1 natural conditions of South America general characteristics. Natural areas of mainland South America: Lowland East

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Plan for describing the relief of African territory

The characteristics of the relief of any continent are given according to a specific plan. The relief of Africa is described according to the following algorithm:

Characteristics of the continent.
Analysis of the history of the development of the earth's crust.
Characteristics of external and internal (exogenous and endogenous) factors of relief formation.
Description of the general features of the continent's topography.
Highlighting maximum and minimum heights.
Minerals and their distribution across the continent.

Low and High Africa

The description of the relief of Africa should begin with the fact that the continent, from an orographic point of view, is divided into two parts: High and Low Africa.

Low Africa occupies more than 60% of the entire area of the continent (geographically it is the northern, western and central parts of Africa). Here the predominant heights are up to 1000 meters. High Africa covers the southern and eastern parts of the mainland, where average altitudes are 1000-1500 meters above sea level. The highest points are also located here - Kilimanjaro (5895 meters), Rwenzori and Kenya.

General characteristics of African terrain

Now let's look at the main features of Africa's topography.

The main feature is that the topography of the mainland is mostly flat. Mountain ranges border the continent only in the south and northwest. IN East Africa The relief is predominantly plateau.

The prevailing forms of relief in Africa are: plateaus, plains, highlands, plateaus, outlier peaks and volcanic massifs. At the same time, they are located very unevenly across the continent: inside it there are mainly leveled surfaces - plains and plateaus, and at the edges there are hills and mountain ranges. This feature is associated with the tectonic structure of Africa, most of which lies on ancient platform Precambrian age, and along its edges there are areas of folding.

Of all the mountain systems in Africa, only the Atlas is young. In the east of the continent, the huge East African Rift Valley stretches more than 6,000 kilometers in length. In places of its faults, grandiose volcanoes formed, and very deep lakes formed in the depressions.

It is worth listing the most large forms relief of Africa. These include the Atlas, Drakensberg and Ethiopian highlands, the Tibesti and Ahaggar highlands, and the East African plateau.

Atlas Mountains

Mountainous landforms of Africa are found, as already mentioned, only in the south and north-west of the continent. One of the African mountain systems is the Atlas.

The Atlas Mountains arose 300 million years ago as a result of the collision of the Eurasian and African plates. They were later raised to significant heights due to neotectonic movements that took place at the end of the Paleogene. It is worth noting that earthquakes still occur in this area.

The atlas is composed mainly of marls, limestones, and also ancient volcanic rocks. The subsoil is rich in metal ores, as well as phosphorites and oil.

This is the largest mountain system in Africa, which includes several almost parallel mountain ranges:

High Atlas.
Air Reef.
Tel Atlas.
Middle Atlas.
Saharan Atlas.
Anti-Atlas.

The total length of the mountain range is about 2400 kilometers. The maximum heights are located in the territory of the state of Morocco (Mount Toubkal, 4165 meters). The average heights of the ridges range from 2000-2500 meters.

Drakensberg Mountains

This mountain system in the south of the mainland is located on the territory of three countries - Lesotho, South Africa and Swaziland. The highest point of the Drakensberg Mountains is Mount Thabana Ntlenyana with a height of 3482 meters. The mountains were formed 360 million years ago, during the Hercynian era. They received such a formidable name due to their inaccessibility and wild appearance.

The territory is rich in minerals: platinum, gold, tin and coal. Unique and organic world Drakensberg Mountains, which has several endemic species. The main part of the mountain range (Drakensberg Park) is a UNESCO site.

The Drakensberg Mountains are the watershed between the basin Indian Ocean and the upper reaches of the Orange River. They have a unique shape: their tops are flat, table-shaped, divided by erosion processes into separate plateaus.

Ethiopian Highlands

The terrain of Africa is amazingly diverse. Here you can find high alpine-type mountain ranges, hilly plateaus, vast plains and deep depressions. One of the most famous continents is the Ethiopian Highlands, within which not only Ethiopia is located, but also 6 other African states.

This is a real mountain system with average heights of 2-3 kilometers and the highest point of 4550 meters (Mount Ras Dashen). Because of specific features The relief of the highlands is often called the “roof of Africa”. In addition, this “roof” often shakes, and seismicity here remains high.

The highlands were formed only 75 million years ago. It consists of crystalline schists and gneisses, overlain by volcanic rocks. The western slopes of the Ethiopian Highlands, cut by the canyons of the Blue Nile River, are quite picturesque.

Within the highlands there are rich deposits of gold, sulfur, platinum, copper and In addition, it is also an important agricultural area. It is considered the birthplace of coffee, as well as some varieties of wheat.

Mount Kilimanjaro

This volcano is not only the highest point of the continent (5895 meters), but also a unique symbol of all of Africa. The volcano is located on the border of two states - Kenya and Tanzania. The name of the volcano is translated from Swahili as “sparkling mountain”.

Kilimanjaro rises above the Masai plateau at a height of 900 meters, so visually it seems that the volcano is unrealistically high. Scientists do not predict any activity from the volcano in the near future (other than possible gas emissions), although it was recently determined that lava is located 400 meters from the Kibo crater.

According to local legends, the volcano erupted approximately two centuries ago. Although there is no documentary evidence of this. The highest point of Kilimanjaro, Uhuru Peak, was first conquered in 1889 by Hans Meyer. Today, speed climbing Kilimanjaro is practiced. In 2010, the Spaniard Kilian Burgada set a kind of world record, climbing to the top of the volcano in 5 hours and 23 minutes.

African terrain and minerals

Africa is a continent with a huge economic potential, which is characterized by huge reserves of various mineral raw materials. In addition, the more or less flat, slightly dissected topography of the territory contributes to the development of industry and the construction of roads and other means of communication.

Africa is rich in mineral resources, on the basis of which metallurgy and petrochemicals can be developed. Thus, the continent holds absolute primacy in the world in terms of total reserves of phosphorites, chromites and tantalum. Africa also has large deposits of manganese, copper and uranium ore, bauxite, gold and even diamonds. On the mainland there is even a so-called “copper belt” - a belt of high mineral resource potential, stretching from Katanga to (DRC). In addition to copper itself, gold, cobalt, tin, uranium and oil are also mined here.

In addition, areas of Africa such as North Africa and West Africa(its Guinean part).

So you have become acquainted with the relief features of the hottest continent on Earth. The relief of Africa is unique and diverse, here you can find all its forms - mountain ranges, plateaus and plateaus, highlands, hills and depressions.

Relief

The importance of landscape for assessing the prospects for tourism development

Characteristics of the landscape of a territory are paramount for assessing the prospects for the development of tourism in it, primarily because the characteristics of the landscape determine the characteristics of nature and climate and form the external image environment, form its aesthetic value. The structure and typology of landscapes have a decisive impact on the popularity of a particular tourism in a particular country or region. In addition, the features of the landscape determine the conditions for the creation of tourist infrastructure - the possibility of construction, communications, construction of roads and transport centers. The heavily rugged terrain, abundance of canyons and rivers make it difficult for tourists to access resources. They increase the cost of construction of tourist facilities many times over. They are reducing the capacity of resorts and tourist centers. The limiting effect on tourism and increased seismic activity (Eight of the ten largest cities on the planet by population are located in seismic zones. The life and safety of residents of Tokyo, Mexico City, New York, Mumbai, New Delhi, Shanghai, Calcutta and Jakarta, according to the UN , is under threat. Seismologists predict major earthquakes and in other world cities, in particular in Istanbul and Los Angeles

There are two main ones known seismic belts: Pacific, encircling the shores of the Pacific Ocean in a ring, and Mediterranean, stretching across the south of Eurasia from the Iberian Peninsula to the west to the Malayan arch. in the east.), the possibility of avalanches, river floods, volcanic eruptions (there are about 1,300 active volcanoes on Earth.), etc.

Therefore, the landscapes that most meet the needs of tourists will be those that, on the one hand, are attractive, due primarily to the pronounced alternation of relief forms and the richness of local nature, and, on the other hand, comply with the standards of housing construction and provision of the necessary social infrastructure

Today, the vast majority of recreation is located at the junction of landscapes of various types. Tourist areas of Europe, Russia, individual countries of Asia and America are located mainly at the junction of low- and mid-mountain and coastal (lake) landscapes. In the countries of Africa and the Middle East, a combination of desert, low-mountain and coastal landscapes is actively used. Sharp landscape differences form the extremely high aesthetic significance of recreation (for example, mountainous seashores or a steppe or desert ending in the sea). The presence of flat space on the rocky landscape allows for the construction of tourism infrastructure.

Relief- the totality of all the irregularities of the earth’s surface, which are called “landforms”. They are distinguished by size, structure, origin, etc. Based on size, the largest, large, medium and small (small) landforms are distinguished.

The largest- these are continents and ocean basins, large- mountains and plains, average and small ones - hills, ravines, dunes, etc.

The size and placement of major and largest landforms depend on the age, structure and placement of major tectonic structures, i.e. areas of the earth's crust. The plains are located on platforms(extensive sedentary and weakly dissected areas of the earth’s crust.), and at the base of the mountains lie geosynclines(extensive mobile and highly dissected areas of the earth's crust).

On the territory of most countries, relief forms of different scales are found. It is advisable to begin a general description of the relief by indicating what forms of relief are located in the territory, what is their ratio in area (which one predominates), and listing the names of the most significant mountains and plains.

The relief is most dissected in mountainous areas, so you should start there. Characteristics of the mountains ( Mountains- extensive, highly elevated and highly dissected areas earth's surface) includes several provisions, each of which not only has independent significance, but is a logical transition to other important aspects.

The characteristics of the largest and most interesting mountains or mountain ranges (or mountainous countries) for tourism are given according to the following plan:

name and location.

Mountain system	Where are they located?
Cordillera	west coast of South and North America	USA, Canada, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.
Andes	West coast of South America	Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina
Khibiny	Europe, Kola Peninsula.
Scandinavian mountains		Sweden, Norway
Alps		France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Slovenia
Carpathians	Central Europe	Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia and partly Austria
Ardennes		France, Belgium and Luxembourg
Apennine mountains
Balkan mountains		Bulgaria
Crimean mountains		Ukraine Crimea
Rhodope Mountains		Bulgaria (83%) and Greece (17% of the massif).
Sudetes		Germany, Poland and Czech Republic
Pyrenees		Spain, France and Andorra, between the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean Sea
Caucasus Mountains		Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia
Ural Mountains	Eurasia East European and West Siberian plains.
Altai		Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia
Western and Eastern Sayan

Himalayan mountains		India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet
Karakoram		India, Pakistan and China
Pamir		Tajikistan (Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region), Kyrgyzstan I, Kita th and Afghanistan
Kunlun
Hindu Kush		Afghanistan, Pakistan
Tien Shan		Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and China
Atlas		Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia

2. age of the mountains. There are mountains that are young and old. Mountains that grow faster than they are destroyed are called young. These include the Alps and Apennines, the Caucasus and the Andes, the Pamirs and the Himalayas. The outlines of young mountains have many sharp angles, sharp peaks of ridges, sharp protrusions, broken lines, steep slopes, there are often rockfalls, earthquakes often occur, volcanic processes are characteristic, and there are numerous river gorges. As a rule, all these mountains have a significant height (the Himalayas. The youngest mountains, in which volcanic activity and mountain building have not yet completed, belong to the continental and island rings of the Pacific Ocean.

To the old mountains include Altai, Tien Shan, Nan Shan, Sayan Mountains, Greater Khingan, Kunlun, Scandinavian Mountains, and the Urals. In the ancient mountains internal processes have long since died down, while external forces continue to carry out their destructive work, gradually leveling them out.

3. seismic activity (where it occurs). Mountainous areas with increased seismic activity are unfavorable for the development of tourism. The exception is certain areas where you can observe eruptions of water (geysers) or mud volcanoes, and in exceptional cases even magmatic eruptions, but from a safe distance.

morphostructure: the composition of mountain ranges (in the case of a mountainous country), the extent and relative position of the ranges, the average and maximum height(name of the highest peak) of a mountain formation.

Mountain country- a vast, geologically isolated region of mountainous terrain with complex orography. For example: Tien Shan, Pamir-Alai.

mountain range- a group of closely spaced peaks, similar in size (Shhelda Mountains)

Mountain system(mountain group) - an isolated section of a mountain region, a compact system of ridges and individual massifs, separated from other similar groups by valleys and low saddles (Altai, Tien Shan).

Mountain Knot- an isolated part of a mountainous country distinguished by its height, complex orography and glaciation. For example: the Fan Mountains, the Matcha mountain node and the Takali node within the Pamir-Alai, the Daut node in the Caucasus.

mountain range- a section of mountainous terrain stretched in one direction with similar heights of neighboring peaks. For example: the Abishir-Akhub ridge, the Svan ridge in the Caucasus, the Darvaz and Yazgulem ridges in the Pamirs.

Mountain chain- an independent, main, mountain range of great length with a relatively small width. For example: the Turkestan ridge in the Pamir-Alai, the Ak-Shiirak ridge in the Tien Shan, the Main Caucasus ridge.

Spur- a relatively short, secondary ridge that branches off from the main one. In many cases, pass routes run through the spurs, connecting different sources of one river, one glacier. The safest and often the simplest routes to the passes located in the main ridge lie along the ridges of the spurs.

Valley- an intermountain depression of great length with a relatively small width, serving as a drainage route surface waters: rivers or glaciers.

Gorge- deep valley with steep slopes of over 30°

Canyon(abyss) - a deep valley with steep slopes of over 60°, if its width is significantly less than its depth. In practice, traveling canyon is technically called difficult area valleys with steep banks plunging into the river.

Origin of the mountains. Based on their origin, mountains are divided into folded, block, and folded-block. fold mountains arise in geosynclines as a result of the crushing of sedimentary strata into folds and the general uplift of the entire region. Moreover, large blocks of the earth's crust rise disymmetrically: one slope is steep, the other is gentle. The uplift of the folded mountainous country is accompanied by the formation of a foothill trough located nearby and resulting from the subsidence of the lithosphere. It compensates for the rise of the neighboring area. The asymmetrical structure of folded mountainous countries and foothill depressions can be traced in all mountainous countries. Thus, the northern slopes of the Crimean Mountains, the Greater Caucasus and the Himalayas are gentle, while the southern slopes are steep. The main characteristic feature of folded mountainous countries is their elongation in the form of chains of mountain ranges over long distances, hundreds and thousands of kilometers. Fold mountains are found on all continents, in most cases they are high mountains. For example, these are the mountains of the Alpine-Himalayan fold belt (Atlas, Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians, Stara Planina, Crimean, Caucasus, mountain ranges of the Asia Minor, Armenian and Iranian highlands, Kopet Dag, Pamir, Himalayas, etc.). Block Mountains They are uplifts of the earth's surface bounded by faults. These are massive mountains with steep slopes and relatively weak dissection. Block mountains often consist of folded layers of rock, have flat top surfaces and steep rocky valley slopes. They arise as a result of faults, that is, the movement of sections of the earth's crust along faults in a vertical or close to it direction. Raised stepped areas form mountains. An example of fault mountains is the Drakensberg Mountains in Southeast Africa. From the Indian Ocean side, they form steep stepped slopes and give the impression of a high mountain range. The same should be said about the Western and Eastern Ghats in India, which are the elevated edges of the Deccan Plateau. Fault mountains are also found in South America (the mountains of southeastern Brazil) and other areas. During faulting, horsts and grabens are formed. Horsts- raised areas of the earth's crust, limited by faults. The horst massifs are the Harz, Tarbagatai, and the ridges of Central Africa. Grabens- areas of the earth's crust lowered along faults. Many of them host the largest lakes on Earth (Baikal, Great North American, and a number of lakes in Africa). Fold-block mountains appeared on the site of areas of the earth's crust that underwent mountain building in the distant geological past. Gradually the mountains collapsed, turning into rolling plains. The earth's crust in these areas has lost its plasticity and acquired rigidity and stability. Then these areas underwent repeated mountain building, which was accompanied mainly by faults, faults, uplifts and subsidences of individual blocks. Folded-block mountains with flat tops and steep slopes include the Urals, Tien Shan, Altai, Sayan Mountains, Transbaikalia ranges, the French Massif Central, the Appalachians, the East Australian Mountains, etc.

Lowlands Low mountains - absolute height from 500 to 800 m, slope steepness 5-10°. Characteristic signs low mountains - rounded peaks, soft gentle slopes. (mountains of the Middle Urals, Cis-Urals, Kola Peninsula and Karelia). As a rule, these mountains are covered with forests, cut through by wide valleys of calm rivers. Low mountains include some mountains of central and western Australia, northern Russia, Central Europe and many others. But there are also sharp, rocky forms - the spurs of the Tien Shan, the ridges of Transcaucasia, the foothills of the Main Caucasus Range. However, their heights are not always associated with ancient age. Sometimes fairly young mountains can be greatly reduced. The main role in shaping the appearance of mountains is played by external forces - glaciers, winds, sea waves. For example, it is assumed that the low mountains of Byrranga on the Taimyr Peninsula experienced the strong flattening influence of the Arctic ice sheet.

Srednegorye Medium-altitude mountains (medium mountains) with heights from 800 to 2000 m. The average steepness of the slopes is 10-25°, the relief forms are very diverse. Soft forms of relief are characteristic of the mountains of the Southern and Northern Urals, Crimean, Kopet-Dag, etc. Pointed, peaked peaks, sharp ridges, steep rocky peaks - mountains Polar Urals, Novaya Zemlya, etc. This is the most common mountain height on our planet. Middle mountains occupy vast areas on all continents of the Earth. Among them are many mountains of Siberia and Far East, Crimean Mountains, Carpathians, Jura in Western Europe, Dinaric Highlands, mountains of the Apennine and Iberian Peninsulas, Scandinavian Mountains in northern Europe, Appalachians in North America and others. In the middle mountains, the change in landscapes on the slopes with increasing altitude is clearly noticeable - altitudinal zonation. For example, in the Carpathians, broad-leaved forests give way with height to coniferous ones, then to open forests and shrubs, and higher up mountain meadows begin.

Highlands High mountains (highlands) - above 2000 m, slope steepness more than 25°. The high mountain zone is entirely rocky, the ridges are jagged, and characterized by sharp peaks and glaciers. Individual mountain peaks rise especially high. For example, the greatest heights are reached in the Himalayas. These are the youngest mountains in age and appearance. The term “alpine terrain” is used to describe their appearance, i.e. the mountains have an appearance similar to the Alps - one of the youngest mountain systems. Contemporaries of the Alps are the Caucasus, Himalayas, Karakoram, Andes, Rocky Mountains, etc.

Mountain peaks	Mountain systems
Chomolungma (Everest)	Himalayas	Eurasia
Peak Communism		Eurasia
Pobeda Peak	Tien Shan
Aconcagua		South America
McKinley	Cordillera	North America
Kilimanjaro	Kilimanjaro massif	Africa
	B. Caucasus
B. Ararat	Armenian Highlands
Vinson Massif		Antarctica
	B. Caucasus
	Western Alps

description morphosculptures mountains: the nature of the slopes, peaks, etc.

Mountain range- a large linearly elongated rise in relief with clearly defined slopes intersecting in the upper part of the mountain range.

The main elements of the ridge's relief are slopes And ridges. They can be represented by any type of relief and their various combinations.

Crest- the line of the highest altitudes of a mountain range, a narrow, pronounced watershed formed by the intersection of slopes. It can be jagged, smooth, sharp, rounded, plateau-shaped, scree, rocky, snow-ice, grassy. Very sharp, steeply ending ridges are called knives. The ridge during a thunderstorm is the most likely place to be struck by lightning. At the same time, the ridge is not subject to rockfalls and avalanches, and often serves as a path to the top or pass. On the visited ridges there are equipped sites for tents.

Vertex- a pointed or dome-shaped hill protruding above the ridge. The top, depending on its shape, can be called peak, dome, tower, needle etc., however, many significant peaks, regardless of shape, are called peaks

Slopes The shape is convex, concave, stepped, etc.

The steepness of the slopes can be gentle - up to 20 degrees (insurance in most cases is not needed); medium steepness - up to 30-35 degrees, steep - up to 40-45 degrees and very steep - up to 60 degrees, where required different kinds insurance depending on the complexity of the terrain. Slopes steeper than 60 degrees are called walls, steeper than 90 degrees - overhanging or negative walls.

Saddle- a shallow depression between two peaks.

Pass- passable and traversed saddle. In most cases, this is the shortest path between neighboring water basins.

Gendarme- a significant sharp rocky ledge of the ridge.

Ram's foreheads(curly rocks) - protruding areas of rocks smoothed by a glacier. The steepness of the sheep's foreheads increases rapidly down the valley. Ram's foreheads are characteristic of the mouth steps of hanging valleys and cirques, as well as crossbars. The surface of sheep's foreheads is covered with a thin layer of turf and fine scree, which easily shifts under load and is slippery due to oozing water. Careless movement along them can lead to a fall down a slope of increasing steepness, ending in faults. Particular care is required here when descending without a clearly visible trail.

The appearance of the alpine relief is influenced not only by its youth, but also by the fact that at significant altitudes weathering processes are more active, changing the relief. Temperature changes and especially the action of glaciers located above the snow line maintain the sharp, contrasting appearance of the mountains, creating trough-shaped valleys - trogs, sharp peaks - carlings, bowl-shaped depressions on mountain slopes - glacial circuses. These landforms are the “calling card” of all the high mountains of the world. The altitudinal zonation in the highlands is clearly expressed and varies from forests or steppes at the foothills to zones of alpine meadows and even high-mountain lifeless deserts above the snow line, in areas of glaciers.

what rocks are the mountains made of?, since this factor often has a decisive impact on the possibilities of tourism development.

Features of the relief of Russia

diverse, with high mountains and vast plains;

2/3 of the territory is occupied by plains;

the predominance of plains in the western and central parts of the country;

mountains - along its eastern and partially southern edge;

lower altitude position of the western part compared to the eastern;

greater height of the southern mountains

These features are explained by the large size of the territory, its varied tectonic structure, the location of the main tectonic structures. The plains are located on platforms. Mountains arose within folded areas. In general, the territory of Russia forms a huge amphitheater, open to the north and north-west, therefore the most waters flow to the north. large rivers countries - Ob, Yenisei, Lena.

Plains occupy about 60% of the country's territory. They stretched from the western borders of Russia to the Lena, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the foothills of the Caucasus, Altai and Sayan Mountains. The two largest plains in Russia - Eastern European and Western Siberian- refer to the greatest plains peace.

Located in the western part of the country Russian (East European) plain, it is located on the ancient Russian platform (previously 500 million years old). This circumstance explains its flat terrain, as well as the absence or insignificance of manifestations of such natural phenomena as earthquakes and volcanism. The East European Plain stands out among other plains for its most diverse topography. The West Siberian Plain is one of the largest accumulative lowland plains on the globe. It extends from the shores of the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan and from the Urals in the west to Central Siberian Plateau in the east. The plain has the shape of a trapezoid tapering towards the north: the distance from its southern border to the northern reaches almost 2500 km, width - from 800 to 1900 kmkm 2. The nature of the relief of the Russian Plain is quite complex. To the north of the latitude of Moscow, glacial landforms predominate - including moraine ridges, of which the most famous are Valdai andSmolensk-Moscow hills (the latter reaches a height of 314 m); Moraine, outwash, and glaciolacustrine lowlands are common. To the south of the latitude of Moscow, hills, directed predominantly in the meridional direction, alternate with flat areas. There are numerous ravines and gullies on the hills. In the west is Central Russian Upland(maximum height 293 m), separating the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Oka and Don; here the valleys of small rivers are clearly defined; at the same time, large rivers have wide, shallow floodplains; In some places, a strong influence of aeolian processes and the formation of dunes were noted. Located further east Volga Upland, reaching a height of 329 m and steeply falling to the river. The lower reaches of the Volga are within Caspian lowland, some sections of which have a height of 90 m below sea level. To the south the East European Plain extends up to the spurs Greater Caucasus. Extensive Kubanskaya AndKumskaya the lowlands are divided Stavropol Upland, where the predominant heights are from 300 to 600 m. There are large hills, some of which exceed 300 and even 400 m (the highest point Bugulmino-Belebeevskaya elevations reach 479 m), and vast lowlands with small hills and ridges scattered across them (in the north) or quite monotonous (Caspian region). The lowest parts of the plain are located in the coastal strip of the Caspian Sea with a height of 26 m. The average height of the plain is 170 m.

The East European and West Siberian plains are separated by low and narrow (up to 150 km) Ural mountains, only some peaks of which exceed 1500 m. Highest point Ural - mountain Folk(1895 m).

To the east of the Urals there is a vast West Siberian Plain, which is located on the West Siberian Plate. This plain is often called the West Siberian Plain lowland - one of the largest accumulative lowland plains on the globe. It extends from the shores of the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan and from the Urals in the west to the Central Siberian Plateau in the east. The plain has the shape of a trapezoid tapering towards the north: the distance from its southern border to the northern reaches almost 2500 km, width - from 800 to 1900 km, and the area is only slightly less than 3 million. km 2 .

The West Siberian Plain is characterized by an extremely uniform topography with slight fluctuations in elevation. Only a few small areas in the outlying parts of the plain exceed 200 m. Almost half of the territory lies below 100 m above sea level. The average height of the plains is only 120 m. That is why Western - Siberian plain most often called lowland.

From the southeast the West Siberian Plain is bordered by Altai Mountains There are three main types of relief in Altai: the surface of residual ancient peneplain, alpine glacial high-mountain relief and mid-mountain relief.

(Test)

Introduction

South America is almost completely isolated from other continents. From the west it is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean, from the east and north - by the Atlantic. In the south, the wide Drake Passage separates South America from Antarctica; in the north, the continent is washed by waters Caribbean Sea. Only the narrow Isthmus of Panama connects South America with North America.

Most of South America lies in the southern hemisphere, in the equatorial and subequatorial belts. Only a narrowed part of the continent extends into the subtropical and temperate latitudes of the southern hemisphere.

The formation of the continent's fauna was influenced by contrasts in natural conditions, features of paleogeographical development, and the long-term isolation of the continent from the main landmass. Therefore, the fauna of Neogea is distinguished by a high level of endemism, great originality and, at the same time, defectiveness.

The modern fauna, like the flora of the mainland, was formed starting from the end of the Cretaceous period.

This test paper provides a description of the natural conditions of South America, provides a general description of the animal world, examines examples of species endemism of animals characteristic of this continent, shows the features of the Neogea fauna, gives examples of the main national parks and protected areas of the continent, presents a map of the animal world and the main national parks of South America.

The purpose of this test is is to characterize the fauna of South America.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:

1. Consider the geographical location of South America.

2. Describe the geological structure.

3. Show the importance of relief in the formation of the continent.

4. Identify the features of climatic conditions.

5. Consider the hydrographic network.

6. Characterize the soil and vegetation cover.

7. Show the uniqueness of the fauna of Neogea.

8. Give examples of the main national parks of South America and show their importance.

1. Geographical location and features of natural conditions

South America is now almost completely isolated from other continents. It is connected only with Central and North America by the narrow Isthmus of Panama, which was finally formed only in the Pliocene. Vast oceanic spaces separate South America from other continents. South America includes the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), lying on the shelf of the Atlantic Ocean, the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, in the Pacific Ocean - the islands of Galapagos, Juan Fernandez and the coastal archipelago of Chonos with large island Chiloe.

The area of South America with islands is 17.8 million km 2. The border of South America in the north is considered conditional line, passing along the Atrato River, and heading towards the Gulf of Darien.

The northern extremity of the continent is Cape Galinas (12 0 28 / N), the southern one is Cape Froward in the Strait of Magellan (53 0 54 / S). Even further south on the island of the same name is Cape Horn (56 0 S), which is also sometimes considered the southern limit of the continent. Extreme western point- Cape Parinhas (81 0 20 / W), eastern - Cape Cabo Branco (34 0 47 /). The continent reaches its greatest width (more than 5000 km) at 5 0 S latitude. Thus, most of South America is located primarily in the equatorial and tropical latitudes of the Western Hemisphere. The shape of the continent resembles a triangle with the base in the northern part, at the equator, and the apex in the south. This configuration of the continent has a significant impact on its natural features. South America also includes the island of Tierra del Fuego, separated from the mainland by the narrow and long (550 km) Strait of Magellan, which connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. At its narrowest point, the strait is up to 3.5 km wide and up to 35 m deep. The strait is a flooded fjord with high, steep banks. The coasts of South America are slightly indented, only in the southwest the fjord type predominates, and in the north the wide Gulf of Maracaibo, connected to the lake of the same name, juts out into the mainland.

The geological structure of South America is determined by two major structural elements the earth's crust: the ancient, Precambrian, South American platform and the geosynclinal belt of the Andes, which has been actively developing since the late Precambrian.

Mineral deposits are also closely related to the geological structure. The richest deposits of iron ore are confined to the ancient shields of the platform - in the center and on the outskirts of the Brazilian Plateau (in Bolivia) and in the north of the Guiana Plateau (in Venezuela). The ancient weathering crust of the crystalline basement on these plateaus contains large reserves of manganese and nickel. As a result of weathering, bauxite deposits with an alumina content of up to 67% were formed on the humid outskirts of the plateaus, especially the Guiana plateau. General reserves bauxite in South America is equal to 2500 million tons. In the depressions of the plateaus, in the troughs of the Amazon and the Patagonian plate there are oil deposits, natural gas and coal. The main oil and gas deposits are confined to the foothill troughs and intermountain depressions of the Andes. Oil reserves are especially rich in the Maracaibo basin and the Magdalena River, in the area of the Gulf of Guayaquil. Open oil fields in the southeast of the continent - in Patagonia and on the adjacent shelf, but unlike the northern ones they have only a focal distribution.

The Andes mountain ranges are rich in non-ferrous and rare metals. The largest reserves of copper and molybdenum ores are known in southwestern Peru and western Chile. Bolivia has significant reserves of tin. Brazil has a leading place in reserves of bauxite, titanium, copper, lead, zinc, tin, and manganese ores.

The subsoil of South America is rich in iron, manganese, tungsten, nickel and molybdenum. The total iron ore reserves of South America account for 38% of all resources of the capitalist world. The richest countries in iron ore are Brazil, Venezuela, Peru and Chile. Brazil ranks first in the capitalist world in iron ore reserves. Most of the deposits are located in the eastern part of the country. More than 100 iron ore deposits have been discovered in the state of Minas Geras. Iron ore production in the country is 90-95%. Venezuela ranks second in iron ore resources Latin America. The largest deposits are located in the lower reaches of the Orinoco River.

The relief of South America has some similarities with the relief of North America, which is due to the presence of a wide geosynclinal zone in the west of both continents. The Andes of South America are a continuation of the Cordillera of North America. The western parts of the continents are occupied by extensive mountain systems, while the eastern parts are much lower. The Andes of South America are on average higher than the Cordilleras.

The relief of South America is represented by two unequal parts: the flat-platform Extra-Andean East; mountainous Andean West. In the east there are vast plains - the Amazonian, La Plata, Orinoco, the stepped plateau of Patagonia and the Guiana and Brazilian plateaus. The average height of the continent is 580 m, which is lower than Asia, North America and Antarctica, but higher than Europe and Australia. The main peak of the mainland, Mount Aconcagua (6960), is inferior to many of the highest peaks in Asia.

In the Extra-Andean East, several large morphostructural regions are distinguished. These include: Amazonia, which occupies a vast territory from the foothills of the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean with an area of over 5 million km 2, lying in the trough of the South American platform; the Orinoco Plain, stretching from the foothills of the Andes to the Orinoco delta - a low stratified plain composed of Tertiary sandstones, its continuation is the Guiana coast up to 200 km wide; The interior plains occupy the trough between the Andes, the Brazilian Plateau and Patagonia, composed of a thick layer of continental sediments, from Devonian to Quaternary, with a flat, poorly dissected topography. In the north and south there are medium-altitude remnant massifs. The La Plata Lowland stretches along the central part of the trough of the Paraguay and lower Parana rivers. In the north it begins with a young tectonic depression (Pantanal), the Chaco plains, and in the south it ends with Pampa. The uniformity of the relief of the Eastern Pampa is broken in the south by two groups of low mountains and hills - the Sierra del Tandil and the Sierra de la Ventana. These mountains are highly leveled, eroded and affected by tertiary faults and uplifts. In the southwest, the region of the Precordillera and Pampinsky sierras, blocky flat-topped massifs with an altitude of 2000-6000 m, adjoins the internal plains.

The most extensive uplift of the South American platform forms the Brazilian Plateau, gradually rising from the north (100 m) to the south (600 m) and forming the Goiás Plateau in the south (1000-1200 m). The table-shaped surfaces of individual plateaus represent ancient leveling surfaces bounded by vertical ledges - chapadas. In the south, the plateau ends in a series of ledges. The highest point of the Brazilian plateau is the Bandeira massif (2890 m). The Guiana Highlands in the north are framed by the Guiana Lowland. In the north, the relief is represented by gently undulating peneplain. To the west of the Orinoco River, ancient crystalline rocks come to the surface in the form of remnant mountains. The Patagonian plateau forms a system of ledges that gradually decline towards the Atlantic Ocean; in the west the plateau gradually rises towards the Andes.

The Andean West is one of the highest mountain systems in terms of height, extent and expression of alpine relief forms, second only to the Tibetan-Himalayan; 20 peaks rise to a height of more than 6000 m. The entire Andean mountain system serves as an important climatic divide, is difficult to pass, creates general impression asymmetry of macrorelief.

The climate of South America is determined by the geographical location of this territory, the planetary atmospheric circulation system, and relief features.

Most of South America is located in the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical and subtropical zones; only the narrow southern part of the continent, not exceeding 600 km in width, extends into temperate latitudes. Over almost the entire continent, the radiation balance reaches 111-355 kJ/cm2.

The main part of the continent is located in the zone of trade wind circulation with a predominance of northeasterly winds to the north of the equator and southeasterly winds to the south. Air masses move towards South America from the peripheral regions of the Azores (in the north) and South Atlantic (in the south) anticyclones. Therefore, the climate types of South America are determined by the influence of air masses of the Atlantic, not the Pacific Ocean. The absence of large orographic barriers inside the continent allows the Atlantic masses to extend far to the west, to the very slopes of the Andes. Vast areas of South America are constantly subject to significant heating; the pressure over a wide part of the continent at the level of the earth's surface is much lower than over the oceans washing it.

The south of the mainland is located in the zone of westerly winds, under their influence are Southern Chile and part of Patagonia. South of the mainland there is wide band low pressure of a planetary nature.

The system of ocean currents associated with the general circulation of the atmosphere influences the climate of the coastal regions of the continent. The warm Brazilian Current increases the moisture content of trade wind air masses, the cold Falkland Current increases the aridity of the Patagonian climate, and the cold Peruvian Current contributes to the formation of desert landscapes.

The atmospheric circulation system changes depending on the time of year. In December-February, the northeast trade wind crosses the equator, the area of the southeast trade wind narrows, and the zone of westerly winds shifts to the south. At this time in Southern Hemisphere summer. Equatorial air masses retreat to the south, to the northern, northwestern and western parts of the Brazilian Highlands, to the depression of the upper Paraná and to the plains of the Gran Chaco, causing seasonal rains characteristic of subequatorial latitudes.

In June-August (winter of the Southern Hemisphere), the atmospheric circulation system shifts to the north. From the southern and southwestern periphery of the Azores High, northeastern trade winds come to the shores of South America, which, moving over heated waters, are saturated with moisture. In Western Amazonia, equatorial air predominates, causing rainfall. The dry southeast trade wind from the Brazilian Highlands penetrates into the Eastern Amazon, which does not bring significant amounts of precipitation. The southeast trade wind from the northern periphery of the South Atlantic Anticyclone irrigates the northeastern ledge of the Brazilian Highlands. And winds from the western edge of the South Atlantic High carry moist and warm tropical air, which penetrates into the continent and irrigates eastern outskirts Brazilian Highlands.

Along with the shift of the air circulation system to the north in June-August, the influence of the westerly winds of the Southern Hemisphere increases, which affect a large part of Chile. Due to the northward displacement of the South Pacific Anticyclone, air masses flowing from its periphery moisten Central Chile, replenishing the moisture brought by the westerly winds of the Southern Hemisphere. West coast, slopes and intermountain plateau of the Andes from 30 0 S. to the equator in winter are under the influence of the eastern periphery of the South Pacific anticyclone. All west between 30 0 S. and the equator turns out to be sharply dry and abnormally cool. North of the equator, northwest winds bring heavy rainfall to the northwest Cordillera.

The thermal regime of South America is characterized by slight fluctuations. The entire north of the mainland, the Amazon and the west of the Brazilian Highlands are very warm throughout the year; the average July temperature is +25 0 C. Winter cooling affects the mountainous east of the Brazilian Highlands and the plains of Pampa, the average July temperature is +10-+12 0 C, on the high plateaus of Patagonia - about +5 0 C. Intrusions of cold air from the south temperate latitudes cause irregular frosts in Pampa. Average July temperatures on the island of Tierra del Fuego are +2 0 C. summer months Southern Hemisphere receives more heat from the southern parts of the continent, but high temperatures does not happen here, since the summer heat is limited by cold currents. The hottest places at this time of year are in the central regions of the Gran Chaco, northern Argentina and Paraguay (maximum up to +40 0 C). This is lower than the maximum in Africa (+58 0), North America or Asia.

Most of South America has sufficient moisture. The wettest areas of the continent are Western Colombia and Southern Chile, where the annual precipitation reaches 5000-8000 mm. Up to 2000-3000 mm of precipitation falls in the western Amazon and on the adjacent slopes of the Andes, the windward eastern slopes of the Guiana Highlands and the central part of the eastern slopes of the Brazilian Highlands. The remaining parts of the slopes receive less than 1000 mm of precipitation per year. Insufficient moisture in Pampa (300-400 mm) and in Central Chile (200-300 mm). Patagonia and the Precordillera region are very dry (150-200 mm per year). The areas of the Pacific coast between 5 and 28 0 S latitude are especially dry. with the adjacent western slopes and intermountain plateaus of the Andes (Atacama Desert).

In Colombia and Western Amazonia, precipitation occurs throughout the year. In Central Chile, precipitation occurs in winter.

In South America, three climate sectors can be distinguished, with different types climate: eastern climate, Pacific coast climate and mountain climate.

An equatorial, permanently humid climate characterizes much of the Amazon and the adjacent slopes of the Andes.

Throughout the year, equatorial air masses dominate with temperatures (+25-+27 0 C) and significant humidity (precipitation amount 2000-4000 mm per year). Humidification is uniform, but there are two precipitation maxima. The weather regime is monotonous throughout the day. Typically, in the morning hours, temperatures gradually rise and the moisture content in the air increases. At noon there are thunderstorms.

A seasonally humid subequatorial climate is established in areas located north and south of the equator. These include the lowlands of the Orinoco and Magdalena rivers, the coastal regions of Venezuela, the Guiana Highlands, and most of the Brazilian Highlands (except the east and south). In summer, equatorial air masses dominate, in winter - tropical ones. This type of climate is characterized by humid, hot summers and dry, hot winters. Average summer temperatures are +25-+28 0 C, winter - +20 - +30 0 C. The amount of precipitation reaches 1500 mm per year. With distance from the equator, the duration of the dry period increases, and with approaching the equator, the duration of the wet period increases. The northeast of the Brazilian Highlands is characterized by severe aridity.

A tropical climate is typical for areas located south of territories with a subequatorial climate. Tropical air masses dominate throughout the year. There are tropical wet and tropical dry climates.

The subtropical climate is confined to the interfluve of Parana and Uruguay, the plains of Pampa and the Precordillera region up to - 41 0 S. latitude. Tropical air masses dominate in summer, and moderate air masses in winter. Humidification in these areas is uniform. Hot summer. Winter is mild and cool. At this time of year, the flat nature of the interfluve facilitates the intrusion of cold Antarctic air masses far to the north. In Pampa and the southern Brazilian Highlands, cold, gusty winds blow two or three times during the winter, causing frost and snow.

A temperate climate forms on the plains of Patagonia. The amount of precipitation is insignificant. The minimum is - -35 0 C. With little precipitation, temperature contrasts are small; this is explained by the fact that Patagonia is located in the zone of influence of the westerly winds of the Southern Hemisphere. But the heavy rainfall brought by these winds is trapped by the Andes mountain ranges. In terms of humidity, Patagonia resembles a desert; in terms of temperature range, it resembles a maritime climate. An equatorial humid climate is established on the Pacific coast from 6 0 south latitude. to the equator; it is characterized by high

uniform temperatures throughout the year (+25-+27 0 C), heavy precipitation of 5000 mm or more.

A subequatorial seasonally humid climate is formed in territories located south of the equator to 4 0 30 / S; characterized by dry, hot winters (June-November) and humid, hot summers (November-May).

The tropical trade wind climate is the climate of the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile. These include Sechura and Atacama. This part of the continent receives precipitation in the form of heavy dew, formed by dense fog that often envelops the slopes of the Peruvian and Chilean Andes at an altitude of 400-1000 m.

Subtropical (Mediterranean) climate is typical for territories located from 28 to 37 0 30/S, with a clearly defined seasonality of precipitation and temperature. This area is characterized by hot, dry summers (December-February) and relatively cool, rainy winters (June-August). The Mediterranean type of climate is formed because in summer the air masses of the South Pacific High (eastern periphery) move into this area; In winter, this area is subject to cyclonic rains brought by westerly winds.

To the south, the characteristic features of the Mediterranean climate gradually disappear, the westerly winds continue to play big role, features of a humid oceanic temperate climate appear (Southern Chile). The western transfer of air masses contributes to heavy precipitation - up to 6000 mm per year. Rainfall is especially high on the western slopes of the Andes (an average of 325 days a year it's raining). Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the seasons. Cool, rainy weather with strong westerly winds prevails.

The Andes mountain system, due to its altitude, serves as a climatic boundary separating Pacific air masses from Atlantic ones, and forms a mountain climate. Temperatures gradually decrease with altitude, the amount of precipitation increases to 1000-1500 mm, and above it begins to decrease, which contributes to the formation of a dry climate.

The equatorial Andes (from 5 0 N latitude) are influenced by equatorial air. On the eastern slopes, precipitation falls up to 400 mm per year; on the western slopes - more than 8000. In the capital of Ecuador, Quito, the current is about +13 0 C; Light frosts set in at night, rising to +22-+24 0 C during the day.

The mountain variety of subequatorial and tropical climate is characteristic of mountainous regions lying between 5 and 30 0 S latitude.

The climate of the intermountain plateaus is arid, but relatively high temperatures remain.

South of 40 0 S. The Andes are characterized by a cold, damp climate with large clouds and heavy, frequent precipitation. In the mountains, stable snow cover and modern glaciation are formed. The eastern slopes are characterized by an arid climate, so the Pacific air, passing over the mountain range and descending along the eastern slope, becomes drier. Precipitation is 200-400 mm per year. Summer is cold. In winter, frosts in the valleys reach -40 0 C.

The formation of a dense, well-developed river network in South America is favored by the configuration of the continent, climatic conditions and the nature of the relief, in particular the Andes mountain system, which forms the main watershed. The watershed line coincides with the highest elevations, and only in the Andes of Patagonia does it go further east.

South America accounts for 8% of the globe's land mass and 14% of its drainage. Under the influence of the humid winds of the Atlantic, South America receives twice as much precipitation as the average of the entire landmass of the Earth. South America is richer in water resources than other continents. The total and underground flow of this continent is almost twice as much as in Europe, which ranks second in terms of its wealth of water resources.

Most of the continent's rivers are fed by rain; glacial is important only in the south of the Andes; the role of snow nutrition is negligible. As a result of the abundant moisture of the continent and the shift of the watershed to the extreme west, great water systems were formed in South America despite the relatively small sizes mainland.

The largest river in South America is the Amazon. The length of the Amazon (Maranón) is 6437 km. Despite the slight average slope, the river has a strong current due to its water content. The area of the drainage basin is 7 million km 2 . The average river flow at the mouth is 120 thousand m 3 /s, the maximum is about 200 thousand m 3 /s. The average annual flow of the Amazon is 5000 km 3, which accounts for most of the flow of all South America and 15% of the flow of all rivers on the globe. In terms of water, the Amazon is the most abundant river in the world. The Amazon is the second longest river in the world.

The source of the Amazon is the Marañon River, flowing from Lake Patacocha, located in the Peruvian Andes at an altitude of over 4000 m. The Amazon has more than 17 tributaries. In the lower reaches of the river, ebbs and flows have a great influence on its regime and formation. The tidal wave penetrates upstream approximately 1,400 km and causes strong waves on sandbanks and banks, destroying the banks. Thanks to the tides and high water of the Amazon, the largest ocean vessels can reach the city of Manaus, and sea vessels can reach Iquitos. The largest tributary of the Amazon is the Madeira. The right tributary of the Amazon is larger than the left ones. In addition to Madeira, these are Jurua, Purus, Tapajos, Xingu. Twice a year the level of the Amazon rises by several meters. These maximums are associated with rainy periods in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. At this time, the river in its middle reaches floods a vast area, then gradually it enters the banks (August-September). Then comes the second maximum, associated with the period of summer rains in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Amazon it appears in November. When it flows into the ocean, the Amazon is divided into many branches and forms an archipelago. The largest island is Marajo.

The Paraguay-Parana river basin is the largest in South America after the Amazon basin. The basin area of the entire system is 4 million km 2, the length of the Parana is 4700 km. These, as well as other rivers of the system, originating in the Brazilian Highlands, form waterfalls in the upper reaches, the largest of which is Iguazu, 72 m high.

The most important tributary of the Paraná is the Paraguay, which opens waterways to the central parts of the mainland and the Amazon.

The Uruguay River in its upper course flows along the trap plateau, following a general slope to the west and descending from an altitude of 1000 m to 100 m. Below the confluence of the Rio Negro River it abounds in rapids and rapids.

La Plata, which collects the waters of Paraná and Uruguay, resembles a giant funnel open to the Atlantic Ocean. Its width at the mouth is 222 km, length 320 km.

The Orinoco River originates in the Guiana Highlands. The Orinoco regime is unstable. The level of the river depends on the rainfall that falls in the northern part of its basin in the summer (May-September). The largest waterfalls in the world are located in the Orinoco basin on the Guiana Plateau. Angel Falls is widely known.

Lake Titicaca is the largest alpine lake in the world. It is located at an altitude of 3812 m above sea level on the border between Peru and Bolivia. Lake area - 8300 km 2, maximum depth- 304 m. There are terraces on the shores of the lake, indicating a repeated decrease in its level.

Lakes of glacial origin are concentrated in the Southern Andes. These are freshwater lakes with very dissected shores. For example, lakes Nahuel Huapi, San Martin). They were formed as a result of the damming of terminal moraines by the runoff of melted glacial waters that filled wide trough valleys.

Along the shores of the Atlantic Ocean there are large lakes-lagoons, the largest of which is Maracaibo, connected to the Gulf of Venezuela.

Groundwater is an important source water resources South America. The total underground flow of the continent is 3,740 km 3.

The formation of the rich and diverse flora of South America is closely related to the history of the geological development of the continent, modern orography and climatic conditions.

Young types of meadow-steppe, semi-desert shrub formations of Patagonia were formed in post-glacial times from the Antarctic flora, forming in the south of the continent the second center of speciation of the South American flora - the Antarctic, which was preserved mainly in Tierra del Fuego and in the Patagonian Andes. In the Antarctic floristic kingdom, a very unique endemic flora, not rich in species composition, has formed.

The formation of soil cover is closely related to climate, moisture in areas and the development of vegetation.

The soils of South America do not form continuous homogeneous spaces, such as on the plains of Eurasia and North America. In South America, various types of lateritic soils predominate, confined to hot regions with constant and abundant moisture. For areas with seasonal moisture, red, brown-red and brown soils are typical, which to the west inland are successively replaced by gray-brown and gray soils. Reddish-black and chernozem-like fertile soils are formed in the pampa. In cool temperate latitudes, the soils are represented by brown forest soils in the west, chestnut and desert-steppe soils in the east, turning into swampy meadow and peaty soils in Tierra del Fuego.

In the Andes mountain system, soil cover features are associated with altitudinal zone, slope exposure, the presence of high mountain plateaus and the location of mountain ranges. Each latitudinal geographic zone in the Andes has its own soil type. Significant territories are occupied by mountain red soils, brown forest, podzolic and mountain meadow soils. Brownish, desert and high-mountain desert-steppe soils are widespread in the Andes.

Desert and high-mountain desert-steppe soils are developed in the Patagonian Andes, Precordillera and Pampinsky sierras.

South America

South America is entirely in Western Hemisphere. Most of it is located south of the equator. The continent will be crossed by the Southern Tropic. It is very elongated from north to south, stretching for more than 7 thousand kilometers. From west to east, the widest part is about 5 thousand, however, for the most part its extent is small, and the continent narrows towards its southern tip.

Extreme points mainland:

North - Cape Galinas 12°25"N, 71°39"W

South - Cape Froward 53°54" S, 71°18" W

Western - Cape Parinhas 4°40" S, 81°20" W

Eastern - Cape Cabo Branco 7°10" S, 34°47" W

South America is located in the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate climate zones.

In the east, the continent is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean, in the north and west - by the Atlantic. Coastline very weakly cut. Only in the southeast there are several large bays: La Plata, San Matias, San Jorge and Bahia Grande. To the north is the only Caribbean Sea.

In the north, South America is connected to North America through the Isthmus of Panama. Together they form a single part of the world - America. In general, the continent is located in the southern (almost entirely) and western hemispheres.

Natural conditions South America is diverse and contrasting. Based on the nature of the surface structure on the continent, two parts are distinguished. In the east, for the most part, lowland, elevated plains and plateaus prevail, in the west - the longest mountain ranges of the Andes. The formation of the Andes began in the Paleozoic and has not ended yet. The Andes continue to rise, volcanoes erupt, and strong earthquakes occur.

South America is the most wet continent Earth. The Andes, which block the path of the westerly winds, contribute to the abundance of precipitation. There is a dense river network here, including the largest globe rivers - Amazon and Parana. In the Andes, at an altitude of 3800 m, lies the largest alpine lake in the world - Titicaca.

Due to the predominance of hot foods on the continent humid climate South America has widespread forests and relatively few deserts and semi-deserts. The highland climate of the Andes is very diverse. It changes as you rise from the foothills of the mountains to the peaks and as you move from the Northern to the Southern Andes.

South America is rich in mineral deposits. Located in the Andes largest deposits copper ores, silver, tin, lead. There are fuses of gold. This contributed to the fairly early development of metallurgy here.

Zone high civilizations ancient times in South America occupied the region Central Andes. The Central Andes are bordered on the east by the forests of the Amazon basin, and on the west by the ocean. The northern periphery is formed by the territory of modern Ecuador. In southern Peru and Bolivia, the area of ancient civilizations extended to approximately 17°S. However, from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Southern Andes, with the exception of central regions Chile and the eastern slopes of the Argentine Hades were part of the cultural influence of the Central Andean civilizations.

Human economic activity in the Andes is possible up to an altitude of 4.5 km. On the plateaus of the Central Andes, isolated from the influence of the ocean, there are dry mountain steppes and semi-deserts called puna. Pune is divided into the lower one, suitable for agriculture, and the upper one, suitable only for grazing livestock. On the central plateaus of the Andes, located in tropical zone, the air is exceptionally clean and dry. Little precipitation falls as snow even in summer. The weather changes not only according to the seasons, but also during the day, and abruptly and several times. It is difficult for a person to tolerate such a climate. Puna stretches from northern Chile to central Peru. Further towards Ecuador it is replaced by alpine meadows, called páramo in South America. Puna and Paramo differ in relief, climate, flora and fauna, so these areas were developed in ancient times different groups tribes

Originality natural environment on far north Peru (desert alternating with savannah and more warm waters Pacific Ocean) compared to more southern regions significantly influenced the course of ethnic and economic processes. This site turned out to be an insurmountable obstacle for the cold-loving alpaca (genus of llamas), domesticated on the plateaus of Bolivia and Peru.

Below Pune there are warmer valleys and basins, mostly characterized by an arid climate, so the development of agriculture here required irrigation. The eastern slopes of the mountains occupy cold, rainy areas with poor soils. The forest areas below were not included in the distribution zone of the Central Andean civilization, but their population sometimes penetrated to the west, playing famous role in the history of ancient Peru.

Natural resources The Central Andean region is much richer than Mesoamerica. Here were the necessary conditions for growing potatoes and other mountain root crops, corn, pumpkin, quinoa, and beans. On the coast - for growing cotton and tropical root crops: sweet cassava, sweet potato and others. There were also prerequisites for the development of cattle breeding - the wild llama.

The lower belt of mountains facing the Pacific Ocean is arid and dissected by steep gorges. There is almost no population here. Next comes the coastal plain. In northern Peru it reaches a width of 50 km. The cold Humboldt Current determines the climate of the coast. It's not hot here. Summer and winter differ slightly in temperature. Life on the coast is concentrated where mountain streams open onto the plain or where there are sources of groundwater. The oases are separated from each other by desert areas 20–40 km wide. They are fertile and favorable for life. Thanks to admission nutrients off the coast of Peru, one of the richest biosystems of marine organisms in the world has developed. There was so much fish here that the fields were fertilized with it. Catching just one percent of these stocks per year provides the livelihood of more than one hundred thousand people, without any additional sources nutrition. Thus, the population of the Central Andean region had much more reliable sources of protein food than the Indians of Mesoamerica. Namely, the lack of reliable sources of protein food became a big brake on the development of Mesoamerica.

Distribution natural resources determined the spatial structure of the Central Andean civilization. From the very beginning there were two relatively independent center. In the mountains, the best opportunities for the development of a productive economy existed in the south of the region in the Lake Titacaka basin. The most extensive pastures and fields are located here. The freshwater body of water itself was of considerable economic importance. The mountainous regions of Ecuador lagged somewhat behind in development, acquiring important only under the Incas.

On the coast, the center of development was shifted to the north. The oases here are the most extensive, and the sea is the richest. The extreme south of the coast of Peru was under strong influence cultures of the Titicaca basin. The mountainous regions in the north were influenced by coastal cultures. Most complex nature cultural interaction had in central Peru.

Generally cultural diversity in the Central Andean region in ancient times it was very large. Areas of fertile land here are separated by deserts and mountain ranges, and predominantly agricultural areas alternate with predominantly pastoral ones. The level of development of the Indian tribes inhabiting this territory was not the same. The barbarian periphery penetrated deeply into the zone high crops. All this created an extremely complex and dynamic system Central Andean civilization.