(German: Johannes Gutenberg, between 1397 and 1400, Mainz - February 3, 1468, Mainz) - German inventor of printing.
Biography
Johannes Gutenberg was born between 1397 and 1400 as the son of the patrician and trading agent Friele Gensfleisch (Gainsfleisch) and his wife, the daughter of the cloth merchant Elsa Wirich in the city of Mainz. He was the youngest of the children of Gensfleisch's second marriage, concluded in 1386; older than him were brother Frile, sister Elsa and half-sister Patze. Since the date of birth could not be determined with certainty, the Gutenberg Society decided to set it at the end of the 19th century to 1400 in order to celebrate his 500th birthday in 1900.
Following the fashion of those times, in the 20s of the 15th century, Johann Gensfleisch changed his surname to Gutenberg, after the name of the town in which his parents lived, “Hof zum Gutenberg”. Between 1411 and 1420, the Gutenberg family had to leave Mainz due to discord between the patricians and the burghers. In 1434, Gutenberg appeared in Strasbourg, where he spent most of his life, polishing semi-precious stones (agate, onyx) and making mirrors. In 1438, Gutenberg, together with his student Andrei Dritzen (Andreas Dritzen) and others, formed a partnership to make mirrors.
The partnership's activities ended with a trial brought against Gutenberg by Dritzen's heirs and lost (1439). Some expressions of the acts of the process gave rise to the conclusion that the partnership had already made experiments in the field of book printing. The year 1440 is considered the year of the final invention of printing. This assumption is confirmed by documents extracted from the files of Avignon notaries and published in 1890 by Abbot Requin ("L'imprimerie à Avignon en 1444"). From these documents it is clear that in 1444 and 1446 a certain Procopius Waldfogel entered into transactions with various persons, whom he initiated into the secret of “artificial writing” for money and other benefits.
The invention of printing
Gutenberg's ingenious invention was that he began to make metal movable convex letters, cut in reverse, type lines from them and use a press to imprint them on paper. He did not have enough funds to exploit the invention.
Having moved to his native Mainz in 1448, Gutenberg in 1450 entered into an agreement with a Mainz businessman, apparently the moneylender John Fust (Johann Fust), by virtue of which he lent him 800 guilders from 6% and, in addition, undertook to issue 800 annually guilders for production needs (paint, paper, etc.); the printing house with all its accessories was to be divided in half between Gutenberg and Fust. Gutenberg received his main capital, however, in parts. Fust completely avoided issuing working capital, and under an additional agreement of 1452, for a one-time payment of 800 guilders, he was exempted from annual contributions.
With such limited resources, and without skilled workers or advanced tools, Gutenberg nevertheless achieved remarkable success. Until 1456, he cast at least 5 different types, printed the Latin grammar of Aelius Donatus (several sheets of it have come down to us and are kept in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and, finally, two Bibles, 36-line and 42-line; the latter, known as the Mazarin Bible, was printed in 1453-1465. with high quality.
Gutenberg refused to pay interest to his partner, wanting to defer payment until the time when the enterprise began to generate income. Fust sued him, demanding payment of interest. The trial ended with Fust's oath, about which a protocol was drawn up, recorded by the notary Helmasberger on November 6, 1455; the original of this act, so important for Gutenberg’s preservation of the name of the inventor of printing, was recently discovered by Karl Dziatzko in the library of the University of Göttingen (K. Dziatzko, “Sammlung bibliothekwissenschaftlicher Arbeiten” 1889 et seq.). By court decision, the printing house with all its accessories passed to Fust, and Gutenberg had to start over.
He entered into company with Conrad Gumeri and in 1460 published the work of John de Balbi of Genoa (1286), Catholicon (Latin grammar with dictionary). In 1465, Elector Adolf accepted Gutenberg into his service, but he died on February 3, 1468; buried in Mainz, but his grave is unknown.
Gutenberg's invention has been attributed to different people at different times (see Printing). The truth is finally restored v. d. Linde (“Gutenberg”, 1878), whose many years of research are confirmed by the latest finds in libraries and archives; about the latter, see Art. Bulgakov in “Bibliographic Notes” 1892, No. 1.
There are monuments to Gutenberg in Mainz, Strasbourg and Frankfurt am Main.
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Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (German: Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg; between 1397 and 1400, Mainz - February 3, 1468, Mainz) - German jeweler and inventor. In the mid-1440s, he created the European method of printing with movable type, which spread throughout the world.
Biography
Due to the very limited number of surviving documentary sources relating to Gutenberg, it is not possible to reconstruct a coherent biography of him. During the years of his life, as a rule, only prominent political figures and church leaders were awarded a biography recorded in any sources. Gutenberg was a production worker, partly an artist, and therefore was not of particular interest. However, his invention still contributed to the fact that some facts about his life were recorded in book reviews of that time.
1400-1448. Early activity
Johann (Johann - Henne, Hengin, Hanssen) Gutenberg was born into the family of the Mainz patrician Frile Gensfleisch and Elsa Wirich. In Medieval Germany, patricians were citizens belonging to the highest strata of the city burghers. The mother belonged to a family of cloth merchants, so the marriage of Johann’s parents, concluded in 1386, was a misalliance. Mainz was a very important city, since it was here that the archbishop of the German church, the elector, was elected. The city was one of many cities where clashes took place between the patriciate and the guilds, which forced Johann's family to temporarily leave the city during periods of defeat for the patriciate.
Gutenberg's ancestors in Mainz can be traced back to the first half of the fourteenth century. Gensfleisch derives its origin from the name of the estate acquired by the family. In turn, the surname Gutenberg similarly comes from the name of the Gutenberghof farmstead, which belonged to Gutenberg’s father in Mainz. The question, which is very important in Gutenberg studies, is unclear whether Gutenberg was a knight, since being a patrician in Germany did not mean belonging to a knighthood. This assumption is supported by two sources: the ordinance of the French king Charles VII and the Venetian chronicle of 1483. However, Gutenberg's mother's background and occupation conflict with the possibility of having a knighthood.
The exact date of Gutenberg's birth is unknown, since there are no records of his baptism. It is known that he was the youngest of the children in the family (he had an older brother Frile, a sister Elsa and a half-sister Patze). Presumably, the time of his birth falls on the years 1395-1400, sometimes the day of his birth is considered to be June 24, 1400 - the day of John the Baptist. The place of his birth is also not known for certain. The family's forced exiles from the city may have been the reason why Johann may have been born in Strasbourg, as evidenced by several sources, although he was considered a citizen of Mainz.
Nothing is known about Johann's childhood and youth. Based on the available facts, researchers make the assumption that he studied at school, and later learned the basics of handicraft. It is known that in Strasbourg Gutenberg studied jewelry making, but for this he had to have the title of master, which means the highest degree of professional skills. However, where, how and from whom the future inventor learned the basics of craftsmanship remains unknown. Before 1434, negligible little is known about Gutenberg’s life; it is impossible to judge for certain what he was doing during this period.
From 1434 to 1444 he lived in Strasbourg, grinding semi-precious stones (agate, onyx) and making mirrors. Presumably, there he was engaged in experimental activities in book printing. In 1438, together with his student Andreas Dritzen and others, he founded a partnership in Strasbourg for the manufacture of mirrors, as well as for the commercial implementation of a certain secret “enterprise with art” (Afentur mit der kunst). The activities of the partnership ended with a process brought against Gutenberg by Dritzen's heirs after the death of Andreas and which was won by Gutenberg in 1439.
Some expressions of the acts of the process associated with this enterprise suggest that at this time Gutenberg had already advanced in his invention. A characteristic feature is that everything related to the technical side of Gutenberg’s work was a closely guarded secret and is often referred to in the materials of the trial as “this work”, “do this”, etc. From court records it is impossible to get a clear idea of what what Gutenberg's workshop was doing, only a few words that accidentally flashed in the protocols of witness testimony allow us to assume that by this time the inventor was already on the verge of a discovery. The texts refer to press, lead, mold casting, “stamping” or “printing”. Analysis of the case materials allows us to judge that in 1438-39 Gutenberg had a certain press, possibly a prototype. The molds were being cast, but were they already type? Probably at this time Gutenberg had already created a design, a tool with which type could be cast. He was on the verge of practical application of his invention, but the death of his companion delayed this moment, since some parts of the design remained with Andreas’s heirs.
Most 15th-century scholars believed that Gutenberg made the final invention of printing in 1440, although no literature printed and dated to that year has been found. The assumption of 1440 as the starting point of modern book printing is confirmed by documents extracted from the files of Avignon notaries and made public in 1890 by Abbot Requin ("L'imprimerie à Avignon en 1444"). From these documents it is clear that in 1444 and 1446 a certain Procopius Waldfogel entered into transactions with various persons, whom he initiated into the secret of “artificial writing” for money and other benefits. It has been suggested that Waldfogel and Gutenberg are the same person, but this cannot be confirmed.
It is likely that some time after the litigation, Gutenberg's invention was already being used for practical purposes in Strasbourg. The lack of surviving publications from that period may indicate that the majority of popular prints were produced, which always had the least chance of being preserved and surviving.
1448-1455. The invention of printing
Gutenberg's ingenious invention consisted in the fact that he made “movable” convex letters from metal, cut in reverse (in a mirror image), typed lines from them and, using a special press, imprinted them on paper. However, he lacked the funds to exploit his invention.
Having moved to his native Mainz in 1448, Gutenberg in 1450 entered into an agreement with a Mainz businessman, apparently the moneylender Johann Fust, by virtue of which he lent him 800 guilders from 6% and, in addition, undertook to annually issue 800 guilders for production needs (paints, paper and other consumables); the printing house with all its accessories was to be divided in half between Gutenberg and Fust. Gutenberg received his main capital, however, in parts. Fust completely avoided issuing working capital, and under an additional agreement of 1452, for a one-time payment of 800 guilders, he was exempted from annual contributions.
Gutenberg Bible. A copy from the museum in Mainz
With such limited resources, and without skilled workers or advanced tools, Gutenberg nevertheless achieved significant success. Until 1456, he cast at least five different types, printed the Latin grammar of Aelius Donatus (several sheets of it have survived and are kept in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and, finally, two Bibles, 36-line and 42-line ; the latter, known as the Mazarin Bible, was printed in 1453-1455.
Johannes Gutenberg was unable to pay Fust the interest, and Fust went to court. The trial ended with Fust's oath, about which a protocol was drawn up, recorded by the notary Helmasberger on November 6, 1455; the original of this act, so important for preserving Gutenberg’s name as the inventor of printing, was discovered in the 19th century by Karl Dziatzko in the library of the University of Göttingen (K. Dziatzko, “Sammlung bibliothekwissenschaftlicher Arbeiten” 1889 et seq.). By court decision, the printing house with all its accessories passed to Fust, and Gutenberg had to start the business from scratch.
1455-1468. Activities after trial
He entered into company with Conrad Gumeri and in 1460 published the work of Johann Balbus of Genoa (1286), Catholicon (Latin grammar with dictionary). In 1465, Elector Adolf accepted Gutenberg into his service, but on February 3, 1468, the printer died; he was buried in Mainz, but today the location of his grave is unknown. Some sources claim that his grave is in the Franciscan cemetery.
Authorship of the invention
Gutenberg's invention has been attributed to different people at different times (see Printing). The truth was finally restored by Anthony van der Linde in his work of 1878 (in Russia - see the article by F.I. Bulgakov in Bibliographic Notes, 1892, No. 1).
Gutenberg studies
A very significant number of scientific and popular works are devoted to the study of Gutenberg’s life, his personality, the facts of his biography and his significance for the history of printing and history in general. By the middle of the twentieth century, the number of works on the Gutenberg theme already exceeded three thousand, and subsequently only increased. The revolutionary nature of Gutenberg's invention made him, on the one hand, a popular subject of research, which contributed to the development of knowledge about him and the historical period in which he lived. On the other hand, the extraordinary importance of the moment of the beginning of printing has encouraged some researchers to interpret the facts in an inappropriate way in an attempt to attribute the invention to others, to dispute the origin of printing and other distortions, in the hope of capitalizing on such an important event in world history.
Attempts to “take away” the authorship of the invention from Gutenberg began almost during his lifetime. From the very beginning, there was a debate about which city should be considered the cradle of printing: Mainz or Strasbourg? Who actually made such an important shift in world history: Johann Fust and Peter Schaeffer, Johann Mentelin? Or was it someone in China who discovered the printed book?
In Germany, for a long time, Gutenberg was considered only an assistant to the supposedly true inventors - Fust and Schaeffer. This view was supported by many (notably Johann Gottsched). Despite the fact that Gutenberg’s primacy was confirmed back in the eighteenth century (D. Köhler, D. Schepflin), both Mentelin and Fust are still mentioned in this regard, although mainly in a non-scientific environment.
The main problem in Gutenberg studies is the lack of books published by Gutenberg that would contain his colophon (a mark on old books about the author, time and place of publication). The fact that the book was published by Gutenberg is confirmed only by secondary features, of which the key is the font used in printing. To this main problem there are also secondary ones: a small amount of documentary evidence (there are only 34 certificates of record about Gutenberg), a lack of personal correspondence, records, and a lack of a reliable portrait.
Identification of ancient printed books by font is a well-known practice in the field of historical bibliology. At the beginning of printing, almost every publisher found his own font, thanks to which it is possible to find out, even from nameless fragments, which typographer’s hand belonged to this or that page. In Guterben studies, the fontological method played a crucial role. It was with his help that Gutenberg's legacy was established.
Another significant factor in attempts to study the history of the famous German was the desire to create a kind of “legend” out of him, to build his image in such a manner that it corresponded to the role assigned to him in history. In the nineteenth century, such a legend was successfully created. Gutenberg was presented as an educated member of the elite, passionate about the idea of enlightenment, who, looking after his financial interests, devoted his energy to the development of printing. However, compiled under this legend, the image did not stand the test of time, which led to a split in Gutenberg scholarship at the beginning of the twentieth century. Excessive concentration of attention on various aspects of the inventor’s life led to distortions: sometimes the question of a mercantile nature was put at the forefront of research, only the monetary aspects of the activity were taken into account, sometimes all attention was focused on issues of origin, confirmation of Gutenberg’s belonging to the elite classes. Some researchers focused entirely on the analysis of fonts, which bore fruit, but, again, led to too narrow a view of the problem as a whole.
A group of researchers (Otto Hupp, Paul Schwenke) saw in Gutenberg only a talented practitioner, the creator of the first skillful fonts, who was only a typographer and was not at all concerned with the goals of enlightenment. Johann Heinrich Zedler took an even more limited view of Gutenberg. In his mind, he was only a technically educated person who created some of the first printed books, and, due to the novelty of technology for his time, Zedler considered these publications to be very imperfect, especially in comparison with further developments in this area. This point of view fit well into the idea of Gutenberg as an instrument, an integral part in the mechanism of historical development, the appearance of which was predetermined by the laws of history.
“... the long and bitter dispute about the real inventor of printing will never be resolved... Gutenberg took the last decisive step in this direction with the greatest courage and clarity and because of this with the greatest success... This only means that he was the best able to sum up the accumulated experience and all the unsuccessful or semi-successful attempts of their predecessors. And this in no way detracts from his merits; his merit remains immortal... but he did not plant a new unknown plant in the earth’s soil, but only successfully picked a slowly ripened fruit.”
Franz Mehring. From the work “On Historical Materialism” »
Viewing Gutenberg's contribution from this perspective prompted the development of research on the technical background of the invention, and this aspect was properly disclosed (the works of Victor Scholderer, Hellmut Lehmann-Haupt, etc.), although it took almost a hundred years of research. However, shifting the emphasis from personality to historical reasons again led to involuntary distortions.
Often the main reason for the emergence of printing was said to be the predetermination of economic development. The emergence and development of capitalism required an increase in the level of knowledge, the instrument of which was printing. When the image of Gutenberg, the public educator, showed his one-sidedness, the image of Gutenberg, the businessman, appeared. In an attempt to answer the question of what motivated this man, the understandable desire for personal gain was cited as justification for his motives: new times dictated new mores, and the idea of a businessman trying to use a fresh invention for his own benefit found its supporters. Considering the fact confirmed by documents that Gutenberg’s business was not going well at all, and bankruptcy subsequently followed, Gutenberg as a person began to be assessed in a noticeably belittling manner, as an unsuccessful businessman or as an insolvent artist who was unable to achieve the slightest degree of success.
The image of Gutenberg as a businessman was able to resolve the contradictions caused by the fact that his heritage included publications of a very wide range, from highly spiritual to “fair literature”. However, this approach cannot give an acceptable answer to the key question. The opinions expressed that Gutenberg might not even have realized the significance of his invention are hardly true, since any major personality who has brought about revolutionary changes in the history of mankind is, as a rule, the concentration of the main conflicts of his time and, therefore, cannot be a limited person, confined to narrow personal interests.
Russian (Soviet) Gutenberg studies began to develop largely in connection with the 500th anniversary of the invention of printing (celebrated in 1940) both in public life and in the scientific world. Until this time, there had been no serious research; Gutenberg and his invention were mentioned only for popularization purposes. The first story about Gutenberg was information from the book “On the Inventors of Things” (De Inventoribus Rerum), translated in 1720, by Polydor Virgil of Urbino. An obstacle to the development of Gutenberg studies was the lack of documents on this topic in the country and the low interest of the scientific community. The celebrated anniversary was able to raise this interest, and in the post-war years a more noticeable development of this topic began. The first notable contribution was made by the Leningrad historian Vladimir Lyublinsky, then translations into Russian of historical Gutenberg documents began to appear, and the first dissertations on this topic were presented.
Johannes Gutenberg
Johann Gutenberg (Heinzfleischi) was born into a noble family in Mainz no earlier than 1394 and no later than 1399. The date of Gutenberg's birth for anniversaries is conventionally considered to be June 24, 1400. He was a famous, and hereditary, jeweler; he knew how to polish precious stones, cast jewelry from precious metals, and make gold frames for mirrors. It would seem, earn as much as you can and enjoy life. But Gutenberg had a dream. He wanted to print books.
Gutenberg's printing press
In 1440, Gutenberg made a real revolution in printing by inventing movable type - individual letters that made it possible to type a wide variety of texts. The very first printed book is considered to be the so-called “Book of the Sibylline” (a poem in German), the publication of which is dated by researchers around the end of 1445. Hence the invention of printing can be dated no later than 1445. The work was carried out in the strictest secrecy: the invention undermined the foundations of the activities of scribes, who were capable of doing anything just to preserve their craft. One also had to be wary of the clergy, in whose hands there was a monopoly on reading and writing. In addition, news of a new method of making books would immediately lead to a drop in their value. Therefore, Gutenberg's books, like all the first books, imitated Gothic manuscripts, they were even passed off as handwritten.
Until 1456, with virtually no outside material support, he cast no less than five different types, printed the Latin grammar of Aelius Donatus (several sheets of it have reached us and are kept in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and two Bibles, 36 -lowercase, and 42-line. After this, Gutenberg, by a court decision, was forced to give the printing house to an unscrupulous partner, a man who practically did not sponsor the activities of the book printer, but tried to squeeze every possible extra penny out of Gutenberg’s printing house for himself.
Gutenberg had to start from scratch. In 1460, he managed to publish a work by Johann Balbus of Genoa called Catholicon (Latin grammar with dictionary). Gutenberg died in 1468, not the most successful businessman, but a man who forever changed the history of the world thanks to the invention of printing. His invention quickly spread throughout all European countries. By 1500, printing houses operated in more than 200 cities in different countries, and the total number of printing houses was close to 2000.
Page from Catholicon
There are no real, authentic images of Gutenberg. All his portraits date back to a later time and are the fruit of the imagination of artists.
In addition to the font, Gutenberg also owned other inventions: a press for printing letters; thick black opaque printing ink, convenient for applying to dozens of tiny letters; an alloy for casting individual elements of the font - not too soft, but not too hard, which made the font not fragile, but durable; a type-cast hand-held device that ensured the standardization of type and mass production. The device was a hollow metal rod with a removable lower wall made of soft metal, on which a letter pattern was stamped using a hard stamp - a punch. The font was cut using the smallest tools (this is where Gutenberg's cutting skills came in handy!). Gutenberg's inventive genius gave birth to both the grid (from then on, all modular elements of type were placed and limited by the space of the frame) and various types of type thanks to the opened possibility of mechanical reproduction of letters. Thus, grid and type, the two main components of graphic design, have been used for over 500 years!
Thus, Johannes Gutenberg has the credit of creating the entire printing process as a whole. For the 15th century, his invention was more than innovative, and the letter became the first standard part in the history of world technology.
Gutenberg's famous work is a printed 42-line Bible (the so-called Mazarin Bible). This is the only book reliably published by Gutenberg, and was printed in Mainz around 1450. Its design goes back to handwritten biblical texts that were in circulation in those days. This was reflected, first of all, in the division of the page into two columns and in the forms of letters in the style of German “black” or Gothic writing. Hand-drawn elements of climbing plants were added later to enhance the decorative effect. The design imitates a handwritten style, but it is transformed by means of graphic design - through the use of an orderly, unified font placed within a grid.
Gutenberg Bible spread
Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1397-1468)
The first book of humanity is considered to be the tablets - the stones on which the Ten Commandments of Moses were inscribed.
Gutenberg, attempts were made to invent a device that would allow books to be replicated. The letters were cut into a hard material, such as a piece of wood, painted, and paper was placed on top. This method was called embossing. Basically, until the Middle Ages, monks in monasteries were engaged in copying books.
Gutenberg's parents were wealthy people, they were part of the board of Mainz - the mayor. Presumably, Johann attended lectures at the University of Erfurt. At about 20 years old he went to Strasbourg. It was not easy for him in a foreign city; his noble origin did not give him any privileges. His ancestors in Mainz in ancient times printed their own coins and made jewelry, so the young man began to study jewelry making. He quickly became a good craftsman; beautifully polished mirrors and ornamental stones came out of his hands.
There, Johann saw how the printers worked, painstakingly cutting out letters in the slabs. Taking one of the boards, he looked at it for a long time, trying to imagine how he could simplify the process. At first, as the chronicles of that time testify, he cut the boards, highlighted phrases, words, and gradually reached the point of making a separate letter. Now all that remained was to make many letters of the alphabet, arrange them into cells - and the typographic set was ready. This is how typeface was invented.
The small German town of Mainz is considered the cradle of printing. In it in 1397, according to other sources - in 1400, Johann Gutenberg, the inventor of the printing press, was born. Before the advent of this device, the book was considered a huge asset, rare and highly valued. The production of one copy of a book took months, sometimes years of labor of scribes and artists. Only a very rich person could afford to own a library.
Unfortunately, the wooden letters quickly failed. A different, more durable material was needed. Meanwhile, Johann returned to Mainz. Looking for material for the font, he settled on tin and began casting it in the shape of a letter. This was the second invention! A wealthy citizen, Johann Fust, responded to his proposal to create a book printing press and liked the idea of earning income from printing books. The contract was signed by a notary, the money was allocated, and Johann got to work.
On August 24, 1455, Gutenberg printed the Bible in Latin in two volumes. Capital letters in the book were traditionally drawn by hand. This was the first printed publication. But neither Gutenberg nor his companion Fust managed to make money on this - the new books did not receive the demand they expected.
Fust sued Gutenberg, and by the court's decision, he returned all his property to him in payment of the debt. The printing house of Fust and his new partner Schöffer appeared in Mainz.
But Gutenberg did not give up, he went into debt, created another printing house and printed a Latin grammar textbook, published calendars, the Psalter - about 50 books in total. But during his lifetime he did not receive any awards or recognition and died quietly in obscurity.
His enemy Fust suffered a sad fate - in Paris, following a denunciation from monks who considered printing to be a satanic work, he was sent to prison, where he spent the rest of his days.
And only in 1804, with the support of Napoleon, money began to be collected throughout Europe for a monument to the pioneer printer Gutenberg. Since that time, his name has gone down in history.
Johannes Gutenberg - father of printingJohannes Gutenberg
Johann Gutenberg (Heinzfleischi) was born into a noble family in Mainz no earlier than 1394 and no later than 1399. The date of Gutenberg's birth for anniversaries is conventionally considered to be June 24, 1400. He was a famous, and hereditary, jeweler; he knew how to polish precious stones, cast jewelry from precious metals, and make gold frames for mirrors. It would seem, earn as much as you can and enjoy life. But Gutenberg had a dream. He wanted to print books.
Gutenberg's printing press
In 1440, Gutenberg made a real revolution in printing by inventing movable type - individual letters that made it possible to type a wide variety of texts. The very first printed book is considered to be the so-called “Book of the Sibylline” (a poem in German), the publication of which is dated by researchers around the end of 1445. Hence the invention of printing can be dated no later than 1445. The work was carried out in the strictest secrecy: the invention undermined the foundations of the activities of scribes, who were capable of doing anything just to preserve their craft. One also had to be wary of the clergy, in whose hands there was a monopoly on reading and writing. In addition, news of a new method of making books would immediately lead to a drop in their value. Therefore, Gutenberg's books, like all the first books, imitated Gothic manuscripts, they were even passed off as handwritten.
Until 1456, with virtually no outside material support, he cast no less than five different types, printed the Latin grammar of Aelius Donatus (several sheets of it have come down to us and are kept in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and two Bibles, and . After this, Gutenberg, by a court decision, was forced to give the printing house to an unscrupulous partner, a man who practically did not sponsor the activities of the book printer, but tried to squeeze every possible extra penny out of Gutenberg’s printing house for himself.
Gutenberg had to start from scratch. In 1460, he managed to publish a work by Johann Balbus from Genoa called (Latin grammar with dictionary). Gutenberg died in 1468, not the most successful businessman, but a man who forever changed the history of the world thanks to the invention of printing. His invention quickly spread throughout all European countries. By 1500, printing houses operated in more than 200 cities in different countries, and the total number of printing houses was close to 2000.
Page from Catholicon
There are no real, authentic images of Gutenberg. All his portraits date back to a later time and are the fruit of the imagination of artists.
In addition to the font, Gutenberg also owned other inventions: a press for printing letters; thick black opaque printing ink, convenient for applying to dozens of tiny letters; an alloy for casting individual elements of the font - not too soft, but not too hard, which made the font not fragile, but durable; a type-cast hand-held device that ensured the standardization of type and mass production. The device was a hollow metal rod with a removable lower wall made of soft metal, on which a letter pattern was stamped using a hard stamp - a punch. The font was cut using the smallest tools (this is where Gutenberg's cutting skills came in handy!). Gutenberg's inventive genius gave birth to both the grid (from then on, all modular elements of type were placed and limited by the space of the frame) and various types of type thanks to the opened possibility of mechanical reproduction of letters. Thus, grid and type, the two main components of graphic design, have been used for over 500 years!
Thus, Johannes Gutenberg has the credit of creating the entire printing process as a whole. For the 15th century, his invention was more than innovative, and the letter became the first standard part in the history of world technology.
Gutenberg's famous work is a printed 42-line Bible (the so-called Mazarin Bible). This is the only book reliably published by Gutenberg, and was printed in Mainz around 1450. Its design goes back to handwritten biblical texts that were in circulation in those days. This was reflected, first of all, in the division of the page into two columns and in the forms of letters in the style of German “black” or Gothic writing. Hand-drawn elements of climbing plants were added later to enhance the decorative effect. The design imitates a handwritten style, but it is transformed by means of graphic design - through the use of an orderly, unified font placed within a grid.
Gutenberg Bible spread