Thinking is of the following types. Basic types of thinking

Thinking largely determines a person’s success in the world, his attitude to life and his ability to solve everyday problems, achieving maximum productivity while expending energy.

Thinking what it is

Thinking is the highest level of human consciousness, allowing a person to navigate the world around him, accumulate experience, and form an idea of ​​objects and phenomena. It is an internal system capable of modeling the patterns of the world around a person, predicting possible developments of events, analyzing what is happening and accumulating unique truths.

Main functions: setting a goal and planning to achieve it, finding a way out of various situations, monitoring what is happening and assessing the degree to which goals have been achieved based on personal motivation. In psychology, there are different types of thinking, both healthy and pathological.

Forms

In psychology, the main forms of thinking are distinguished, including concept, judgment and inference:

1. The concept forms a person’s idea of ​​surrounding phenomena and objects; this form is inherent only in verbal speech and allows one to combine objects and phenomena according to some characteristics. Concepts are divided into concrete (true meanings of an object or phenomenon “house”, “child”) and relative (depending on the perception of different people, for example, what good and evil are). The content of existing concepts is revealed in speech through judgments.
2. Judgment - refers to a form that represents a denial or statement about the surrounding world or a certain object. The formation of judgments is possible in two ways: the perception of concepts that are closely interrelated or obtained in the form of an inference.
3. Inference represents the formation of a new judgment based on two or more existing ones initially. Any conclusion is formed as a chain of well-founded ideas. The ability to make inferences depends on the stage of development of thinking; the higher it is, the easier it is for a person to find a solution to a certain problem.

All inferences are divided into inductive and deductive. In the first case, the judgment moves from a single concept to a general one, and deductive, on the basis of existing general ones, a whole group of phenomena or judgments is generalized into one general one.

Methods of thinking involve different levels, where at each stage certain goals are achieved: collection of information, analysis of available data and inference as a guide to action or inaction.

Processes

The thinking process is a purposeful process of operating with concepts and judgments to obtain a result. The process is preceded by a certain situation (which by default will be the condition of the task), followed by the collection of information and its analysis.

At the end of the chain, a person comes to a conclusion, which involves solving a given problem and finding a way out of the current situation or predicting various options for the development of events.

There are only 4 stages of the process aimed at finding a solution:

1. Preparation;
2. finding a solution;
3. inspiration to achieve it;
4. checking the results.

The whole process consists of a chain of points flowing from each other.

The process begins with motivation, characterized by the desire to find a solution. This is followed by the collection of information (initial data), their evaluation and conclusion.

Thinking techniques:

1. analysis- this is a mental “decomposition into shelves”. Analysis represents the decomposition of a problem into its components and the isolation of its fundamentals;
2. synthesis is the process of combining parts into a single whole according to certain characteristics. The relationship of each component to the whole is mentally established. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis and is represented by the generalization of existing details into a single whole;
3. comparison- this is the process of identifying the similarities between objects and phenomena and their differences;
4. classification presents a breakdown point by point, forming certain classes and subclasses;
5. generalization- this is the identification of commonality among various objects or phenomena and the identification of what is identified into one group. A generalization can be simple (based on one sign or property) or complex based on different components;
6. specification allows you to determine the essence of a phenomenon or object;
7. abstraction- this is the opposite of concretization, when an abstract image is created during the process. The development of abstract perception is influenced by exercises that require a creative approach.

Methods for developing thinking are known to psychologists, neurologists and teachers. Techniques include problem solving, games, learning to look from different angles, training imaginative and intuitive thinking through creativity. In development, it is important to take into account individual characteristics of thinking.

A person with a pronounced tendency towards fantasy should pay more attention to the development of a creative and extraordinary approach in the process of processing information. On the contrary, if you have accuracy and consistency, you should pay more attention in this direction.

Disorders

Thought disorders are disorders of mental activity. Violation is divided into quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative forms of the disorder are characterized by speech impairment, delayed neuropsychological development, or mental retardation.

Forms of quantitative disorder:

• mental retardation (MDD) diagnosed in children 2-3 years old. Treatment is prescribed by a neurologist.
• Mental retardation(mental retardation is characterized by impaired development of a child from an early age). A child with oligophrenia is observed by a neurologist and psychotherapist. The goal of treatment will be socialization and learning self-care.
• Dementia represented by a violation of mental processes that manifest themselves in adulthood or adolescence. Observation by a psychotherapist.

The speed of thinking depends on the predominance of processes in the cerebral cortex. This may be excessive excitement or, on the contrary, inhibition of mental activity:

• Rupture characterized by a rapid change of thought, in which speech becomes absurd, logic and consistency of judgments are completely absent. Speech consists of fragments of phrases quickly replacing each other. The grammar of speech is usually preserved. This disorder is inherent in schizophrenia.
• Manic syndrome characterized by accelerated speech and a simultaneous increase in psycho-emotional background. Speech is accelerated, the patient can speak “excitedly”, especially pronounced in certain topics.
• Slowing down mental processes inherent in depressive syndrome. Distinctive features: absence of thoughts in the head, slow speech taking into account the slightest details that are not related to the essence of the issue, predominance of a depressed mood.
• thoroughness is expressed in excessive “drowning” in details. The patient has difficulty switching from one question to another, and rigidity of thinking is observed. Circumstances are inherent in diseases of the nervous system (Epilepsy).
• Reasoning is revealed during long-term communication and is expressed by a tendency to teach. When a person does not answer the question posed, but talks about things that have nothing to do with him and strives to teach everyone with whom he begins to communicate how to live.
• Autistic develops in withdrawn people. A distinctive feature of this disorder will be isolation from the world, poor orientation in society and immersion in internal experiences, which often do not correspond to the real state of affairs.
• Obsessive syndrome characterized by obsession with ideas or thoughts that the patient cannot get rid of, although he understands the absurdity. Obsessive thoughts depress a person, cause negative emotions, make them suffer, but the patient cannot cope with them. They arise against the background of persistent excitation of a part of the nervous system.
• Phobias (unreasonable fear). Various phobias arise against the background of overexertion and performing a difficult task for an adult or child. In childhood, fear of punishment gives rise to various phobias.
• Super valuable ideas occur in adolescence. The predominance of a brightly colored emotional background indicates the development of this syndrome. This disturbance of consciousness does not cause suffering to the patient.
• Delusional thinking(often accompanied by hallucinosis) is characterized by the emergence of persistent thoughts and ideas that cannot be convinced. Inference is based on a logical conclusion made on the basis of some data. This could be fear of persecution, unreasonable jealousy, self-flagellation. Delusional thinking can be dangerous for others and the patient with a pronounced syndrome. Treatment by a psychotherapist or psychiatrist is required.

Pathology of thinking often provokes disturbances in the emotional background (depression, euphoria, apathy). Any disturbance in the thought process should be observed by a specialist. If necessary, psychocorrection or drug therapy is carried out. Ignoring the pathology of thinking can lead to persistent mental pathology and cause serious problems for societies or the patient.

Diagnostics of thinking involves determining the type of excitation of brain activity and the characteristics of thought processes. The ability to solve current problems is also taken into account. The development of speech and thinking is closely related and begins at an early age.

When speech development is delayed, mental activity is also impaired. It is important to notice the deviation in time and begin training thinking, using available methods of developing thinking (game, action, training).

Development (exercises for training)

The development of thinking begins at an early age. At birth, the baby does not have the ability to think, but by the age of one year the beginning of thought processes is formed. To develop thinking, knowledge, experience, and memory are necessary. In the process of development, the child accumulates the necessary components through knowledge of the world around him and the simplest thinking begins to manifest itself.

The speed and quality of the formation of thought processes depends on how much attention parents pay to this issue. It is necessary to constantly work with the child to quickly develop and consolidate thinking skills.

The ability to form thoughts encourages self-learning and knowledge. The development of thinking occurs continuously from birth until complete extinction in the process of communication. Activities and learning new things in everyday life are shaped by a person’s subconscious. At each life stage it has its own characteristics:

• For young children, thinking is visual and effective. All processes aimed at performing the simplest tasks (taking a toy, opening a box, bringing something or getting something). The child thinks, acts, develops. This continuous process is learned in everyday life both through play and through the need to achieve certain actions.
• When mastering speech, the child learns to generalize and gradually his thought process goes beyond the visual and effective. Thinking and speech are in close connection, human speech contributes to the development of the ability to generalize objects and phenomena, to identify the essence based on the knowledge gained. Speech in adults is the main way of transferring experience and skills, which greatly facilitates learning.
• The expansion of speech allows one to express oneself in words; the child moves more towards figurative and abstract thinking. At this stage, fantasy is formed. Creative abilities develop.
• Schoolchildren learn to operate with knowledge acquired verbally (general education subjects). There is no practical confirmation by experience. This stage teaches you to draw conclusions based on logical connections and accumulated knowledge about objects and phenomena. Various school curriculum methods increase the efficiency and speed of operating with concepts and reaching conclusions in a short time in the presence of insufficient knowledge about a subject or phenomenon.
• Higher grades promote the formation of abstract thinking. Studying and analyzing fiction provokes the development of thinking and imagination.

The older the child gets, the more thinking methods are involved in the daily process. The main means is learning, including the formation of speech, the study of objects and phenomena through verbal transmission of data and the formation of abstract thinking and imagination based on fiction, creativity (drawing, knitting, embroidery, wood carving).

The stages of development of thinking directly depend on what was learned earlier and the level of intelligence. Usually appropriate for age categories.

In the accumulation of a conceptual base, several levels are distinguished: the higher the level of development, the easier it is for a person to generalize or analyze phenomena (or objects), the easier it is to find a solution to the question:

• First level characterized by the ability to generalize simple concepts accumulated by personal experience or learned when presented in verbal form.
• Second phase marked by an expansion of conceptual thinking.
• Third level characterized by the ability to give clearer concepts of conditions, identify specific signs and support what is said with specific examples from life that are suitable for the meaning and conditions of the task.
• Fourth level- this is the highest level of conceptual thinking, in which an individual has complete knowledge about an object or phenomenon and easily determines its position in the world around him, indicating the relationships and differences.

Important! The higher the level of knowledge of concepts, the clearer the judgment becomes and the easier the conclusion is reached.

Types of thinking

Thinking represents the highest form of human cognitive activity. Thanks to processes occurring at the subconscious and conscious levels, a person forms concepts about the world around him and phenomena. Finds solutions to problems posed by life.

All processes of mental activity are divided depending on goals and variations in worldview. Ways of thinking are different and allow you to find a way out of any situation with different approaches to solving the problem. The main types of human thinking:

Critical thinking

It is used to evaluate the solutions found in the thinking process regarding the possibility of their application in practice. allows you to choose the most correct solution path and assess the reality of its implementation.

Positive thinking

Represented by the acceptance of good fortune and goodness. A person with a positive type of thinking perceives everything in rosy tones, always maintains faith in the best outcome and the ability to find a way out of any situation.

Abstract thinking

Allows you to renounce the details and look at the situation or problem as a whole. It needs to be developed from an early age. Pronounced abstraction is characterized by quick thinking and a non-standard approach.

A special feature of the ability to abstract is the ability to quickly find the essence in an unfamiliar situation, collecting all the information in a short time. This allows you to find a solution in any situation.

Logical thinking

This is the processing of available information with an emphasis on cause and effect. In logical thinking, a person uses existing knowledge by processing it in a certain sequence.

The result of such thinking will be finding the most correct solution for a specific problem. It allows you to draw conclusions, decide on further tactics and find a solution in a situation that requires quick action.

When there is no time and opportunity to comprehensively study a subject and develop detailed tactics for solving a problem, logical thinking allows you to quickly outline a path to resolution and begin action immediately.

Clip thinking

This is a feature of perception based on the formation of judgments based on short, vivid images taken out of context. People with clip thinking are able to form judgments based on short news clips or news excerpts.

It is characteristic of the modern generation of young people and allows you to quickly find information of interest without delving into the features and details. It is characterized by surface and little information content. The disadvantage of this type will be a decrease in concentration and an inability to comprehensively study the task at hand.

Creative thinking

Allows you to find solutions that are not recognized by society. Deviation from templates and an extraordinary approach are its main features. Thanks to a decision that is different from the expected one, people with creative thinking are at the advantage under equal conditions with people with thinking patterns.

It allows people of the creative profession to create something new and unique, and businessmen to find solutions to seemingly insoluble problems. People with creative thinking often have behavioral deviations in comparison with the general principle.

Visual-figurative thinking

Allows you to quickly get results thanks to instant processing of information based on visual images. The figurative solution is formed mentally and is accessible to people who are able to create visual pictures quite fully.

This type of thinking is not based on practical facts. Trained from childhood by memorizing an object followed by the most complete reconstruction of its description. Visual-figurative thinking and imagination are closely connected and are easily trained in childhood through play and creative activities.

Systems thinking

Allows you to determine connections between disconnected objects and phenomena. All elements are in mutual connection with each other. The ability to recognize and recreate them allows you to project the result at the beginning.

Thanks to a systematic approach, it is possible to identify different directions of development of events and choose the most appropriate one or identify a mistake in actions and find a solution.

A person with systems thinking is able to simplify the solution of a problem, study reality from different points of view and change his beliefs in the process of life.

All this allows you to adapt to a constantly changing environment and get out of any situation with the least losses.

Spatial thinking

Orientation in space is possible thanks to the development of spatial thinking. This is the ability to navigate in place and perceive the environment as a whole, recreating in memory the location of objects relative to each other and the person himself, regardless of the point at which he is located. It begins to form at the age of 2-3 years and can develop throughout life.

Strategic Thinking

This is the ability of an individual to predict in advance the result of activity in a certain direction (action), not only personal, but also of the opponent. Developed strategic thinking allows you to calculate the enemy’s moves and act proactively, achieving. thereby. high results.

Analytical thinking

This is the ability to obtain the maximum information from the minimum available material by analyzing each component of the data provided. Through logical reasoning, a person predicts different options when considering an issue from several points of view, which allows one to find the most optimal solution.

People with analytical thinking say that they will first think everything through and then do it. The proverb “try on seven times, cut once” is a guide for people with an analytical mind.

Creative thinking

Characterized by the ability to create subjectively new things based on what already exists. In addition to obtaining a phenomenon or object that is different from the original one, creative thinking allows you to collect information in ways that go beyond templates, which allows you to obtain a solution to the problem quickly and efficiently. It belongs to the productive group and develops easily in childhood.

Lateral thinking

Allows you to solve a problem qualitatively by examining an object or phenomena from different sides and from different angles. Lateral thinking uses not only accumulated experience and knowledge, but also intuitive abilities, which sometimes run counter to scientific ideas.

Based on experience and one’s own feelings, a person can not only find a way out of a situation, but also enjoy solving even complex problems. As a rule, people who use lateral thinking choose a creative approach and an extraordinary type of problem solving, which allows them to achieve the best results.

Associative thinking

This is the ability of the brain to create a variety of vivid images associated with an object or phenomenon, which allows you to study the conditions of the problem not only on a conceptual level, but also to connect the emotional and sensory background, form your own attitude to the problem and fill it with various colors.

With developed associative thinking, a person is able to connect various situations that have nothing in common with a specific subject. For example, people can associate certain events in their personal or social life with a particular tune or movie.

Thanks to this, a person is able to find non-standard solutions to a problem and create something qualitatively new based on what already exists.

Divergent and convergent thinking

Divergent is characterized by an individual’s ability to find many solutions given the same initial data. The opposite is convergent - focusing on one option for the development of an event with a complete rejection of the possibility of other options for solving the problem.

The development of divergent thinking allows you to select many options for solving a problem that go beyond the generally accepted ones, and choose the most optimal path of action that can quickly lead to the desired result with the least expenditure of energy and money.

Thinking outside the box

Allows you to find an unusual solution to a problem in any situation. The main value of this type of thinking lies in the ability to find a way out of a “no-win situation” when standard methods do not work.

Sanogenic and pathogenic thinking

Sanogenic (healthy) is aimed at improving health, while pathogenic, on the contrary, leads to disease due to its destructive influence. The pathogenic type is determined by a person’s tendency to replay a negative situation many times over time, which leads to the emergence of negative emotions (anger, resentment, rage, hopelessness). Persons with a pathogenic type tend to blame themselves for what happened and constantly suffer, replaying a bad situation.

Holders of a sanogenic worldview are able to abstract from negativity and create a comfortable emotional background; they do not depend on stressful situations.

Rational and irrational thinking

Represented by two opposites. The first type is based on strict adherence to logic and has a clear structure, which allows you to find a solution to most life situations.

The second type is characterized by fragmentary judgments in the absence of a clear thought process.

People with irrational thinking jump from one thing to another, allowing their thoughts to move chaotically. A rationally thinking person always thinks everything over carefully and chooses the most logically verified way to solve a problem. Irrationalists, on the other hand, rely on feelings and emotions.

Conceptual thinking

It is formed in school-age children and consists in the formation of certain truths that do not require proof. Conceptual thinking excludes the possibility of considering an object or phenomenon from different angles due to the formation of a certain cliché. It excludes dissent and creativity in solving the problem.

Scientific thinking

Represents the desire to understand the essence of an object or the root cause of a phenomenon. It is characterized by consistency, requires the collection of evidence and is objective in nature. Its advantage is the ability to study the processes of the surrounding world and use the results obtained for the benefit of society or oneself.

Stereotypical thinking

Represented by the tendency to evaluate events and phenomena according to generally accepted standards without involving logic or creativity. It allows one to socialize, but it kills a person’s individuality and makes him not only predictable, but also easily suggestible.

The development of thinking and imagination is the main method of combating stereotyping and developing the ability to independently solve problems and find a way out of situations. Reduces the efficiency of the process due to the inability to act in situations not described in the instructions.

Cognitive thinking

It is characterized by a high level of development of all types of mental processes, which allows you to collect and analyze information, evaluate everything from a different angle, apply a logical approach and at the same time act intuitively and based on emotions.

This type of thinking allows you to solve many problems using the most effective method while taking into account all factors of the situation (or phenomenon) in accordance with dependent and independent developments of events.

Thinking is a cognitive process that is characterized by an indirect and generalized reflection of reality in the activities of each individual. Phenomena and objects of reality have relationships and properties due to perception and sensations. Thinking has several features, among which the following stand out:

Indirect character– each individual experiences the world indirectly, because each property is known through another interrelated property. In this case, thinking is based on perception, sensations and ideas, i.e. previously acquired theoretical and practical knowledge and skills;

Generality– is a process of cognition of what is essential and common in the objects of existing reality, since all the properties of similar objects are closely interrelated. The general can exist and manifest itself only in a specific individual object. This feature is expressed through language and speech. A verbal designation can be attributed to a specific object or a group of similar properties.

Basic forms of thinking.

The thinking of each individual occurs in two forms: inferences and judgments. Let's look at the forms of thinking in more detail:

Inference– is an effective conclusion consisting of several judgments, allowing us to gain new knowledge and practical skills about a specific phenomenon or object that exists in the objective world. Inferences can come in several forms: deductive, inductive and by analogy;

Judgment– a certain form of thinking that reflects the objects of reality in specific relationships and connections. Each individual judgment represents a specific thought about an object. A sequence of several judgments with a sequential connection is necessary for the mental solution of a problem or question, which constitutes a certain reasoning. Reasoning itself acquires practical meaning only in cases where it leads to a specific conclusion or conclusion. So inferences can become the answer to the question of interest.

Basic types of thinking.

Depending on the location of words, actions or images in the thought process, as well as their interaction with each other, several types of thinking are distinguished. Each of them has its own characteristics (theoretical or practical). Let's take a closer look at the main types of thinking:

Visually effective– this type of mental activity of an individual is based directly on the perception of a specific object;

Subject-effective– this type of thinking is aimed at solving issues and problems in the conditions of constructive, production, organizational, as well as all types of practical activities of citizens. In this case, practical thinking acts as constructive technical thinking, allowing each person to solve technical problems independently. The process itself represents the interaction of practical and mental components of the work. Every moment of abstract thinking is closely interconnected with the practical actions of the individual. Among the characteristic features are: attention to detail, clearly expressed observation, the ability to use attentiveness and skills in a specific situation, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action, operating with spatial patterns and images. Only in this way is the unity of will and thought maximally manifested in this type of thinking;

Visual-figurative– the entire process of thinking is characterized by reliance on images or ideas, abstract thoughts, which allows a person to embody generalizations in specific images;

Verbal-logical (abstract) thinking– this type of thinking is carried out through logical connections and structures of logical operations and concepts. It is aimed at identifying specific patterns in the surrounding world and human society, since it reflects general relationships and connections. In this case, concepts play a dominant role, and images act as a secondary one.

Empirical thinking(from Greek empeiria - experience) gives primary generalizations based on experience. These generalizations are made at a low level of abstraction. Empirical knowledge is the lowest, elementary stage of knowledge. Empirical thinking should not be confused with practical thinking.

As noted by the famous psychologist V. M. Teplov (“The Mind of a Commander”), many psychologists take the work of a scientist and theorist as the only example of mental activity. Meanwhile, practical activity requires no less intellectual effort.

The mental activity of the theorist is concentrated primarily on the first part of the path of knowledge - a temporary retreat, a retreat from practice. The mental activity of a practitioner is focused mainly on the second part - on the transition from abstract thinking to practice, that is, on that “getting” into practice, for the sake of which a theoretical retreat is made.

A feature of practical thinking is subtle observation, the ability to concentrate attention on individual details of an event, the ability to use to solve a particular problem something special and individual that was not fully included in the theoretical generalization, the ability to quickly move from reflection to action.

In the practical thinking of a person, the optimal ratio of his mind and will, cognitive, regulatory and energetic capabilities of the individual is essential. Practical thinking is associated with the prompt setting of priority goals, the development of flexible plans and programs, and greater self-control in stressful operating conditions.

Theoretical thinking reveals universal relations and explores the object of knowledge in the system of its necessary connections. Its result is the construction of conceptual models, the creation of theories, the generalization of experience, the disclosure of patterns of development of various phenomena, the knowledge of which ensures transformative human activity. Theoretical thinking is inextricably linked with practice, but in its final results it has relative independence; it is based on previous knowledge and, in turn, serves as the basis for subsequent knowledge.

Depending on the standard/non-standard nature of the tasks being solved and operational procedures, algorithmic, discursive, heuristic and creative thinking are distinguished.

Algorithmic thinking focused on pre-established rules, a generally accepted sequence of actions necessary to solve typical problems.

Discursive(from Latin discursus - reasoning) thinking is based on a system of interconnected conclusions.

Heuristic thinking(from the Greek heuresko - I find) is productive thinking, consisting of solving non-standard problems.

Creative thinking- thinking that leads to new discoveries, fundamentally new results.

There is also a distinction between reproductive and productive thinking.

Reproductive thinking- reproduction of previously obtained results. In this case, thinking merges with memory.

Productive thinking- thinking leading to new cognitive results.

Thinking is the most generalized and mediated form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects.

In its development, thinking goes through two stages: pre-conceptual and conceptual. Pre-conceptual thinking is the initial stage of the development of thinking in a child, when his thinking has a different organization than that of adults; Children's judgments are isolated, about this particular subject. When explaining something, they reduce everything to the particular, the familiar. Most judgments are judgments by similarity, or judgments by analogy, since during this period memory plays the main role in thinking. The earliest form of proof is an example. Taking into account this feature of the child’s thinking, when convincing him or explaining something to him, it is necessary to support your speech with clear examples.

The central feature of pre-conceptual thinking is egocentrism (not to be confused with egoism). Due to egocentrism*, a child under 5 years old cannot look at himself from the outside, cannot correctly understand situations that require some detachment from his own point of view and acceptance of someone else’s position. Egocentrism determines such features of children's logic as: 1) insensitivity to contradictions, 2) syncretism (the tendency to connect everything with everything), 3) transduction (the transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general), 4) the lack of an idea of ​​​​the conservation of quantity. During normal development, there is a natural replacement of pre-conceptual thinking, where concrete images serve as components, with conceptual (abstract) thinking, where concepts are components and formal operations are used. Conceptual thinking does not come immediately, but gradually, through a series of intermediate stages. So, L.S. Vygotsky identified 5 stages in the transition to the formation of concepts. The first - for a 2-3 year old child - is manifested in the fact that when asked to put together similar objects that fit together, the child puts any objects together, believing that those placed next to each other are suitable - this is the syncretism of children's thinking. At stage II - children use elements of objective similarity between two objects, but already the third object can be similar only to one of the first pair - a chain of pairwise similarity arises. Stage III appears at the age of 7-10, when children can combine a group of objects by similarity, but cannot recognize and name the features that characterize this group. And finally, in adolescents aged 11-14 years, conceptual thinking appears, but it is still imperfect, since primary concepts are formed on the basis of everyday experience and are not supported by scientific data. Perfect concepts are formed in the 5th stage, in adolescence, when the use of theoretical principles allows one to go beyond the limits of one’s own experience. So, thinking develops from concrete images to perfect concepts, designated by words. The concept initially reflects the similar, unchangeable in phenomena and objects.

Types of thinking:
Visual-effective thinking is a type of thinking based on the direct perception of objects, the real transformation of the situation in the process of actions with objects.

Visual-figurative thinking is a type of thinking characterized by reliance on ideas and images; the functions of figurative thinking are associated with the representation of situations and changes in them that a person wants to obtain as a result of his activities that transform the situation. A very important feature of imaginative thinking is the formation of unusual, incredible combinations of objects and their properties. In contrast to visual-effective thinking, with visual-figurative thinking the situation is transformed only in terms of image.

Verbal-logical thinking is a type of thinking carried out using logical operations with concepts.

There are theoretical and practical, intuitive and analytical, realistic and autistic, productive and reproductive thinking.

Theoretical and practical thinking are distinguished by the type of problems being solved and the resulting structural and dynamic features. Theoretical thinking is the knowledge of laws and rules. For example, the discovery of the periodic table of elements by D. Mendeleev. The main task of practical thinking is to prepare a physical transformation of reality: setting a goal, creating a plan, project, scheme. One of the important features of practical thinking is that it unfolds under conditions of severe time pressure. In practical thinking there are very limited opportunities for testing hypotheses; all this makes practical thinking sometimes more complex than theoretical thinking. Theoretical thinking is sometimes compared to empirical thinking. The following criterion is used here: the nature of the generalizations with which thinking deals; in one case these are scientific concepts, and in the other - everyday, situational generalizations.

A distinction is also made between intuitive and analytical (logical) thinking. Three features are usually used: temporal (time of the thinking process), structural (divided into stages), and level of occurrence (awareness or unconsciousness). Analytical thinking unfolds in time, has clearly defined stages, and is largely represented in the consciousness of the thinking person himself. Intuitive thinking is characterized by rapidity, the absence of clearly defined stages, and is minimally conscious.

Realistic thinking is aimed mainly at the external world and is regulated by logical laws, while autistic thinking is associated with the realization of a person’s desires (who among us has not passed off what we wanted as something that actually exists). The term "egocentric thinking" is sometimes used and is characterized primarily by the inability to accept another person's point of view.

It is important to distinguish between productive and reproductive thinking, based on “the degree of novelty of the product obtained in the process of thinking in relation to the subject’s knowledge.”

It is also necessary to distinguish involuntary processes of thinking from voluntary ones: involuntary transformations of dream images and purposeful solution of mental problems.

There are 4 stages of problem solving:
- Preparation;
- maturation of the decision;
- inspiration;
- checking the solution found.

Structure of the problem solving thinking process:
1. Motivation (desire to solve the problem).

2. Analysis of the problem (highlighting “what is given”, “what needs to be found”, what missing or redundant data are available, etc.).

3. Finding a solution:

3.1. Search for a solution based on one well-known algorithm (reproductive thinking).

3.2. Search for a solution based on choosing the optimal option from a variety of known algorithms.

3.3. A solution based on a combination of individual links from various algorithms.

3.4. Search for a fundamentally new solution (creative thinking).

3.4.1. Based on in-depth logical reasoning (analysis, comparison, synthesis, classification, inference, etc.).

3.4.2. Based on the use of analogies.

3.4.3. Based on the use of heuristic techniques.

3.4.4. Based on the use of empirical trial and error.

In case of failure:

3.5. Despair, switching to another activity “period of incubation rest” - “ripening of ideas”, insight, inspiration, insight, instant awareness of a solution to a certain problem (intuitive thinking).

Factors contributing to "insight":

a) high passion for the problem;

b) belief in success, in the possibility of solving the problem;

c) high awareness of the problem, accumulated experience;

d) high associative brain activity (during sleep, at high temperature, fever, with emotionally positive stimulation).

4. Logical justification of the found solution idea, logical proof of the correctness of the solution.
5. Implementation of the solution.
6. Checking the solution found.
7. Correction (if necessary, return to stage 2).

Mental activity is realized both at the level of consciousness and at the level of the unconscious, and is characterized by complex transitions and interactions of these levels. As a result of a successful (purposeful) action, a result is obtained that corresponds to a previously set goal, and a result that was not foreseen in the conscious goal, it is a by-product in relation to it (a by-product of the action). The problem of conscious and unconscious was concretized into the problem of the relationship between direct (conscious) and by-products (unconscious) of action. The by-product of the action is also reflected by the subject; this reflection can participate in the subsequent regulation of actions, but it is not presented in verbalized form, in the form of consciousness. The by-product “is formed under the influence of those specific properties of things and phenomena that are included in the action, but are not significant from the point of view of the goal.”

The main mental operations are distinguished: analysis, comparison, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, etc.

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics.

Comparison is a mental operation based on establishing similarities and differences between objects.

Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to mentally move from parts to the whole in a single process.

Generalization is the mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics.

Abstraction - distraction - a mental operation based on highlighting the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from other, unimportant ones.

Basic forms of logical thinking: concept, judgment, inference.

A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena, expressed in a word or group of words. Concepts can be general and individual, concrete and abstract.

Judgment is a form of thinking that reflects connections between objects and phenomena; affirmation or denial of something. Judgments can be true or false.

Inference is a form of thinking in which a definite conclusion is drawn based on several judgments. Inferences are distinguished between inductive, deductive, and analogical. Induction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general. Deduction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific. Analogy is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from particular to particular (based on some elements of similarity).

Individual differences in the mental activity of people can manifest themselves in the following qualities of thinking: breadth, depth and independence of thinking, flexibility of thought, speed and criticality of the mind.

Breadth of thinking is the ability to embrace the entire issue, without at the same time missing the details necessary for the matter. Depth of thinking is expressed in the ability to penetrate into the essence of complex issues. The opposite quality to depth of thinking is superficiality of judgment, when a person pays attention to little things and does not see the main thing.

Independence of thinking is characterized by a person’s ability to put forward new problems and find ways to solve them without resorting to the help of other people. Flexibility of thought is expressed in its freedom from the constraining influence of techniques and methods of solving problems fixed in the past, in the ability to quickly change actions when the situation changes.

Quickness of mind is a person’s ability to quickly understand a new situation, think about it and make the right decision.

Haste of the mind is manifested in the fact that a person, without thoroughly thinking through a question, picks out one side, rushes to give a solution, and expresses insufficiently thought-out answers and judgments.

A certain slowness of mental activity may be due to the type of nervous system - its low mobility. “The speed of mental processes is the fundamental basis of intellectual differences between people” (Eysenck).

Criticality of the mind is a person’s ability to objectively evaluate his own and others’ thoughts, carefully and comprehensively check all put forward provisions and conclusions. Individual characteristics of thinking include a person’s preference for using visual-effective, visual-figurative or abstract-logical types of thinking.

Ingredients of Mental Productivity
Now let us turn to the question of how we can promote the development of thinking. First of all, it is necessary to note the special role of self-organization, awareness of the techniques and rules of mental activity. A person must understand the basic techniques of mental work, be able to manage such stages of thinking as setting a problem, creating optimal motivation, regulating the direction of involuntary associations, maximizing the inclusion of both figurative and symbolic components, using the advantages of conceptual thinking, as well as reducing excessive criticality in assessment result - all this allows you to activate the thought process and make it more effective. Passion, interest in the problem, optimal motivation are one of the most important factors in productivity of thinking. Thus, weak motivation does not provide sufficient development of the thought process, and vice versa, if it is too strong, then this emotional overexcitation disrupts the use of the results obtained, previously learned methods in solving other new problems, and a tendency towards stereotyping appears. In this sense, competition is not conducive to solving complex mental problems.

Factors that hinder successful thought processes:
1) inertia, stereotypical thinking;
2) excessive adherence to the use of familiar solution methods, which makes it difficult to look at the problem “in a new way”;
3) fear of mistakes, fear of criticism, fear of “being stupid,” excessive criticism of one’s decisions;
4) mental and muscle tension, etc.

To activate thinking, you can use special forms of organizing the thought process, for example, “brainstorming” or brainstorming - the method was proposed by A. Osborne (USA), and is intended for producing ideas and solutions when working in a group. Basic rules for brainstorming:

1. The group consists of 7-10 people, preferably from different professional backgrounds (to reduce stereotyping of approaches); there are only a few people in the group who are knowledgeable in the problem under consideration.

2. “Prohibition of criticism” - you cannot interrupt or criticize someone else’s idea, you can only praise, develop someone else’s idea or suggest your own idea.

3. Participants must be in a state of relaxation, i.e. in a state of mental and muscular relaxation and comfort. The chairs should be arranged in a circle.

4. All ideas expressed are recorded (on a tape recorder, in shorthand notes) without attribution.

5. The ideas collected as a result of brainstorming are transferred to a group of expert specialists dealing with this problem to select the most valuable ideas. As a rule, such ideas turn out to be about 10 percent. Participants are not included in the “jury of experts”.

The effectiveness of brainstorming sessions is high. Thus, in one of the American companies, at 300 brainstorming sessions, 15 thousand ideas were proposed, of which 1.5 thousand ideas were immediately implemented. “Brainstorming,” conducted by a group that gradually accumulates experience in solving various problems, forms the basis of the so-called synectics proposed by the American scientist W. Gordon. During the “synectic assault”, it is mandatory to perform four special techniques based on analogy: direct (think about how problems similar to this one are solved); personal or empathy (try to enter into the image of the object given in the problem and reason from this point of view); symbolic (give a figurative definition of the essence of the task in a nutshell); fantastic (imagine how fairy-tale wizards would solve this problem).

Another way to activate search is the method of focal objects. It consists in the fact that the characteristics of several randomly selected objects are transferred to the object under consideration (focal, in the focus of attention), resulting in unusual combinations that allow one to overcome psychological inertia and rigidity. So, if a “tiger” is taken as a random object, and a “pencil” as a focal object, then combinations like “striped pencil”, “fanged pencil”, etc. are obtained. By considering these combinations and developing them, it is sometimes possible to come to original ideas.

The method of morphological analysis consists in first identifying the main characteristics of the axis object, and then recording all possible variant elements for each of them.

Thus, considering the problem of starting a car engine in winter conditions, we can take as axes energy sources for heating, methods of transferring energy from the source to the engine, methods of controlling this transmission, etc. The elements for the “energy sources” axis can be a battery, a chemical heat generator, a gas burner, a running engine of another car, hot water, steam, etc. Having a record on all axes and combining combinations of different elements, you can get a large number of different options. In this case, unexpected combinations that would hardly have come to mind may also come into view.

The method of control questions also helps to intensify the search, which involves using a list of leading questions for this purpose, for example: “What if we do the opposite? What if we change the shape of the object? What if we take a different material? What if we shrink or enlarge the object? Etc. ".

All considered methods of activating creative thinking capabilities involve targeted stimulation of associative images (imagination).

Human mental activity can be developed and stimulated through various tasks. Thus, to develop the ability to abstract the main from the secondary, tasks with redundant data that lead away from the correct solution are used. The need to reformulate the problem for a deeper understanding develops tasks with partially incorrect data: they require the ability to adjust the formulation of the problem or point out the impossibility of solving it. The ability to distinguish problems that allow only a probabilistic solution also significantly develops a person’s thinking.

When studying the solution of creative problems, we observe the following pattern (Ponomarev): first, primary, automated methods of solution are used (which corresponds to the lower levels), and the primary methods of action are implemented until it becomes clear that the problem cannot be solved using this method. At the next stage, failures are comprehended (medium level), the reason for these failures is realized, namely, that the means do not correspond to the task, a critical attitude towards one’s own means and methods of action is formed, as a result, a wider range of means is applied to the conditions of the task (3- 1st stage, middle level), the development of “search dominant” programs occurs, then at the lower (unconscious) level an intuitive decision occurs, a “decision in principle”, and then at the last stages (highest level) logical justification, verbalization and formalization of the decision occur.

To enhance creative thinking capabilities, “exotic” techniques are also used: introducing a person into a special suggestive state of the psyche (activation of the unconscious), suggesting in a state of hypnosis to incarnate into another person, into a famous scientist, for example, Leonardo da Vinci, which dramatically increases creativity in an ordinary person .

There are different individual thinking styles:
The synthetic style of thinking manifests itself in creating something new, original, combining dissimilar, often opposing ideas, views, and carrying out thought experiments. The motto of the Synthesizer is “What if...” Synthesizers strive to create the broadest possible, generalized concept that allows them to combine different approaches, “remove” contradictions, and reconcile opposing positions. This is a theoretical style of thinking, such people like to build theories and build their conclusions on the basis of theories, they like to notice contradictions in other people’s reasoning and draw the attention of people around them, they like to sharpen the contradiction and try to find a fundamentally new solution that integrates opposing views, they tend to see the world constantly changing and love change, often for the sake of change itself.

The idealistic style of thinking is manifested in a tendency to intuitive, global assessments without carrying out a detailed analysis of problems. The peculiarity of Idealists is an increased interest in goals, needs, human values, moral problems; they take into account subjective and social factors in their decisions, strive to smooth out contradictions and emphasize similarities in different positions,

Creative Problem Solving Process
They easily perceive various ideas and proposals without internal resistance, successfully solve problems where emotions, feelings, assessments and other subjective aspects are important factors, sometimes utopianly striving to reconcile and unite everyone and everything. "Where are we going and why?" - a classic question from Idealists.

The pragmatic style of thinking is based on direct personal experience, on the use of those materials and information that are easily available, trying to obtain a specific result (albeit limited), a practical gain, as quickly as possible. The motto of the Pragmatists is “Anything will work”, “Anything that works” will do. The behavior of Pragmatists may seem superficial and chaotic, but they adhere to the following attitude: events in this world occur uncoordinatedly and everything depends on random circumstances, so in an unpredictable world you just need to try: “Today we’ll do this, and then we’ll see...” Pragmatists have a good sense of the situation , supply and demand, successfully determine behavioral tactics, using the prevailing circumstances to their advantage, showing flexibility and adaptability.

The analytical style of thinking is focused on a systematic and comprehensive consideration of an issue or problem in those aspects that are determined by objective criteria, and is prone to a logical, methodical, thorough (with an emphasis on detail) manner of solving problems. Before making a decision, Analysts develop a detailed plan and try to collect as much information, objective facts, and deep theories as possible. They tend to perceive the world as logical, rational, orderly and predictable, and therefore tend to look for a formula, method or system that can provide a solution to a particular problem and can be rationally justified.

The realistic style of thinking is focused only on the recognition of facts, and “real” is only what can be directly felt, personally seen or heard, touched, etc. Realistic thinking is characterized by specificity and an attitude towards correction, correction of situations in order to achieve a certain result. The problem for Realists arises whenever they see something is wrong and want to fix it.

Thus, it can be noted that the individual style of thinking affects the ways of solving problems, the ways of behavior, and the personal characteristics of a person.

Psychologists are quite good at determining the forms and levels of thinking disorders, the degree of its deviation from standards, “norms.”

We can distinguish a group of short-term or minor thinking disorders that occur in completely healthy people, and a group of thinking disorders that are pronounced and persistently painful.

In the second group of significant disorders, we can distinguish the following classification of thinking disorders, created by B.V. Zeigarnik and used in Russian psychology:
1. Violations of the operational side of thinking:
reduction in the level of generalization,
distortion of the level of generalization.
2. Violation of the personal and motivational component of thinking:
diversity of thinking,
reasoning.
3. Disturbances in the dynamics of mental activity:
lability of thinking or “jump of ideas”,
inertia of thinking or “viscosity” of thinking,
inconsistency of judgments, responsiveness.
4. Dysregulation of mental activity:
impairment of critical thinking,
violation of the regulatory function of thinking,
fragmented thinking.
Let us briefly explain the features of these thinking disorders.

Violations of the operational side of thinking manifest themselves as a decrease in the level of generalization, when it is difficult to identify common features of objects, and in judgments direct ideas about objects prevail, only specific connections between objects are established. It becomes almost impossible to classify, find the leading property of objects, and highlight the general; a person cannot grasp the general figurative meaning of proverbs, cannot arrange pictures in a logical sequence. With mental retardation, there are similar stable manifestations, but with dementia (advancing senile dementia), a previously mentally competent person begins to show impairments and a decrease in the level of generalization. There is a difference between dementia and mental retardation: mentally retarded people are very slow but able to form new concepts and skills, so they are learnable.

Dementia patients, although they possess the remnants of previous generalizations, are not able to assimilate new material, cannot use their previous experience, they are unteachable.

The distortion of the generalization process is manifested in the fact that a person in his judgments reflects only the random side of phenomena, and significant relationships between objects are not taken into account, although he may be guided by overly general signs, inadequate relationships between objects, for example, a mushroom, a horse, a pencil, such a patient puts it into one group according to the “principle of connection between the organic and the inorganic,” and l and combines “beetle, shovel,” explaining: “They dig the ground with a shovel, and the beetle also digs in the ground,” or combines “a watch and a bicycle,” explaining: “Both they measure, a watch measures time, and a bicycle measures space when they ride it." Similar thinking disorders are found in patients with schizophrenia and psychopaths.

Violations of the dynamics of thinking manifest themselves in various ways:

Lability of thinking, or “jump of ideas” - a person does not have time to finish one thought before he moves on to another, each new impression changes the direction of thoughts, a person talks continuously, laughs without any connection, the chaotic nature of associations, a violation of the logical flow of thinking.

Inertia, or “stickiness of thinking,” is when people cannot change the way they work, change the course of their judgments, or switch from one type of activity to another. Such disorders often occur in patients with epilepsy and as a long-term consequence of severe brain injuries. In extreme cases, a person cannot cope with even a basic task if it requires switching. Therefore, a violation of the dynamics of mental activity leads to a decrease in the level of generalization: a person cannot complete a classification task even at a specific level, since each picture acts as a single copy and he cannot switch to another picture, compare them with each other, etc.

Inconsistency of judgments - when the adequate nature of judgments is unstable, that is, correct ways of performing mental actions alternate with erroneous ones. Against the background of fatigue and mood swings, this can also occur in completely healthy people. Such fluctuations in correct and incorrect ways of performing the same mental action are expressed in 80% of patients with vascular diseases of the brain, in 68% of patients who have suffered a brain injury, in 66% of patients with manic psychosis. The fluctuations were not caused by the complexity of the material; they also appeared on the simplest tasks, i.e., they indicated instability of mental performance.

“Responsiveness” - when the instability of the way of performing actions manifests itself in an excessive form, correct actions alternate with absurd actions, but the person does not notice this. Responsiveness is manifested in the fact that a person unexpectedly reacts to various random stimuli of the environment that are not addressed to him, and as a result, the normal course of the thinking process becomes impossible: any stimulus changes the direction of thoughts and actions, and at times the person reacts correctly, and at times his behavior is extremely ridiculous , he does not understand where he is, how old he is, etc. The responsiveness of patients is a consequence of a decrease in the level of activity of the cerebral cortex and contributes to the destruction of the purposefulness of mental activity. Such thinking disorders occur in patients with severe cerebrovascular diseases and hypertension. “Slipping” is that a person, while reasoning correctly about some object, suddenly gets lost from the correct train of thought due to a false, inadequate association, and then is again able to reason correctly, without repeating the mistake he made, but without correcting it either. Thinking is associated with the needs, aspirations, goals, and feelings of a person, therefore, violations of the motivational, personal component of thinking manifest themselves as:
Diversity of thinking, when judgments about a phenomenon occur on different planes. Moreover, judgments are inconsistent and occur at different levels of generalization, i.e. from time to time a person cannot reason correctly, a person’s actions lose purpose, he loses his original goal and cannot complete even a simple task. Such thinking disorders occur in schizophrenia, when thinking “seems to flow along different channels at the same time,” bypassing the essence of the problem under consideration, losing the goal and switching to an emotionally subjective attitude. It is precisely because of the diversity of thinking and emotional richness that ordinary objects begin to act as symbols. For example, a patient with delusions of self-blame, having received a cookie, comes to the conclusion that today he will be burned in the oven, since the cookie for him acts as a symbol of the oven in which he is to be burned. Such absurd reasoning is possible because, due to emotional preoccupation and diversity of thinking, a person views any objects in inadequate, distorted aspects.

Reasoning is verbose, fruitless reasoning, due to increased affectivity, inadequate attitude, the desire to bring any phenomenon under some concept, while the intellect and cognitive processes of a person are not impaired. Reasoning is often characterized as a person’s tendency “to make large generalizations in relation to a small object of judgment and to form value judgments.”

Violation of the regulatory function of thinking manifests itself quite often even in completely healthy people, but with strong emotions, affects, feelings, when a person’s judgments under the influence of feelings become erroneous and inadequately reflect reality, or a person’s thoughts may remain correct, but cease to regulate his behavior, inadequate actions, absurd actions, in extreme cases up to “insanity.” “For feelings to prevail over reason, the mind must be weak” (P.B. Gannushkin). Under the influence of strong affect, passion, despair, or in a particularly acute situation, healthy people may experience a state close to “confusion.”

Impaired critical thinking. Violation of the ability to act thoughtfully, check and correct one’s actions in accordance with objective conditions, without noticing not only partial errors, but even the absurdity of one’s actions and judgments. But these errors can disappear if someone outside forces this person to check his actions, but more often they react: “it will do.” Lack of self-control leads to these disorders, from which the person himself suffers, i.e. his actions are not regulated by thinking, are not subordinated to personal goals, and lack purposefulness in both the person’s actions and thinking. This impairment of criticality is usually associated with damage to the frontal lobes of the brain. I.P. Pavlov wrote: “The strength of the mind is much more measured by a correct assessment of reality than by the mass of school knowledge, which you can collect as much as you like, but this is the mind of a lower order. A much more accurate measure of intelligence is the correct attitude to reality, the correct orientation, when a person understands his goals, foresees the result of his activities, controlling himself."

“Disconnected thinking” - when a person can pronounce monologues for hours, regardless of the presence of other people, and in long utterances there is no connection between the individual elements of a person’s statements, there is no meaningful thought, only an incomprehensible flow of words. That is, speech in this case is not an instrument of thought, is not a means of communication, does not regulate the behavior of the person himself, but acts as a manifestation of speech motor automatisms.

With euphoria, elevated mood, enthusiasm (for some people - in the initial phase of intoxication), an extraordinary acceleration of the thought process occurs, one thought seems to “run into” another. Continuously arising thoughts and judgments, becoming more and more superficial, fill our consciousness and pour out in whole streams onto those around us.

An involuntary, continuous and uncontrollable stream of thoughts is called "mentism".

The opposite disorder of thinking is sperrung, i.e. a sudden stop in thinking, a break in the thought process. Both of these types of thinking disorders occur almost exclusively in schizophrenia.

Unjustified "thoroughness of thinking." It becomes, as it were, viscous, inactive, and the ability to highlight the main, essential is usually lost. When talking about something, people suffering from such “thoroughness” diligently and endlessly describe all sorts of little things, details, details that have no meaning.

Emotional and excitable people sometimes try to combine incomparable things: completely different circumstances and phenomena, contradictory ideas and provisions, allow the substitution of some concepts for others. Such “subjective” thinking is called paralogical.

The habit of making stereotyped decisions and conclusions can lead to the inability to independently find a way out of unexpected situations and make original decisions, that is, to what in psychology is called functional rigidity of thinking. This feature of thinking is associated with its excessive dependence on accumulated experience, whose limitations and repetition are then reproduced by thought stereotypes.

A child or an adult dreams, imagining himself as a hero, an inventor, a great man, etc. An imaginary fantasy world, reflecting the deep processes of our psyche, becomes a determining factor in thinking for some people. In this case, we can talk about autistic thinking. Autism means such a deep immersion in the world of one’s personal experiences that interest in reality disappears, contacts with reality are lost and weakened, and the desire to communicate with others disappears.

An extreme degree of thinking disorder - or “intellectual monomania”. Thoughts, ideas, reasoning that do not correspond to reality and clearly contradict it are considered delusional. In all other respects, normally reasoning and thinking people suddenly begin to express ideas that are extremely strange to those around them, without succumbing to any persuasion. Some, without medical education, invent a “new” “method of treating, for example, cancer, and devote all their strength to the struggle for the “implementation” of their brilliant discovery<"бред изобретательства"). Другие разрабатывают проекты совершенствования общественного устройства и готовы на все ради борьбы за счастье человечества ("бред реформаторства"). Третья поглощены житейскими проблемами: они или круглосуточно "устанавливают" факт неверности своего супруга, в которой, впрочем, и так заведомо убеждены ("бред ревности"), либо, уверенные, что в них все влюблены, назойливо пристают с любовными объяснениями к окружающим "эротический бред"). Наиболее распространенным является "бред преследования": с человеком якобы плохо обращаются на службе, подсовывают ему самую трудную работу, издеваются, угрожают, начинают преследовать.

The intellectual quality and degree of “persuasiveness” of delusional ideas depend on the thinking capabilities of the one who is “captured” by them. Detecting the “delusional” nature of skillfully presented ideas is far from easy, and not always possible. Therefore, delusional interpretations and positions can easily “infect” others , and in the hands of fanatical or paranoid individuals turn out to be a formidable social weapon.

thinking subject originality comprehensiveness

Thinking is divided into types depending on the degree of novelty and originality, the nature of the problems being solved, the form, and the degree of development. Also, thinking is divided into types in terms of adaptive functions.

The degree of novelty and originality, in turn, is divided into reproductive (bottom-up) and productive (creative) thinking.

Reproductive thinking is a type of thinking that provides a solution to a problem, based on the reflection of methods already known to man. The new task is compared with the already known solution scheme. But despite this, reproductive thinking almost always requires the disclosure of a certain level of independence.

Productive thinking fully reveals a person’s creative potential and intellectual abilities. Creative possibilities are expressed in the rapid pace of assimilation of knowledge, the breadth of their transfer to new conditions and independent operation of them.

Domestic and foreign psychologists (G.S. Kostyuk, J. Guilford) concluded that creative thinking is a set of those mental characteristics that ensure a productive transformation in human activity.

Four characteristics lead in creative thinking:

• - originality of solution to the problem,
• - semantic flexibility, which allows you to see an object from a different angle,
• - figurative adaptive flexibility, making it possible to modify an object with the development of the need for its cognition,
• - semantically spontaneous flexibility in producing a variety of ideas regarding unclear situations.

Thinking is also distinguished by form. These are such types of thinking as visual-effective, visual-figurative, abstract-logical.

Visual-effective thinking is one of the types of thinking that is distinguished not by the type of problem, but by the method of solving it; the solution to an unusual problem (cognitive, theoretical or practical) is sought through the observation of actual objects, their interaction and the implementation of material transformations, in which the subject of thinking himself is directly involved. The development of intelligence begins with visual and effective thinking, both in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. It lays the beginning and initial basis for a generalized reflection of reality in the structures of personal experience.

Visual-effective thinking is often characterized as simple, elementary, lower, signs of which can be found in the behavior of not only children, but even animals (for example, studies of the intelligence of great apes). But research has shown that this type of thinking is inherent in many types of professions; it is used to solve quite complex problems that arise in the activities of codebreakers, inventors, managers, scientists, surgeons and generals. Significant levels of generalized reflection of reality depend on the results of “vision, perception” of reality, which can be achieved through the actions of visual-effective thinking.

Visual-figurative thinking is thinking that is based on modeling and resolving a situation that is problematic in terms of ideas. It is associated with the presentation of a situation and changes in it. With its help, the entire variety of different actual characteristics of an object is completely recreated, since the image can simultaneously consolidate a vision of the object from different points of view.

Being the next stage in the development of intelligence, after visual-effective thinking, this type of thinking is organized using established perceptual standards, on the basis of which it is possible to identify perceptually non-obvious connections between objects.

In the representations with which visual-figurative thinking operates, not only emerging connections are expressed, but also deeper, hidden important properties that are not shown in a visual situation.

A significant feature of visual-figurative thinking is the establishment of unusual, “incredible” combinations of objects and their properties. In this capacity it is almost indistinguishable from imagination. Visual-figurative thinking is one of the stages of ontogenetic development of thinking.

Abstract-logical (conceptual or abstract) thinking functions in the form of abstract symbols, concepts and numbers. In this case, a person deals with concepts without using the experience that he gained through the senses. For example, the economic terms “balance” or “profit”, the mathematical terms “degree” and “derivative”, the ethical terms “justice” and “conscience” are abstract concepts and they are not perceived by humans through the senses.

From the point of view of the adaptive functions of thinking, it is important that it is divided into realistic and autistic types of thinking.

Realistic thinking is a mental activity that is aimed at transforming and understanding reality. The essential principles of realistic thinking are:

• 1. The principle of objectivity is when a person is guided only by objective values ​​and in his views minimizes the role of some subjective factors.
• 2. The principle of causality is the recognition that every phenomenon has natural causes of its origin.
• 3. The principle of certainty, which states that no position can be accepted until it is proven by some results of practical actions. Also, realistic thinking is characterized by criticality in assessing its progress and results and, importantly, established ethics, which states that knowledge cannot be used to harm nature and man and their common future.

Autistic thinking. This term means illogical thinking associated with autism, that is, the inability of people to take into account actual properties, connections and relationships, preferring the latter images to catathic fantasies. The thoughts and statements of such people are completely determined by their fears and desires, complexes and emotions: they accept as reality only what corresponds to their inner experiences. In this sense, we can say that the essence of autistic thinking is waking dreams, since the analogy with dreams is quite appropriate and even obvious. Normally, writes E. Bleuler (02 April 1857 - 15 July 1939 - Swiss psychiatrist), autistic thinking is usually characteristic of children aged 3-4 years, when the ability to fantasize for the first time arises, that is, to produce images of representation and combine them according to their desires or fears. As a rule, children at this age tend to mix the fruits of their imagination with reality, which is pathologically characteristic of playful transformations.

Psychology also distinguishes types of thinking according to the nature of the problems being solved. They, in turn, are divided into theoretical and practical.

Theoretical thinking is one of the types of thinking that is aimed at discovering laws and properties of objects. .

Practical thinking is thinking that occurs in conditions of practical activity: danger, lack of time, high responsibility for the decision made. This, among other things, is thinking that is aimed at solving a complex problem - with changeable, uncertain conditions, characterized by a large number of elements and properties that must be taken into account. But the most important thing is that practical thinking seeks a solution that can be immediately implemented.

Consequently, practical thinking is not visual and effective thinking, but thinking that regulates and determines action. It is used as a control component. Its results are realized in activity, tested in it.

The next type of thinking is thinking according to the degree of development. It is also divided into several parts - discursive and intuitive thinking.

Discursive thinking is a form of thought process in which different options for solving problems are alternately enumerated, most often based on logical reasoning, where each next step is determined by the result of the previous ones. The result of this thought process is an inference. The essential forms of discursive thinking are deduction and induction.

Intuitive thinking is one type of thinking. It is usually characterized by a rapid progression, lack of clearly defined steps, and minimal awareness.

Usually, they talk about intuitive thinking, implying an explicit or implicit comparison of two types of thinking: verbal-logical and intuitive. The reason for distinguishing these types of thinking is a certain difference in the level of meaningfulness and compliance with the logical requirements of constructing inferences and drawing conclusions. With this thinking, we are talking about cases where there may not be a coherent logical transition from the given to the new, but there is a certain gap, a sharp leap to new knowledge and a departure from the previously established logic. The difference between the process of intuitive and logical thinking is that we are not aware of the process of intuitive thinking; it seems to be merged with the product. At the intuitive level, methods of action are not highlighted; they are given to the subject as one with the object and the action itself. The process of logical thinking, on the contrary, is conscious, isolated from its product, and methods of action are isolated and converted into operations that are applicable to many similar objects.

Each type of thinking corresponds to objects of various types. Objects of intuitive thinking act as objects - originals with which a person interacts. And the objects of logical thinking are sign systems in which the signifier and the signified - the object and the sign - are separated.

Developed thinking is a complex unity of logical and intuitive components, closely interconnected.

Fundamentals of Thinking

Cognizing and transforming the world, a person reveals stable, natural connections between phenomena. These connections are reflected in our consciousness indirectly - a person recognizes in the external signs of phenomena signs of internal, stable relationships. Whether we determine, looking out the window from the wet asphalt, whether it was raining, whether we establish the laws of movement of heavenly bodies - in all these cases we reflect the world in general And indirectly- comparing facts, making conclusions, identifying patterns in various groups of phenomena. Man, without seeing elementary particles, learned their properties and, without having visited Mars, learned a lot about it.

Noticing connections between phenomena and establishing the universal nature of these connections, a person actively masters the world and rationally organizes his interaction with it. A generalized and indirect (sign) orientation in a sensory-perceptible environment allows the archaeologist and investigator to reconstruct the real course of past events, and the astronomer to look not only into the past, but also into the distant future. Not only in science and professional activity, but also in all everyday life, a person constantly uses knowledge, concepts, general ideas, generalized schemes, identifies the objective meaning and subjective meaning of the phenomena around him, finds a way out of a variety of problematic situations, and solves the problems that arise before him. In all these cases, he carries out mental activity.

- the mental process of a generalized and indirect reflection of stable, regular properties and relationships of reality, essential for resolving cognitive problems.

Thinking forms the structure of individual consciousness, the classification and evaluation standards of the individual, his generalized assessments, his characteristic interpretation of phenomena, and ensures their understanding.

To understand something means to include something new in the system of existing meanings and meanings.

In the process of historical development of mankind, mental acts began to obey a system of logical rules. Many of these rules have acquired an axiomatic character. Stable forms of objectification of the results of mental activity have formed: concepts, judgments, conclusions.

As a mental activity, thinking is a problem-solving process. This process has a certain structure - stages and mechanisms for solving cognitive problems.

Each person has his own style and strategy of thinking - cognitive (from the Latin cognitio - knowledge) style, cognitive attitudes and categorical structure (semantic, semantic space).

All higher mental functions of a person were formed in the process of his social and labor practice, in inextricable unity with the emergence and development of language. The semantic categories expressed in language form the content of human consciousness.

An individual's thinking is mediated by his speech. A thought is formed through its verbal formulation.

“The “spirit” is cursed from the very beginning to be “burdened down” by matter, which appears... in the form of language.” However, thinking and language cannot be identified. Language is a tool of thought. The basis of a language is its grammatical structure. The basis of thinking is the laws of the world, its universal relationships, enshrined in concepts.

Classification of thinking phenomena

In the diverse phenomena of thinking, the following are distinguished:

• mental activity- a system of mental actions, operations aimed at solving a specific problem;
• : comparison, generalization, abstraction, classification, systematization and specification;
• forms of thinking: concept, judgment, inference;
• types of thinking: practical-effective, visual-figurative and theoretical-abstract.

Mental activity

According to the operational structure, mental activity is divided into algorithmic carried out according to previously known rules, and heuristic— creative solution of non-standard problems.

According to the degree of abstraction, it stands out empirical And theoretical thinking.

All acts of thought are performed on the basis of interaction analysis and synthesis, which act as two interconnected aspects of the thought process (correlated with the analytical-synthetic mechanism of higher nervous activity).

When characterizing individual thinking, we take into account qualities of mind- systematicity, consistency, evidence, flexibility, speed, etc., as well as individual's type of thinking, his intellectual features.

Mental activity is carried out in the form of mental operations that transform into each other: comparison, generalization, abstraction, classification, concretization. Mental operations — mental actions, covering reality with three interconnected universal forms of cognition: concept, judgment and inference.

Comparison- a mental operation that reveals the identity and difference of phenomena and their properties, allowing for the classification of phenomena and their generalization. Comparison is an elementary primary form of cognition. Initially, identity and difference are established as external relations. But then, when comparison is synthesized with generalization, ever deeper connections and relationships are revealed, essential features of phenomena of the same class.

Comparison underlies the stability of our consciousness, its differentiation (immiscibility of concepts). Generalizations are made based on comparison.

Generalization- a property of thinking and at the same time a central mental operation. Generalization can be carried out at two levels. The first, elementary level is the connection of similar objects based on external characteristics (generalization). But true cognitive value is a generalization of the second, higher level, when in a group of objects and phenomena essential common features are identified.

Human thinking moves from fact to generalization, from phenomenon to essence. Thanks to generalizations, a person foresees the future and orients himself in the specific. Generalization begins to arise already during the formation of ideas, but is fully embodied in the concept. When mastering concepts, we abstract from the random properties of objects and highlight only their essential properties.

Elementary generalizations are made on the basis of comparisons, and the highest form of generalizations is made on the basis of isolating what is essentially common, revealing natural connections and relationships, i.e. based on abstraction.

Abstraction(Latin abstractio - abstraction) - the operation of reflecting individual properties of phenomena that are significant in some respect.

In the process of abstraction, a person, as it were, clears an object of side features that make it difficult to study it in a certain direction. Correct scientific abstractions reflect reality deeper and more fully than direct impressions. Based on generalization and abstraction, classification and specification are carried out.

Classification— grouping of objects according to essential characteristics. In contrast to classification, the basis of which should be characteristics that are significant in some respect, systematization sometimes allows the choice as a basis of features that are unimportant, but operationally convenient (for example, in alphabetical catalogs).

At the highest stage of cognition, a transition from the abstract to the concrete occurs.

Specification(from Latin concretio - fusion) - cognition of an integral object in the totality of its essential relationships, theoretical reconstruction of an integral object. Concretization is the highest stage in the knowledge of the objective world. Cognition starts from the sensory diversity of the concrete, abstracts from its individual aspects and, finally, mentally recreates the concrete in its essential completeness. The transition from the abstract to the concrete is the theoretical mastery of reality. The sum of concepts gives the concrete in its entirety.

As a result of the application of the laws of formal thinking, people's ability to obtain inferential knowledge was formed. A science about formalized structures of thoughts arose - formal logic.

Forms of thinking

Formalized thought structures— forms of thinking: concept, judgment, inference.

Concept- a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties of a homogeneous group of objects and phenomena. The more essential features of objects are reflected in the concept, the more effectively human activity is organized. Thus, the modern concept of “structure of the atomic nucleus” has, to a certain extent, made it possible to practically use atomic energy.

Judgment- certain knowledge about an object, affirmation or denial of any of its properties, connections and relationships. The formation of a judgment occurs as the formation of a thought in a sentence. A judgment is a sentence that states the relationship between an object and its properties. The connection of things is reflected in thinking as a connection of judgments. Depending on the content of the objects reflected in the judgment and their properties, the following types of judgment are distinguished: private And general, conditional And categorical, affirmative And negative.

The judgment expresses not only knowledge about the subject, but also subjective attitude person to this knowledge, varying degrees of confidence in the truth of this knowledge (for example, in problematic judgments like “perhaps the accused Ivanov did not commit a crime”).

The truth of a system of judgments is the subject of formal logic. The psychological aspects of judgment are the motivation and purposefulness of an individual’s judgments.

Psychologically, the connection between an individual’s judgments is considered as his rational activity.

In inference, the operation is carried out with the general that is contained in the individual. Thinking develops in the process of constant transitions from the individual to the general and from the general to the individual, that is, on the basis of the relationship of induction and deduction, respectively.

Deduction is a reflection of the general connectedness of phenomena, categorical coverage of a specific phenomenon by its general connections, analysis of the specific in a system of generalized knowledge. Professor of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh J. Bell once amazed A. Conan Doyle (the future creator of the image of the famous detective) with his keen powers of observation. When another patient entered the clinic, Bell asked him:

• Have you served in the army?
• Yes sir! - the patient answered.
• In a mountain rifle regiment?
• That's right, Mister Doctor.
• Recently retired?
• Yes sir!
• Have you been to Barbados?
• Yes sir! — the retired sergeant was amazed.

Bell explained to the surprised students: this man, being polite, did not take off his hat when entering the office - his army habit affected him; as for Barbados, this is evidenced by his illness, which is common only among the inhabitants of this area (Fig. 75).

Inductive Inference- probabilistic inference, when, based on individual signs of certain phenomena, a judgment is made about all objects of a given class. Hasty generalization without sufficient evidence is a common error in inductive reasoning.

So, in thinking, objective essential properties and relationships of phenomena are modeled, they are objectified and fixed in the form of concepts, judgments, and inferences.

Rice. 75. The relationship between the individual and the general in the system of inferences. Determine the starting and ending points of the route of the owner of this suitcase. Analyze the type of inference you used

Patterns and features of thinking

Let's consider the basic patterns of thinking.

1. Thinking arises in connection with solving a problem; the condition for its occurrence is problematic situation - circumstance. in which a person encounters something new, incomprehensible from the point of view of existing knowledge. This situation is characterized lack of initial information. the emergence of a certain cognitive barrier, difficulties that must be overcome with the help of the subject’s intellectual activity - by finding the necessary cognitive strategies.

2. The main mechanism of thinking, its general pattern is analysis through synthesis: the identification of new properties in an object (analysis) through its correlation (synthesis) with other objects. In the process of thinking, the object of cognition is constantly “involved in ever new connections and, because of this, appears in ever new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts: from the object, thus, as if all new content is drawn out, it seems to turn each time with its other side , more and more new properties are revealed in it.”

The process of cognition begins with primary synthesis - perception of an undifferentiated whole (phenomenon, situation). Next, based on the primary analysis, secondary synthesis.

At primary analysis a problem situation requires orientation to key source data that allows one to reveal hidden information in the source information. The discovery of a key, essential feature in the initial situation allows us to understand the dependence of some phenomena on others. At the same time, it is important to identify signs of possibility - impossibility, as well as necessity.

In conditions of a shortage of initial information, a person does not act by trial and error, but applies a certain search strategy - optimal scheme for achieving the goal. The purpose of these strategies is to cover a non-standard situation with the most optimal general approaches - heuristic search methods. These include: temporary simplification of the situation; use of analogies; solving auxiliary problems; consideration of “edge cases”; reformulation of task requirements; temporary blocking of some components in the analyzed system; making “leaps” across information “gaps”.

So, analysis through synthesis is the cognitive “unfolding” of the object of knowledge, studying it from different angles, finding its place in new relationships, and mentally experimenting with it.

3. Thinking must be reasonable. This requirement is due to the fundamental property of material reality: every fact, every phenomenon is prepared by previous facts and phenomena. Nothing happens without a good reason. The law of sufficient reason requires that in any reasoning a person’s thoughts be internally interconnected and follow from one another. Each particular thought must be justified by a more general thought.

The laws of the material world are enshrined in the laws of formal logic, which should also be understood as the laws of thinking, or more precisely, as the laws of the interrelation of the products of thinking.

4. Another pattern of thinking - selectivity(from Latin selectio - choice, selection) - the ability of the intellect to quickly select the knowledge necessary for a given situation, mobilize it to solve the problem, bypassing the mechanical search of all possible options (which is typical for a computer). To do this, an individual’s knowledge must be systematized, brought into hierarchically organized structures.

5. Anticipation(Latin anticipatio - anticipation) means anticipation of events. A person is able to foresee the development of events, predict their outcome, and schematically represent the most likely solution to the problem. Forecasting events is one of the main functions of the human psyche. Human thinking is based on high-probability forecasting.

The key elements of the initial situation are identified, a system of subtasks is outlined, and an operational scheme is determined - a system of possible actions on the object of knowledge.

6. Reflexivity(from Latin reflexio - reflection) - self-reflection of the subject. The thinking subject constantly reflects - reflects the course of his thinking, critically evaluates it, and develops self-assessment criteria.

7. Characteristic of thinking constant relationship his subconscious and conscious components- deliberately deployed. verbalized and intuitively collapsed, non-verbalized.

8. The thought process, like any process, has structural organization. It has certain structural stages.