chol-u passive meaning is mainly expressed by full participles. /We remember that the Dungan short participle corresponds to the full participle in the Russian language, and the full participle corresponds to the short participle/. The short participle was formed from a perfective verb through: the suffix _tsi: d a d e “to break” - d a. d e "broken", etc. Its negative form is expressed by simply adding a prepositive negation m e: d a d e d and "broken" - m a d a d e d and "unbroken", etc. The full participle ends with the suffix - dini: d a -d e a i n i “broken”, etc. When its negative form is formed, the prepositive negation m e is added, “and the second part of the suffix /namely: -ni/ falls out: dadedini “broken” - m e! d a d e-d and “not broken”, etc. As a result, there was a complete external coincidence of the participles being analyzed: honey “unbroken” and m a d a “d e d” and “not broken”. You can distinguish them from each other by replacing the negation m in them with the negation beads. If at the same time the left loses its meaning, then it is a full participle, but if the meaning of the word does not change, then it is a short participle. The proposed method of distinguishing them is suggested by the grammar itself: the negation of beads contains a copula, and ы “is”, which is not combined with the postpositive full participle, but is freely combined with the postpositive, noun, short participle, adjective, pronoun and together with the latter in the sentence it acts as a compound nominal predicate. It is also said here that “transitive verbs, unlike intransitive ones, require after themselves direct object, that such an addition can also be before the verb, but only necessarily together with the preposition b a, that the suffixes of the time transition -nnx of verbs in a sentence are attached to the direct object. In connection with this, it is argued that the formal indicators of a transitive verb are both the function word b a and the verbal e.ufmp with an object. This is confirmed by the fact that when “one indicator of a transitive verb is removed - the function word b, then 1 other indicator - the verbal suffix is ​​dug in when complemented

redundant, and vice versa, when the addition has a verbal suffix -fix, then the use of the function word b a also becomes impossible: Sena nyanli b a f u “Schme read a book” and Seme nyanli foodi “Sta read a book.” In the first sentence, the addition f y "book* has the function word b a, but does not have the verbal suffix -li", and in the second, it is used with the verbal suffix -li, but without the function word b a.

The features of the nakchonie category are also emphasized. For example, various forms of the imperative mood are smoldering: the sung form of the imperative mood of the second person, the form of the imperative mood of the third person and the form of the imperative mood of the first person. The most common form in the language is the second-person imperative, which is expressed by a combination of forms of the verb ta -dy, -ha, -ton, --chi, -le and the prepositive personal pronoun of the second person, for example: Ni n l n d # "IV read !. In this case, the second person pronoun sometimes^ may be absent, but in such cases* it is necessarily implied, for example: And a h and “Bring /you/”, Nala “Bring /you/”, etc. The form of the imperative mood is a third of it person is expressed by a combination of a verb of any form /except for *® in -ni and -li/, the particle i, e “let”, “let” and the prepositive personal pronoun of a third person or noun: ^ e t a m u /v a y u/fadi; Let them/children/ play." The form of the imperative mood of the first person is formed by the combination of a gl~ol of any form / except for the form in -ni and -di/, the particle e let", "let" and the personal pronoun of the first person: N\ e zamu fadi "We'll play! /lit. Just let's play! "/ etc. Certain suffixes and particles give the meaning of the imperative verb an additional connotation. The suffix -й and х,а р, for example, reminiscent in meaning of the Russian particle -ka, gives the imperative form a connotation of request: Ni zanyihar postoyka ". And the particle s a, which is reminiscent in meaning of the Russian particle, gives the verb of the imperative form a shade of reproach, annoyance: N a l e s a! “Bring it!” Combining together, the suffix - й и хар and са^чча с а -gives the verb of the imperative form both the connotation of a request and the connotation of reproach /il;, annoyance/: Chonyiharsa! "Sing it!"

mentu of speech, and grammatically by the suffixes -dini /-di/, -ni and -li /-dile, -gua/. A present tense verb denotes an action being performed at the moment of speech. Moreover, a verb expressing a short-term action or an action that can be interrupted at any time contains the suffix -dini /L he podiy and “The wolf is running4/, and a verb expressing a long-term or relatively long-term action includes suffix -di /Nonoeyni zadi zhu "Meat is fried in a frying pan." Thus, in the Dungan language, verbs have two forms of the present tense. The verb of the future tense conveys an action that will happen later, after the moment of speech, and has the suffix -ni , for example, l e "n and "will come" / l e come "/. The past tense verb denotes an action that occurred before the moment of speech. Moreover, a verb expressing a short-term or one-time action that occurred in the past includes the suffix -li /ch o n l i /, and the verb conveying a long-term or repeated action that occurred takle in the past has the suffix -dkle /x u. a d i l e "painted"/. There are also verbs , denoting actions that occurred in the indefinite past. They are formalized in -г уе/ч and гуе “happened to happen”/.. Verbs of this form not only denote actions that took place in the indefinite past, but also contain an indication of some experience that took place in the past. Thus, Dungan verbs have three forms of the past tense.

Certain difficulties are noted in distinguishing between verb and participle. In general, the semantic and formal difference of the latter is obvious / sh e l p. - “wrote” - - sh e l i d i “wrote”, d e d o l i “fell” de d o l i d i “fallen” /, but difficulties in differentiation still exist. Thus, some participles externally resemble present tense verbs / m e h a d and “bought”, sh u h a d and “collected”/. However, the latter do not denote actions, but the results of an action, and the suffins -di in them is not at all an indicator of the present tense, but a participle suffix: verbs that contain modifiers /-kha, -shon, etc./ are verbs of the perfect form, which contain ena-chenme not, duration and, therefore, cannot attach to themselves the indicator of the present tense -di, which has the meaning of duration.. Moreover, unlike a verb, the participle requires a defined word after Itself: m e h a d i d u n u and "bought item". , Cases of displacement of the verb and gerund are also possible. Y,

In this connection, it is suggested to keep in mind that in Dungan sentences and phrases the gerund is always found before the verb. Whether the verb in this position “can be present, future, or past tense and have the suffixes -di /-dini/, -ni, -li, /-dilo, -guv/, respectively, then the gerund remains in all cases without changes, for example: f i k h a n i n dini “leka is reading”, f i k h a n i n_i “will read while lying down”. , if there are not a gerund and a verb nearby, but two verbs, then “this means that in the sentence they are homogeneous members or one of them is a member of another simple sentence. In the first case, both verbs will be of the same tense, and in the second case, the tense of the second verb will be determined by the meaning;! the first sentence, and therefore the meaning of the first verb. It should also be borne in mind that individual gerunds can be used with the word d e "together", "campaign", which is located before the gerund and emphasizes the simultaneity of the action of "deerrkchaetsh" and the verb. This cannot be said about verbs. The verb is formed by the suffix of the past tense -li and allows the appearance of the service word zе after it. Therefore, if in a combination of a verb with a verb we use the first of them with the suffix -li and after it insert the service word e з, then the meaning of the combination as a whole will not change, since the sequence of actions denoted by two adjacent verbs is not disrupted by the insertion of зe, “having a gloss with an underlying verb meaning “when... then” or “first... then”, for example: ba huar huashon, start drawing a picture, carry” - ba huar kh u a shon "l i. e o n a h i “when you draw a picture, then you will carry it,” And vice versa, the insertion of dan tgs ol “ments into the combination of a gerund and a verb changes the meaning of the combination or destroys it, for example: zan h a ch y “standing up to eat -zankhali, ze chy “when you stop, then eat.” And this is natural, since the gerund and the verb, as a rule, express the manner of action and action, and the verb and the verb - the sequence of two actions.

When describing adverbs, it is indicated that qualitative adverbs are * correlative with adjectives, for example: m a \ m a n d i “slowly”, sh y n sh k n d i “deeply”, etc. They are formed: most often from single-root qualitative adjectives by reduction of plication or by reduplication and simultaneous "rioedification of suffix"

fixa -di or -r, for example: k ue “quick” - kuokua/kue-kuedi, ku.ekuer/ “quickly”, etc. The adverbs given here and their correlative adjectives differ from each other in that the former appear in a reduplicated form, and the latter in a non-reduplicated form. In a sentence, adjectives, as a rule, determine the subject or object, and an adverb determines the predicate. . "

A large number of all kinds of particles are considered, which bring different shades to the meaning of the word to which they relate. At the same time, their most interesting features were revealed. Thus, a word with a question particle is usually found at the very end and, as a rule, carries a large functional load, “■” and the logical stress always falls on it: Neither b a i^ y ¡1 and b y n fun y n d e l and s a?" I read this book, right? Well, a word with an interrogative particle "-ma" in a sentence can occupy several, different positions - it often appears ... before the last word in a sentence. This happens with alternative questions. In this case, the particle -ma equally refers to two rtdom "standing words, but is usually attached only to the first of them: N i yo d i l o n - "t u ¿z y m_a, fu tu? "Are you asking for a hammer or an ax? “She can only join two adjacent words at the same time in a subordinate clause: E d * i l o n t u zy m a, futuma m a, ni” f e “A hammer or an ax is required,” you say” Most often, the interrogative particle -ma appears between words expressed by adverbs or adjectives, which are antonyms: T a d i khansa nzysy hidi m_a, come out? "Is his shirt black or white?" The questionable particle gmasn has a most curious property. Appearing between words that are antonyms, it necessarily requires the appearance of the particle -sa after the second of them: There udi fonzy d a m a s s, sui s_a? "Is their house big or small?" A word with an adversative particle -na And a word with an adversative particle -mu most often occurs together within the same sentence, for example: n i n n i “Halima wants to draw” and Gadi# wants to read.” The reason is probably that the adversative meaning is most fully manifested when the particles -na and -mu appear simultaneously in two adjacent words.,! Therefore, the appearance of a word with one of the particles in question is "like"

usually involves the appearance of a word with another particle. L there," where a word with the particle -na still appears without a word with the particle -mu. It most often contains the meaning of the condition: II and m e s h i n l e -lin a. zozor g i ve fa "If you don't want to come, tell me in advance."

Words were analyzed that, speaking in the postposition v. the noun or the word that replaces it performs a “function similar to the function of endings and prepositions in inflectional languages; -kah. They should be called postpositions: fuby n zy gotu “on the book”, fuby n y d and h a "under the book."

However, the presence in the language of combinations like g 8. do f u b i n z y gotu “put on the book”, on the one hand, and combinations like g v dogotu.. “put on top” - on the other, allows us to doubt the legitimacy of unconditionally classifying these words as postpositions. A careful examination of the given i: similar examples allows us to notice that in miv there are no grammatical homonyms, but there is only a word of one lexical-grammatical class that can sometimes function as another part of speech, namely: an adverb in the role of a postposition. The ability of the words in question to perform the functions of an adverb and a postposition is especially clearly illustrated by examples in which the combination of a verb and a noun with a postposition, when the noun is omitted, easily turns into a combination of a verb and an adverb: V a v u z u l i p a p e z y g o t u l and "The children went to the brink"; Vanu zul i gotuli “The children went upstairs” “But in postposition to the noun / or layer replacing it / it is still a postposition and resembles the form of a name, although it has retained, unlike the case morpheme, a certain lexical meaning. The meaning of a name with a postposition, as the meaning of the indirect case, differs significantly from the meaning of the nominative. This is evidenced by the fact that the combination of a name with a postposition never acts as a subject.

The third chapter is preceded by a consideration of syntactic relations / and expressions / and the means of their expression. Words in phrases and sentences are in different semantic relationships with each other. When nouns interact with adjectives, participles, ordinal numbers and possessive pronouns, attributive relations arise / chon san.e y “long dress”, shekhadi fushchin “written letter”, di san bezy I “third row”, n i m u d i s n e n "your teacher"/, and when

combination d) "agolon with nouns - object relations /fand and "dig aemt"/. Adverbial relations are characteristic of verb combinations in which dependent word the adverb /datyn khan “to shout loudly”/ appears. Predicative relations are possible only in a sentence between the subject and the predicate /V a v a fa d m n i The child is playing"/> Syntactic relations in phrases and sentences are expressed by various means: word orders, inflection, prepositions and postpositions. Often, in the absence of inflection, prepositions and postpositions, the relationship between words in a phrase and sentence is expressed by word order. § in substantive phrases in such cases the pivot word necessarily takes a postposition in relation to the suspended / s a ​​n a y sh y “dress sleeve”, letters, “dress sleeve” /, in verbs, on the contrary, the postposition is certainly occupied by the dependent word / n i n f u s h i n. “read a letter”/, and in the sentence the postposition in relation to the subject is occupied by the predicate /X e shin The river is deep”/. In some cases, the means of expressing syntactic relations is the form of the word /m a d^i.t u “head, horse”/ , ё do v a n_i "pour into a cup" /. Relationships between words are often expressed by inflection together with the preposition / z__e ch u o n i_o_n f i d i n i "sleeping on the bed" /. The means of expressing these relations there is also a postposition /m ь> n b_y_3-:Х^ z a n “stand^door”/, as well as a preposition and postposition at the same time / in about n. phon.ch and g_y_n_ch_ya. y z u. “go to the house” /. The semantic relationships between the components of the phrase are built on the basis of a subordinating connection, which in the Dungan dzyk has two varieties: control / s h e d o a y shon “write on paper” / and adjunction / b y Y " by "in vain. run in vain. "/. In the sentence there is a distinction between the non-conjunctive connection /V a buk u - n yon nb u n e “The child does not cry - the mother does not understand”/” and the conjunctive one, which is of two types: coordinating -/F y nchu a n f i c e l e l i, z e, m u s i v a m u e g o sh i n l i “The plane took off, and the children were happy” / and subordinating / Ni khan budun, v i e ani m m: y m y zenetar buch i “You still don’t understand why your little sister doesn’t want to go there.”/ Parts of a complex sentence in some cases are connected together by intonation, as well as by the relationship of aspectual and tense forms of verbs - predicates / B u s h i n t u zy - b a s a i n “You won’t see the hare - “release the falcon” /, in others - “conjunctions, coordinating / T a m u b a f u l I i s h o n l And,

eemus fu e duem sh i n d i “They received books, and the books all turned out to be new”, etc. / or subordinating / Lady zafu -li. same tamu hueRchini “Auntie preferred that they go home*, etc./, as well as the form of the predicate of the main sentence. na -di, -sy, -do / Ta tin d_i, dyido sy khan tadini” He says that someone calls him *etc./.

The main types of phrases were described. Members of phrases in the Dungan language are connected by one of two types of subordinating connections: adjacency or control. When connecting, dependency subordinating word is expressed lexically, by word order and intonation, and when controlled, by certain affixes, prepositions and postpositions, determined by the lexico-grammatical meaning of the subordinating word. The most common means of connecting words in it are prepositions and postpositions: n a g u na “to take with one’s hand”, luza ginni v u “to bask by the stove*, etc. A relatively rarely used means of expressing syntactic relations is the form of the word: й и ы ыд and t u y y y s “chair legs”, 6 d o v a n n_i *pour into a bowl”, etc. In the absence of prepositions, postpositions and inflectional forms of expressing the connection, the dependent word is attached to the stem word in its dictionary form, revealing connections using word order, as well as semantically: yishon lenses “clothes collar” / letters, “clothes collar” / etc. The semantic and grammatical diversity of counting words also predetermined the variety of types of phrases.

The most numerous were verb phrases, non-prepositional and prepositional. - Non-prepositional phrases express various objective and circumstantial relations: p i ts e “ru -beat wood”, days y i l i n “wait one year”, etc. Prepositional phrases express object and spatial relationships. Phrases with the preposition ba, for example, name the action and betray to which the action is directed: b a m o e y a a “take off your hat.” A name with the preposition having given in such phrases is called the starting point of the action /da chy n n i zude “to leave the city”/, and a name with the preposition won is the final point of the action /von fon n iz u “to go to the room”/ Phrases of the “verb + name” type, there are also postpositional ones that express spatial and temporal relationships. In them, the core word denotes an action, and the dependent /noun with a postposition/ - the location of the object or time

Performing the action: chu o n zy gynni flax “dry near the window”, yi chi znchyan fa “speak a week in advance.”

Substantive phrases are not much inferior in number to verb phrases. Among them, phrases of the type “name+name” are divided into: I/ phrases in which the stem word denotes part of an object named by the dependent word /sanzy shpe y “dress sleeve” ¡"y 2/ phrases in which the stem word naey - only a few"! an object, and the dependent is a set of objects / ch u -n k i d n e a “sheep and flock”/; 2/ phrases in which the stem word names the object, and the zovisa is the place from which it betrays / tannyadi huar " flower from the field"/ etc. Phrases like "kmya+negtmya" come in two varieties: I/ phrases in which the dependent word conveys the meaning of belonging to an object, named by the core word, to a person named by the dependent word, expressed by the possessive pronoun /and and d and fu "your book*/: 2/ ssbochetyakkya, in which the dependent word contains a quantitative characteristic of an object called core, or expresses the meaning of order when counting / erby theses "five hundred rubles", d and san bez n " third row*/.

Quite common in the language are adjectival phrases, which can be prepositional or non-prepositional. Non-prepositional adjective phrases, in which an adverb acts as a dependent word, express spatial /l and tuk u n d i. “inside empty*/ and temporary / y i do g u r gandi “always dry”/ relationships. Among non-prepositional adjective phrases, those in which the core word is the adjective xo “good”, “convenient” stand out. “easy” or n a n “difficult”, “inconvenient and dependent™- participle /ho f i d i “comfortable for sleeping”/, n a n a d i “difficult to carry”/. Prepositional adjectival phrases expresses comparative relations /t ya n d i lya n mi ¡1 i-yon “sweet as honey”, lit., “sweet is the same as honey”/ and objective /do vamugaon.nvndi “difficult for children”/.

There are relatively few numbering phrases in the Dungan language. This is probably connected with the function that the numeral usually performs. Being almost always quantification, in this regard, it, as a rule, acts as a dependent word: s a n g e dezy “three plates” to others. Collocations with a name. There are four types of numerals in the role of a core word?

I/ “numeral + numeral” / s a ​​n l u “three times six”, letters, “three six”/, 2/ adverb of quantity + adverb of comparative degree / sh u v i k u z h e r “a little faster” / 3/ “collective number + name1” /ch e sho go to u g o r “five from the cart”/, 4/ “ordinal number” + name” /ts'y znsh-ridi di i b a g v "eighth in the list", 5/ "ordinal number.+ adverb" /yu b o n -g& X D and D and erge "second from the right1/" 1

A significant group consists of pronominative phrases, which can be following types: "pronoun + pronoun;" / ,ta -mu iyman "they all"/, "pronoun. noun" /background* nidi dnydosy "someone from the room"/, "pronoun ^adjective" /d y d g "s a x 1. d and “something black”/, “pronoun + quarrel / t a m u b a Y i r “they are on purpose”/. Phrases of each of these types come in two or more varieties.

Adverbial phrases are also very common. Phrases of the type “adverb + adverb” come in the following varieties: I/ a quantitative adverb is connected to a qualitative adverb /г у ю о “pretty stupid”/., 2/ a quantitative adverb or an adverb of time is connected to an adverb of time / t e ts ы “very late”, z u v r h i l and “yesterday night”, 5/ the adverb of place is combined with the adverb of place /chyantu dyido for example “somewhere ahead”/. Phrases of the type “adverb + noun” also come in several varieties: I/ a qualitative adverb is connected to a noun /li h e z ny uan “from sea far away”1/, an adverb of comparative degree is connected to a noun /b i y u n go “above” clouds"/etc.

The fourth chapter examines the types of sentences according to the purpose of the statement, defining their structural and other features; Learn all the basic questions related to the members of a sentence, as well as the types of one-part sentences and the order of words in a sentence; complex, complex and non-union complex sentences are described. According to the purpose of the statement, narrative, interrogative and motivating sentences are distinguished: according to the nature of the assessment of reality expressed in them - affirmative and negative; by the presence of main and minor members- uncommon and common; According to the structural features associated with the number of predicative units - simple and complex. According to the presence of both or the absence of one of the main members, two-part and one-part members are distinguished -

new proposals. One-part sentences, in turn, are divided into indefinitely personal, impersonal and nominative.

There are two types of one-part sentences in the language: nominal and verbal. In the second case, predicativity is expressed in the subject, in the second case, in the predicate. The subject is usually expressed by a noun /Ch u n t i n "Spring"/, the predicate by a verb /X and dli "It got dark"/ - In a sentence verb type The predicative function -tsmo, naturally, is performed by the verb /Ya tur ch o n d ch n i “The girl sings”/, in the sentence nominal type- most often an adjective /Fan sh yon “The noodles are delicious”/. The predicative function in a sentence of verbal-nominal type is performed by the combination of the verb ch i n “to become”, “to be” or o n “to become”, “to be*” and the name / Ta bu don ts i-f y n “He will not be a tailor” /. and in a sentence of the link-nominal type - comp.fx "link + name" / V a g i s n e f u n c h u a n d i "Bakhcha - pilot4, lit. "Bugs are a pilot"/.

When identifying the main members of a two-part sentence (subject and predicate/), no special difficulties arise, but the situation is even worse when considering the secondary members of the sentence. Depending on how they are distinguished /by meaning or syntactically used™/, the same members of a sentence can be defined differently. IN this work an approach has been adopted that takes into account both the meaning and the form. In relation to the inherited language, it seems to be the most acceptable: on the one hand, in the absence of formal indicators / which means, in most cases / / this principle makes it possible to clarify the relationships between words resort to their meaning, on the other hand, take into account formal signs where they are available. In the sentences. Myn base huedeli “The door handle broke” and “M y n d i base huedeli “The door handle broke1” the connection between the words of the myn base “door handle” is revealed not only semantically, but also formally, and the connection between the words m y n d and the “door handle” base is not only formal, but also semantic. The very position of a name, not formalized by either an affix, a preposition, or a postposition /i ы n/ before another name /base/ is a form of expression of a definition, and the form of the word in -di /m y n d i/ is determined by the semantics of the core word /base y /.

The features of the secondary members of the sentence are noted. The definition in the language, as a rule, is located before the word being defined. .

And it performs its usual function only in the position before the defined word: Fonny don d i zydi huonmir -huonmirdi shuvzy “In the middle of the room there is a yellow shiny table*. As soon as it appears after the defined word, its function immediately changes: Fonny don di zydi dua en, huonmir-huonmirdi “The table standing in the middle of the room is yellow and shiny. The addition, as a rule, is found after the predicate /Ё n ch y ts o d i n i “The sheep eats grass”/. The direct object before the predicate appears with the predicate ba, and after the predicate - without a preposition: V a v a b_a zy chvtsini “The child; tears the paper; V a v a ch v edini “The child tears the paper.”

Homogeneous members of the sentence have their own characteristic features. Homogeneous definitions are not located in contact with each other, the defined word is repeated as many times as it has in the given preposition of definitions: Vemudi huatiangzyni on di hun h u a r, l an h u a r, b u ti x y a p “Red flowers grow in the flowerbed, blue flowers, white flowers"/. Unlike the others homogeneous members, each of which has an independent morphological design, homogeneous. Predicates in some cases are designed identically. in others - differently. If homogeneous predicates are expressed by imperfective verbs, then they are formed in the same way, i.e. the meaning of aspect, tense and voice is expressed in qaddom from ni-separately /V a m u f in ¿i_i, sh e l_i “The children talked and laughed”/, but if homogeneous predicates are expressed by perfective verbs, then they have a group design /V a m u fatu e, sch b t u 8 l and “The children started talking, “laughed”/. It should be denounced homogeneous definitions from heterogeneous ones. The definitions are heterogeneous, one of which is directly related to the word being defined, together with the latter forming phrases, "and the other -roe refers to the word combination: Dezyni-gedi ya n -kh a d and da huongua" There is a salted large cucumber on the plate - rets". The participle I n. h a d and "salty" here is a definition for the entire combination * da.huongua "big cucumber". It is interesting, but in this regard, note that in the Dungan language an adjective in a sentence cannot be a definition for phrases in which the dependent word is a participle, and vice versa, a participle can define a phrase in which the dependent word is “is.” Adjective /see the example just given/, and number-

The adjective regularly acts as a definition for a phrase in which the dependent word is the participle: pickled cucumbers."

The order of words in a sentence has a water meaning. In the Dungan language, which has a relatively poorly developed system of forms, word order is not free. About a simple non-proliferative sentence, the usual word order is direct. those. the subject in it is prepositive in relation to the predicate: ? n i ch u a n fi din and “The plane is flying.” Reverse order words are possible in it l-.pg then, when for some reason it is necessary to highlight the predicate: 2> and d i n i f y n ch u a n “The sams et flies.” In other words, the use of a postpositive construction here is possible only when it is caused by a change in the structure or a redistribution of the communicative load of words. Simple unextended proposal can be extended primarily by an addition, which is located after the predicate. / In turn, each member of such a sentence can have its own extending member, which occupies a prepositional position in relation to the extended member. Thus, in a simple extended sentence, if all its members are present The usual word order is: definition - subject - circumstance - predicate - definition - addition.

Complex sentences were considered: compound, complex and non-union. Complex sentences from a semantic point of view are mainly of two types: the first, with opposition of subjects, objects, as well as actions expressed by the predicates of simple sentences; the second - with the simultaneity or sequence of actions expressed by the predicates of simple sentences. Structurally, they are very diverse. Most often there are those that include two simple sentences. Moreover, both the first and second are personal. There are also compound sentences, in which the first simple sentence is generalized and personal, the second is personal. There are also sentences that are more complex in structure: one part of them is a simple sentence, the other is a complex one.

Complex sentences are numerous and varied. A complex sentence with a modifier attached has a unique structure. The subordinate clause in it occupies

preposition in relation to the main thing, to which it is attached with the help of the interrogative-relative pronoun nag in “which” or I am in “which”, if the attributive connection is formalized by the interrogative-relative pronoun naga “which”, which is usually located in the subordinate clause, then in the main clause there is necessarily a pronominal intensifier n e ad u g e “such”. In addition, the word that acts as the subject in the main clause, repeating itself, performs the same function in the subordinate clause / Nag 8 m o z s h i n, e u n e g e m o z y x o “What a hat newer, that hat is good"/, and the word that plays the role of a complement in the main sentence, repeating itself, performs the same function in the subordinate clause /Ta me zamugE fu, n? e "u me mom g 8 fu "Which book he buys, buy the same book you too"/. They meet"!! such constructions in which a word that is an addition or circumstance in the main sentence, repeating itself in a subordinate clause, performs the function of the subject: N a. g a f u gandyoli.zu ba nege fu k and d s “Whatever tree has dried up, cut down the tree”, etc.

A complex sentence with an additional clause differs sharply from other sentences. The subordinate clause in it always takes a postposition in relation to the main one, to which it is attached using the conjunction w, e “so that” or one of the question-relative words in and with a “why” or z a x “y” why," "why"." However, the presence of sentences like T a s l e n d i, mymy ee b u lrli “He thinks that his sister will not come again” makes these differences less noticeable. On the one hand, such sentences resemble complex sentences with an additional clause, on the other hand, simple ones with an expanded complement. There are still more reasons to classify them as complex: they clearly show two relatively independent components connected by a subordinate connection. As for the method and means connection of parts of such sentences, it should be noted that they are not entirely ordinary. Union function or union word in them, one of the morphemes gkauemogo performs - ~di, -sy, -do, which simultaneously also combines the role of a verbal suffix of time. This ability of the named morphemes should probably be considered as. a consequence of the fact that they go back to independent words, due to which they combine the properties of a morpheme and a word. Therefore, apparently, we can speak in in this case about in a special way connection of the subordinate clause with the main clause - synthetic and

about special means connections with the main - the form of the predicate of the main sentence in -дн, -сы, -дo.

Of the complex sentences with subordinate clauses, the predominant ones are those in which the subordinate clause reveals the content of the chapters. y d s d i duv “He who reads a lot knows a lot.”/. There are many in which subordinate clause functions as the subject, the missing one in the main thing - / S n y b a fu b u n a l e, g. e z h e r b e g e l i “Whoever does not bring a book, do not come here”/. Close to the latter to a certain extent are sentences like V a m u b u h e snn f i s y h i n sh i n “It’s good that children don’t drink raw water” / lit. "Don't drink raw water; it's a good habit." But they cannot be considered “false”, since the second part of them should not be considered<как предложение /со сказуемым, определением и подлежащим: см хо б и н щ и н "есть хорошая привычка"/, а как член предлог жения /именное сказуемое: хо бинщин "хорошая привычка"/.ибв связка сы в них не мыслится без предшествующего слова, т.е. самостоятельно не употребляется. Что касается первой дасти таких предложений. то она выступает целиком как один член предложения- подле -жащее.

Complex sentences with subordinate causal clauses occupy a larger place in the language. A subordinate causal clause can be in both preposition and postposition in relation to the main clause. In the first case, it ends with the union /Syfu lady tsyli y im ya r, vamu du zudeli letters. “The teacher came late because the children had all gone away” /, and in the second - it begins with the union /Vamu duzudyoli, yintsy e to syfu ladies tsy -l and “The children all went away, because that the teacher came late*/. Therefore, the conjunction both there and here is in the middle of a complex sentence and serves as a kind of boundary between the main and subordinate clauses. It is interesting that the same causal subordinate clause in the same complex sentence is at the request of the speaker or the writer, can be located both before and after the climatic sentence, but in each case with a different conjunction. If it occupies a preposition, then the causal connection is carried out by the conjunction i im p "since", if it is a postposition, then - conjunction y i n t sy o y “because” /See the examples just given/.

Unconjunct complex sentences are most often found in foil -

literary works. This is probably explained by the fact that at some stage of language development, the components of complex sentences were connected together only with the help of intonation, without conjunctions, which could not but be reflected and preserved in works of folklore, .. especially in proverbs and sayings and riddles - genres that are least susceptible to change. This explanation is supported by research data on the phylo- and ontogenesis of speech, according to which the development of speech in general and its syntactic structure in particular is carried out in cash. transition from an indivisible word-sentence to a dissected sequence of words, i.e. to the proposal itself; from simple juxtaposition of sentences to linking them using special means, i.e. from non-union connection of sentences to union connection; and finally, from the composition, to the submission of sentences. Non-union complex sentences have parts of the same type and different types. In sentences with the same type. parts" yragdklep relations are enumerative and comparative-adversative, and in sentences with different types of parts - relations of interdependence.

Sentences with direct and indirect speech were also considered. It was noted that almost any sentence with direct speech can be transformed into a sentence with indirect speech, which is regularly done in colloquial speech. The latter is apparently explained by the peculiarity of a person: in a conversation it is easier for him to remember the essence and convey it in his own way than to remember and tell everything verbatim, without change. The well-known principle of saving mental and pronunciation efforts is also evident here, in particular, the desire to convey some content with less expenditure of intellectual and articulatory-acoustic means.

In the final part of the work, the results are summed up and the following main conclusions are formulated: .

I. Being, by its main typological characteristics, isolating (the absence in many cases of morphological indicators, the presence of a relatively large number of monosyllabs, etc.), the Dungan language is at the same time. time contains many elements of inflection and individual phenomena of agglutination. It, in particular, traces the phenomena of inflection associated with certain! - lexical-grammatical - magical classes of words: tense forms /d a dinu “beats”, dal ~l “beat”, d a n_i “will beat”/ and the form / k a n “to chop”, k a n k e “to cut”/ verbs, singular to plural number of nouns-

vitiliykh /d e f u "doctor*, d e f u m u "doctors"/, degrees of comparison of adjectives / sh e k d_i "delicious", sh e n ¡tsep "tastier", sh e n -d i_kh yts “delicious” /; form of abstract, concrete and ordinal numbers /th and “one”, er “two”, y ch g in “one”, len g_e “two; tu Y i g e "first", d i o r g in "second"/, participles /ch m h_a -d and "eaten", d a d e d and "developed"/ and gerunds /f i khan i n "lying down to read", z a n d_i h "n "standing there is"/, singular and plural personal /k and "you", i and m_u "you"/, possessive / g. and d and "your*, n i m u d i "vachg/ and demonstrative / d y g e "this", ya, y sh_e "these" / pronouns, etc. Signs of agglutination are observed in it, however, extremely rarely / in a "child", in a i o n “on the child”, in a m_u “children”, in a mouton “on the children”, in a mgu -shon d i “located on the children”/.

2. Dungan suffixes are word-forming and form-forming - / shchi. Word-forming ones include, first of all, the suedixes of nouns -з "ы, -р, -ш, -ждзы", -tu, -жё""., -ki, etc. Also include suffixes of other parts of speech, which serve to form new words The verb suffixes -li, -ni are formative. -di, -dichi, -guv, -dile, as well as suffixes of other parts of speech, expressing various modifications of words.

In the language under study, processes of transition of word-formative elements into formative elements and, conversely, transformational elements into word-formative elements are observed. In the presence of such a productive method of word formation as word formation, the morpheme -shon, For example, in words like sh u tone on the hand, of course, was initially a word-forming element and meant “above”, “above”, and then gradually, losing its lexical meaning turns into a formative element with a generalized meaning close to the meaning of the ending of the Russian prepositional case. And the suffix of the adjective and participle -d and, apparently, goes back to the ending of the noun -гс -д /ч.ён “wall”, h yon d and "walls"/, which has a generalized meaning of belonging. The words h u n d and "red" and z a n d and "standing", for example, respectively denote what belongs to a specific attribute and action: h u n d i- sign: g u n "red", e a go -deytvkyu -z a n "stand". Moreover, -d and, as a structural means in some cases, is a word-formative / h y "eat" - h y d_i "food" /, in others - serves. , shape formation / go n z n "bucket" - go n z y d i "buckets", etc./.

3. The Dungan morpheme, as a rule, is equal to a syllable. The only exceptions are “root morphemes like catching a crow” and borrowings like er l and “knowledge”, each of which is etymologically indecomposable and is perceived as a single whole. Therefore, in polysyllabic words, the boundaries of the syllable and morpheme basically coincide. All this is explained by probably due to the fact that the language once apparently was dominated by monosyllabic words, which, when put together, naturally became integral, significant parts of complex syllables, i.e. morphemes.

4. The problem of “word separateness” exists in the Dungan language, and it comes down mainly to the distinction between a compound word and a phrase, on the one hand, and also a counting word and a counting suffix, on the other. A very effective way to differentiate a complex word of an attributive-nominal formation and a similar phrase is to set -d and between the constituent parts of a complex complex: the word is destroyed, but the phrase remains unchanged /y u san "cloak" -g y u £_i san - doesn't mean anything, but

l o n dung "wolf's hole" - l o n dun "wolf's hole"/. An effective way to distinguish between a counting word and a counting suffix is ​​to replace the latter with the suffix -r e: the suffix, naturally, is easily replaced by a similar suffix, but the word - does not allow such a replacement /san zc on tezy "three rubles" -san g_e tezy " three rubles *, but san u o n z y "three sheets of paper * - san g_v z y / set of words, letters. ""1ri paper"/.

5. Words in the Dungan language, despite the absence in many cases of formal indicators, are still divided into lexical and grammatical classes, each of which is characterized by the presence of a certain general meaning, features of syntactic functioning, certain grammatical categories, as well as unique types of form - and word formation. So, for example, words like "d e -8; and "plate", f o Y-z y "house*" have the meaning of objectivity. Each of them in a sentence can function as a subject or object. Unlike others, these words are combined with postpositions and are not combined with the negative particle b y “not”. They may also have in their composition what is commonly called case endings: dev “plate”, dez go “plate”, dezy sh o_n “on a plate -ke”, dev “yn” and “in a plate”; f o n z n "house", f o n z y d i "at home".

b. The language under study has a category of gender. All nouns denoting living beings and having formal indicators of gender are masculine and feminine (in u nyu “cow”). p__o ny "bull", and nouns denoting objects and phenomena and not having a formal indicator of gender, are only of general gender / go n e y "bucket1", f y n "wind"/. As part of nouns denoting living beings , there are morphemes /n a n, i, po, m u, g u n, etc./ which are not used in isolation, like a word / like root morphemes that have lexical meaning /, but as part of a word they take out the meaning of masculine and feminine gender. It is quite obvious that each of them is a formal indicator of gender, like, say, the endings in Slavic, articles and some Germanic languages. True, the category of gender here, like the category of number, does not perform a coordinating function, but the latter, as is known, is not her diff]<ерстщипльным призня-ком.

7. "There is a category of number in the Dungan language. The ways of expressing quantitative relations in nom are varied, and they can still be recognized as grammatical. A plurality of people is grammatically, as a rule, conveyed through the morpheme -mu / in a "child" - in a m_u "de ti"/, and a variety of objects can be expressed.<утем сочетания числительного с существительным /э р б ы й дезы "двести тарелок"/ а также удвоением основ существительного /т а "пачка"- т а т а "пачки", к ы н "яма"- к ы н к ы н "ямы"/. Идею множественности выражают местоимения нэ, р, на, оформленные морфемой -ще /н э "тот" - и" э-щ е "те", ж н "этот"- ж ы щ е "?ти", н а "какой" - н а щ е "какие"/«

8. The language under study has a category of case. The case form can be either synthetic /d e e y “plate”, des y d i “plates”, dezy ion “on a plate”, dezy n_i “in a plate”/, or analytical /zh y n “person*, b azh n n "person", g and zh n N "person -veku", n_a z y n "person". The relatively poorly developed system of inflections in it is compensated by the presence of a large number of prepositions

and postpositions. Thus, we can talk about the presence in the Dungan language, as, for example, in Russian, of two ways of expressing formal meanings: synthetic and analytical. But if in the Russian language the case form is mainly expressed in a synthetic way /book, book by book, etc./. then in Dungan it is predominantly analytical / f u “book”, b_a fu “book”, na a fu “book”, etc./. In Russian, the meaning of indirect cases is only for unchangeable nouns

is determined by the meanings of prepositions, and in Dungan - this meaning in most cases is conveyed through prepositions and postpositions.

9. There is a category of voice in the language under study. Verbs come in active and passive voice. Passive meaning - is expressed mainly by passive participles formed from transitive verbs using the suffix -dini / kan k e “cut” - kan k z d i n i “cut”/” and also occasionally - special syntax

"a logical construction in which the predicate is the verb of the present" tense in -din i /Fon zyts 6 g ung zhyn m u g a d i n i "The house is being built by workers"/.

b a before a direct object, and a verbal suffix with an object, the use of one of which excludes the possibility of using the other. Transitive verbs can differ from intransitive verbs, on the one hand, in that the sentence can be after an addition with the function word b a / V a m u b_a fu nyanwan -l and “The children finished reading the book” /, on the other hand , which attach their suffix to the direct object /Wamu nyanfu D_I.LL “Children are reading a book”/.

and the third /t a “he”” “she”, “it”, t a m u “they”/ persons, the close coherence of the latter with verbs, the proximity of their meanings to the meanings of prefixes allow us to talk about a special, unique type of conjugation.

12. Dungan verbs are indicative, imperative and subjunctive; they are “inherent” in the category of species and category. time. Formal indicators of the perfect form are modifiers -д ё, -к-еЛ-х а. etc. / h y "eat" - h y d "e "eat",

k,a n “to chop” - kan k e “to cut”, sh e “to write” - workshops “to -write”, etc. / The formal indicators of present tense verbs are the suffixes -di, -dkni, future tense- suffix - nor, past tense - suffixes -li, - d and l e, - lidini, - g u 8.

13. An important feature of the Dungan language is the lack of grammatical agreement. A verb that performs the function of a predicate -

Go in a sentence is formed in the same way in all cases, regardless of the gender and number of the noun that performs the function -

"tion of the subject /Nuyann chondini "The woman sings"; Nan -zhyi chondini "The man sings"; N u~zhyn muchondini "Women whine"/ .

14. Unlike other homogeneous members, each of which has an independent morphological design, homogeneous predicates can also have a group design. If homogeneous predicates are expressed by imperfective verbs, then they are formalized in the same way, i.e. the meaning of aspect, tense and voice is expressed in each of them separately / V a m u f 8-P, sch e l and “The guys talked, laughed,” if homogeneous predicates are expressed by perfective verbs,

^ tl they have a group design / You u f et u v, shchetu-Ya and “Guys for: evorili, laughed”/.

15. Homogeneous definitions in the Dungan language are characterized by repetition of the defined word as many times as it has definitions in a given sentence / Huatianzi * 0 n d i

x U N h u a r, l a n h u a r, b y y khu ar “Red flowers, blue flowers, white flowers grow in the flower garden/. .”

16. The Dungan language is characterized by the separate use of the components of the double preposition with homogeneous members of the sentence: both parts of the preposition with the first homogeneous member, and only the second part of the preposition with all other homogeneous members.

17. A characteristic feature of the Dungan language is the strictly regulated word order in both simple and complex sentences. A distinctive feature of a complex sentence should be considered a strictly defined sequence of arrangement of its constituent parts: the obligatory preposition of subordinate modifiers -nkh, subordinate, adverbial places and others, and the no less obligatory postposition of additional subordinate clauses.

18. A noticeable feature of the Dungan phrasal sentences is the existence of a unique synthetic method of connecting the main clause with an additional clause and a subordinate clause with the help of morphemes -д.и, -с в, -до, which simultaneously perform the function of affixes and function words.

19. The results of this study adequately reflect the current state of the grammatical systole of the Dungan language, as evidenced by their widespread use in the form of textbooks and teaching aids in the practice of school teaching.

20. Not all phenomena of Dungan grammar, in particular complex ones ■

syntactic structures are described in the dissertation under review, which is explained both by the lack of a sufficient amount of relevant language material and by certain limitations arising from the tasks set, although in the future all of them can and should be covered.

1. Essays on the morphology of the Dungan language

2. Essays on the syntax of the Dungan language

3. Phonetics of the Dungan language

4. Dungan spelling\(&

5. Basics of Pungan phonetics

6. 1^SS-Dungan dictionary

7. Dungan language. Textbook for 4th grade

Frunze: Ilim, 1982. - 211 p. Frunze: Ilim, 198?. - 164 s. Frunze: Ilim, 1975. - 173 p. Frunze: Ilim, (977-. - 167 pp. Frunze: Mektep, 1972.- 80 pp. Frunze: Ilim, 1981- - 1753 "p. Frunze: Mektep, 1974. - 73 pp. Frunze: Mektep, 1979. - 145 p.

8. Dungan language. Textbook for grades 9-10

9. Collection of dictations on the Dungan language for grades 5-6

.£o. Spelling dictionary of Dungan Yaegka.

II. Dungan Soviet literature A manual for senior students. classes / in the Dung language,

Frunze: Mektep, 1963. - 102 p. Frunze: Mektep, 1988.- 106 p.

12. About parts of speech in the Dungan language

13. To the characteristics of nouns in the Dungan language

14. To the results of a descriptive and experimental study of some sounds of the Dungan language

15. Reasons for several phonetic errors among Dungan students

16. On the issue of Dungan morphonology

17. Phonetic features of the Tokmak Dungans

18. About borrowings in root languages ​​"

19_. The main types of phrases. taniy in Dungan language

20. About the structure of the Dungan word

21. Abowf ihe so-called "lrnper-tnea.bilifУ" of isolafig ftpe. ■languages-l c*$e study of the Dungj.n language

TSU Academic Register. Dungan Studies. . Works on Oriental Studies. Issue 507, T.U. - P.75-84. Tartu, 1979.

Sat. "Materials of Frunze: Ilim. 1904. according to stock - - pp. 71-96. Deniya" Issue I. .

Account TSU.Dungan Studies. Works on Vogtoko-knowledge.. "- P. 67-74

Issue 607, vol. ът,

Gus language in the Kyrgyz school 1971. - C.I6-I7 "I"

Izv. AN Kyrgyz SSR 1971. - P.II8-. » I 120.

Sat. "Sound and seme-Frunze tic structure 1974. - From, language" 94-S6.

Sat.. "Materials on Oriental Studies" Vol. I.

Sat. "Orientalism in Kyrgyzstan"

Frunze: Ilim, 1984. -S. 96-110.

Frunze: Ilim, 1987. -C.I05-II8 Frunze: ylim, 1987. -C.II9-I26.

Comf>wkiidn4l analysts of Tokyo, AsUn &ni ht ViCAftliM-

suaees"tt0ZZ -?.m-m.

22, On doubled forms of adjectives - Current issues M.:

lingual in Dungan and Chinese languages

Interdependence of tones and stress in Dungan disyllabic words

/ Chinese language - Science, / knowledge. Materials 1968.

1U All-Union -S.114 -

conferences * 118.

Izv. Academy of Sciences of the Republic 1991. Kyrgyzstan.Public-il. first sciences - P.76-80.

(“¿.”Questions of the Dungan Bishkek: lexicology and lek - Ilim, sicography /Materials - 1991. ly for semantic -P.55 -typology/" 62.

^"¿"Questions of Dungan Bishkek.* lexicology and lexicography /Materials-"SlZZ-ly to semantic 138. typology/"

26. About prosodic meaning-aligner - Sat. "Current issues of M.: nyh means: in the Dungan language of Chinese linguistics - Science,

nia. Materials U Vse-1990. union conference"

24. Meanings of words and word formations. teaching /using the example of the Dungan and Chinese languages/

25. About the semantics of nouns in Dungan proverbs and sayings

27, To question 6, the distinction between a word and a phrase, a word to a part of a word in the Dungan language

Sat.^ Current issues of M., Chinese.linguistics-1992.-nia. Materials of the U1 S. 7o-Versssiyskaya conference.

The meaning of DUNGAN LANGUAGE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

DUNGAN LANGUAGE

—one of the Sino-Tibetan languages ​​(Chinese branch). Distributed in dept. districts of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakh, and Uzbekistan. SSR. The number of speakers in the USSR is approx. 50 thousand people (1979, census). Basic the mass of Dungans living in the PRC in the provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, Qinghai, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Liaoning, Yunnan, Anhui, etc. (their Chinese name is Hui, or Huizu, total number St. 7 million people, 1986, estimate), speaks dialects respectively. provinces and modern lit. Chinese language. In the USSR, there are 2 dialects of D. Ya.: Gansu and Shznsi - from the name. provinces in the north-west. China, from where in the 2nd half. 19th century the ancestors of the Middle Asians and Dungans came to the territory of the river. current Kazakhstan n Wed. Asia. There are differences between dialects. D. i. in the USSR retained the original features of the North-West. Chinese dialects language, on the basis of which it developed and which in China were almost completely lost under the influence of China. lit. language. Features D. I. in phonetics: transition of initial syllabics u > v, i > j, transformation of kakuminal z into sibilant z; opposition of paired soft and hard consonants; reduction in the number of tones from 4 to 3 in the Gansu dialect. Suffixation is relatively developed in morphology. Unlike whale language in D. i. plural suffix numbers can be used not only with nouns denoting persons, but also with nouns denoting living beings and objects. In word formation, a tendency is developing towards the creation of disyllabic and polysyllabic words by compounding "(root compounding), reduplication (repetition of a monosyllabic root) or adding the suffix of objectivity -r to a monosyllabic root. In syntax there are only isolated cases of violation of the usual word order under the influence of neighboring languages of a different structure. Characteristic is the inversion of the direct object using the indicator ba. The vocabulary contains many borrowings from modern Chinese, Arabic, Russian and Turkic languages. D. i. in the USSR it has a written language: in 1926-28 it was based on the Arabic alphabet, from 1928 on the basis of the Latin alphabet, from 1953 on the basis of the Russian alphabet. graphics. Lit. the language was formed on the basis of the Gansu dialect. About Dragunov A. A.. D r a g u n o v a E. N., Dungan, language, “Zap. Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences.” 1937, vol. 6; Polivanov E. D., Phonological. system of Gan-Sui and Dungan speech, language, in the collection: Vopr. Dungan spelling, language, French, 1937; K a l i m o v A., Dungan, language, in China: Languages ​​of the Peoples of the USSR, vol. 5. L., 1968 (lit.); his own. Several comments on the ways of development of the Dungan language, in the book: Sociolinguistic. Problems developing countries, M., 1975; And m a-z about in M., Phonetics of the Dungan language, French, 1975; his own. Essays on the morphology of the Dungan language, French, 1982; Yanshansin Yu., Tones and stresses in the Dungan language, French, 1940 (in Dungan, language). Russian-Dungan, dictionary, vol. 1-3, French, 1981. A, Kalimoe.

Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what the DUNGAN LANGUAGE is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• DUNGAN LANGUAGE
  
• DUNGAN LANGUAGE
  belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Writing based on Russian...
• LANGUAGE in Quote Wiki:
  Data: 2008-10-12 Time: 10:20:50 * Language has great importance also because with its help we can hide our...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Thieves' Slang:
  - investigator, operative...
• LANGUAGE in Miller's Dream Book, dream book and interpretation of dreams:
  If in a dream you see your own tongue, it means that soon your friends will turn away from you. If in a dream you see...
• LANGUAGE in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
  a complex developing semiotic system that is specific and universal remedy objectification of the content of both individual consciousness and cultural tradition, providing the opportunity...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  - a complex developing semiotic system, which is a specific and universal means of objectifying the content of both individual consciousness and cultural tradition, providing...
• LANGUAGE
  OFFICIAL - see OFFICIAL LANGUAGE...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  STATE - see STATE LANGUAGE...
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedia Biology:
  , organ in oral cavity vertebrates, performing the functions of transportation and taste analysis of food. The structure of the tongue reflects the specific nutrition of animals. U...
• LANGUAGE in the Brief Church Slavonic Dictionary:
  , pagans 1) people, tribe; 2) language, ...
• LANGUAGE in the Bible Encyclopedia of Nikephoros:
  like speech or adverb. “The whole earth had one language and one dialect,” says the writer of everyday life (Gen. 11:1-9). A legend about one...
• LANGUAGE in the Lexicon of Sex:
  multifunctional organ located in the oral cavity; pronounced erogenous zone of both sexes. With the help of Ya, orogenital contacts of various kinds are carried out...
• LANGUAGE in Medical terms:
  (lingua, pna, bna, jna) a muscular organ covered with a mucous membrane located in the oral cavity; participates in chewing, articulation, contains taste buds; ...
• LANGUAGE in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  ..1) natural language, the most important means human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; is social means storage and transmission of information, one...
• LANGUAGE in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; it is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one...
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  2, -a, pl. -i, -ov, m. 1. Historically developed system of sound^ vocabulary and grammatical means, which objectifies the work of thinking and is...
• DUNGAN in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , oh, oh. 1. see Dungans. 2. Relating to the Dungans, their language, national character, way of life, culture, as well as...
• LANGUAGE
  MACHINE LANGUAGE, see Machine language...
• LANGUAGE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  LANGUAGE, natural language, the most important means of human communication. Self is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one...
• LANGUAGE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  TONGUE (anat.), in terrestrial vertebrates and humans, a muscular outgrowth (in fish, a fold of the mucous membrane) at the bottom of the oral cavity. Participates in …
• DUNGAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  DUNIAN LANGUAGE belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Writing based on Russian. ...
• LANGUAGE
  languages"to, languages", languages", language"in, language", language"m, languages", language"in, language"m, languages"mi, language", ...
• LANGUAGE in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  languages" to, languages", languages", language" in, language", languages"m, languages"to, languages", language"m, languages"mi, language", ...
• LANGUAGE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  - the main object of study of linguistics. By Ya, first of all, we mean natural. human self (in opposition to artificial languages And …
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
  1) A system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serves as the most important means of communication between people. Being...
• LANGUAGE in the Popular Explanatory Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language.
• LANGUAGE
  "My Enemy" in...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary for solving and composing scanwords:
  Weapon …
• LANGUAGE in Abramov's Dictionary of Synonyms:
  dialect, dialect, dialect; syllable, style; people. See people || the talk of the town See spy || master the tongue, restrain the tongue, ...
• DUNGAN in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  adj. 1) Related to the Dungans, associated with them. 2) Peculiar to the Dungans, characteristic of them. 3) Belonging...
• DUNGAN in Lopatin's Dictionary of the Russian Language.
• DUNGAN full spelling dictionary Russian language.
• DUNGAN in the Spelling Dictionary.
• LANGUAGE in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  1 movable muscular organ in the oral cavity that perceives taste sensations, in humans also involved in the articulation of licking with the tongue. Try it on...
• LANGUAGE in Dahl's Dictionary:
  husband. a fleshy projectile in the mouth that serves to line the teeth with food, to recognize its taste, as well as for verbal speech, or, ...
• LANGUAGE in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
  ,..1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one...
• LANGUAGE in Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  language (book language, obsolete, only in 3, 4, 7 and 8 characters), m. 1. An organ in the oral cavity in the form of ...
• DUNGAN in Ephraim's Explanatory Dictionary:
  Dungan adj. 1) Related to the Dungans, associated with them. 2) Peculiar to the Dungans, characteristic of them. 3) Belonging...
• DUNGAN in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  
• DUNGAN in the Large Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  adj. 1. Related to the Dungans, associated with them. 2. Peculiar to the Dungans, characteristic of them. 3. Belonging...
• THE USSR. POPULATION
  The population of the USSR in 1976 was 6.4% of the world population. The population of the territory of the USSR (within modern borders) changed in the following way(million people): 86.3 ...
• HUI in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (Huizu Tonggan, Dungan), people in China (mainly in Ningxia Hui autonomous region). OK. 8.9 million people (1992). Dungan language. Believers...
• DUNGANE in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (self-name - Hui) people in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, a small part - in Uzbekistan. 70 thousand people (1992). Dungan language. Believers...
• SHIVAZA YASIR DZUMAZOVICH in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
  Yasyr Dzhumazovich (pseud. - Shyanma) [b. 5 (18). 5 . 1906, village. Aleksandrovka, now Moskovsky district Kirghiz SSR], Dungan Soviet ...
• KYRGYZ SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  Soviet Socialist Republic (Kyrgyz Sovetik Sotsialistik Respublikasy), Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyzstan). I. General information On October 14, 1924, the Kara-Kirgiz region was formed (from May ...