In 1909, American reporter Murray Howe accompanied a group of American champions
in trotting races on an exhibition tour in Europe and Russia. During the trip he took over 300 photographs with his Graflex camera.
This group of photographs became a museum exhibition entitled "Empire and Empathy - Vintage Photographs of Russia."
Then the photographer had to work without takes, and not everyone was able to do this.
The photographs are valuable because they depict ordinary Russian people in everyday situations.
A droshky is a light open spring carriage for 1-2 people.
Shoemaker. People of this profession worked on the street all year round and repaired shoes right in front of the client.
Traders at the bazaar.
The boys are dragging lubyo. Behind them there is a horse-drawn horse on the rails.
The inhabitants of the Khitrov market are places where the criminal element gathers in Moscow.
The author of the photo writes that this crowd wanted to attack him, and he was saved by a policeman.
One of hundreds of street markets in Moscow.
Tsar Cannon. Still at the gates of the Arsenal building. In 1960 it was moved to Ivanovskaya Square in the Kremlin.
“This cannon was quickly drained in the most famous city of Moscow in the summer of 7094 (from the edition of 1586), in the third year of its state.
The cannon was made by cannon litts Andrei Chokhov"
The cannon fired once, the only shot was fired by the ashes of False Dmitry.
The public at the races. Among the Russians we see the photographer’s colleagues.
At the orphanage.
I think this is a rabbi from a Moscow synagogue with a policeman.
Two doormen, Murray's racing colleague and a Moscow tramp.
Moscow street boys selling pies, cucumbers, bast,
sieves and boxes.
Types of Moscow.
In front of the shops, in the square, along wide sidewalk, there were portable tents and traders crowded with baskets and bags,
filled with all kinds of products. Hunters walked around, hung with ducks, grouse, and hares. The women had sticking out of their baskets
heads of hens and chicks, piglets squealed in bags, which the sellers, taking out of the bag to show the buyer, would certainly
lifted above the head, holding the tied hind legs. On the pavement in front of the tents, pie makers, pancake makers, and merchants scurried about
buckwheat fried in vegetable oil. The sbiten makers poured out hot sbiten, the favorite honey drink at that time, for a penny per glass.
a drink that warmed cab drivers and employees who were freezing in cold shops. In the summer, the sbiten makers were replaced by kvass traders,
and the most favorite of them was pear, from boiled pears, which, soaked, lay for sale in pyramids on trays,
and they scooped kvass out of the bucket in mugs.
The meat and fish shops consisted of two departments. In the first one there were various types of meat on the shelves - game, chickens, geese, turkeys,
singed piglets for roast and in ice baths - white piglets for aspic. Carcasses were hung on hooks on the walls.
lambs and calves drinking milk, and the entire ceiling is filled with hams of all sizes and preparations - smoked, boiled,
hanging. In the second compartment, dark, lit only by the door to the courtyard, dozens of meat carcasses hung. Under all the benches -
basements. Okhotny Ryad was especially lively before big holidays. They rode up to the shops on thousand-horse trotters, dressed up
merchants' wives, and behind them employees, carried baskets and bags of goods from the shops and dumped them into sleighs. And it used to stick out from the matting
there's a bag of ham next to the millionaire's sable fur coat, and across the bear's cavity lies a pound-sized frozen sturgeon in all its beauty.
The cellars smelled of rotten meat, and the goods on the shelves were first-class. In fisheries - the best fish,
and in meat - chickens, geese, turkeys, piglets.
Clerks in greasy long-skirted shirts and
crusty aprons. On their belts they have a whole assortment of knives that are cleaned only at night.
Cleanliness was not in fashion here.
The main buyers were the cooks of the best taverns and restaurants, and then the lordly and merchant cooks, merchant housewives and cooks.
All this crowded, bargained, argued over a penny, and the Okhotnoryad owner crumbled before the buyer, remembering his only slogan:
“If you don’t deceive, you won’t sell.”
Murray's colleagues
The tramps are dragging something somewhere. In the background there are three boys who were walking
probably spent a good half day with the photographer.
They are often visible in other photographs.
Seller of cucumbers.
The Tsar Bell was cast by Russian craftsmen Ivan Motorin and son in 1735.
During a fire in Moscow two years later, a wooden building caught fire above the pit with the cast bell.
Burning logs began to fall into the pit. To prevent the bell from melting, the people who had come running began to pour water on it.
hot metal and... the bell gave 11 cracks and a piece weighing about
700 pounds (11.5 tons).
Execution place. Non-Muscovites know him from Surikov’s painting “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”
I like the citizen with her hand on her face, looking at the photographer and probably thinking:
- Fathers! What kind of monster is this on three legs?
Berry traders. It’s interesting that they have it tucked into the back of their belts. Bags?
Lotto boys. Fried pies with meat, eggs, rice, mushrooms, cottage cheese, raisins and jam.
The public who ate them ranged from students to old officials in frieze overcoats and from well-dressed ladies
to poorly dressed working women. With good butter and fresh minced meat, the piglet pie was so big,
that the couple could have a hearty breakfast.
There were many empires in the world that were famous for their wealth, luxurious palaces and temples, conquests and culture. Among the greatest of them are such powerful states as the Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Holy Roman, Ottoman, and British empires.
Russia on the historical world map
The empires of the world collapsed, disintegrated, and in their place separate independent states. A similar fate did not spare the Russian Empire, which existed for 196 years, from 1721 to 1917.
It all started with the Principality of Moscow, which, thanks to the conquests of princes and kings, grew to include new lands in the west and east. Victorious wars allowed Russia to take possession of important territories that opened the country's path to the Baltic and Black Seas.
Russia became an empire in 1721, when Tsar Peter the Great accepted the imperial title by decision of the Senate.
Territory and composition of the Russian Empire
In terms of the size and extent of its possessions, Russia ranked second in the world, second only to British Empire, which owned numerous colonies. At the beginning of the 20th century, the territory Russian Empire included:
- 78 provinces + 8 Finnish;
- 21 regions;
- 2 districts.
The provinces consisted of counties, the latter were divided into camps and sections. The empire had the following administrative-territorial administration:
Many lands joined the Russian Empire voluntarily, and some as a result conquests. The territories included in its composition according to at will, were:
- Georgia;
- Armenia;
- Abkhazia;
- Tyva Republic;
- Ossetia;
- Ingushetia;
- Ukraine.
During the foreign colonial policy of Catherine II, the Kuril Islands, Chukotka, Crimea, Kabarda (Kabardino-Balkaria), Belarus and the Baltic states became part of the Russian Empire. Part of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states went to Russia after the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ( modern Poland).
Russian Empire Square
From Northern Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea and from Baltic Sea before Pacific Ocean The territory of the state extended, occupying two continents - Europe and Asia. In 1914, before World War I, the area of the Russian Empire was 69,245 square meters. kilometers, and the length of its borders was as follows:
Let's stop and talk about individual territories of the Russian Empire.
Grand Duchy of Finland
Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, after a peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which it ceded this territory. The capital of the Russian Empire was now covered by new lands, which protected St. Petersburg from the north.
When Finland became part of the Russian Empire, it retained great autonomy, despite Russian absolutism and autocracy. It had its own constitution, according to which power in the principality was divided into executive and legislative. The legislative body was the Sejm. Executive branch belonged to the Imperial Finnish Senate, it consisted of eleven people elected by the Diet. Finland had its own currency - Finnish marks, and in 1878 received the right to have a small army.
Finland, as part of the Russian Empire, was famous for the coastal city of Helsingfors, where not only the Russian intelligentsia, but also the reigning house of the Romanovs loved to relax. This city, which is now called Helsinki, was chosen by many Russian people, who happily vacationed at resorts and rented dachas from local residents.
After the strikes of 1917 and thanks to the February Revolution, the independence of Finland was declared and it seceded from Russia.
Annexation of Ukraine to Russia
Right-bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II. The Russian empress first destroyed the hetmanate, and then the Zaporozhye Sich. In 1795, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was finally divided, and its lands went to Germany, Austria and Russia. Thus, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire.
After Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 Catherine the Great annexed the territory of modern Dnepropetrovsk, Kherson, Odessa, Nikolaev, Lugansk and Zaporozhye regions. As for Left Bank Ukraine, it voluntarily became part of Russia in 1654. Ukrainians fled from social and religious repression of the Poles and asked for help from the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. He, together with Bogdan Khmelnitsky, concluded the Pereyaslav Treaty, according to which Left Bank Ukraine became part of the Moscow kingdom with autonomy rights. Not only Cossacks took part in the Rada, but also ordinary people who made this decision.
Crimea - the pearl of Russia
The Crimean Peninsula was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1783. On July 9, the famous Manifesto was read out at the Ak-Kaya rock, and the Crimean Tatars expressed their consent to become subjects of Russia. First, the noble Murzas, and then ordinary residents of the peninsula, took an oath of allegiance to the Russian Empire. After this, festivities, games and celebrations began. Crimea became part of the Russian Empire after the successful military campaign of Prince Potemkin.
This was preceded difficult times. The coast of Crimea and Kuban from the end of the 15th century were the possessions of the Turks and Crimean Tatars. During the wars with the Russian Empire, the latter gained a certain independence from Turkey. The rulers of Crimea changed quickly, and some occupied the throne two or three times.
Russian soldiers more than once suppressed revolts organized by the Turks. The last Khan of Crimea, Shahin-Girey, dreamed of making a European power out of the peninsula and wanted to carry out military reform, but no one wanted to support his initiatives. Taking advantage of the confusion, Prince Potemkin recommended that Catherine the Great incorporate Crimea into the Russian Empire through a military campaign. The Empress agreed, but on one condition: that the people themselves express their consent to this. Russian troops treated the residents of Crimea peacefully and showed them kindness and care. Shahin-Girey abdicated power, and the Tatars were guaranteed freedom to practice religion and observe local traditions.
The easternmost edge of the empire
Russian exploration of Alaska began in 1648. Semyon Dezhnev, a Cossack and traveler, led an expedition that reached Anadyr in Chukotka. Having learned about this, Peter I sent Bering to check this information, but the famous navigator did not confirm Dezhnev’s facts - the fog hid the coast of Alaska from his team.
It was only in 1732 that the crew of the ship St. Gabriel first landed in Alaska, and in 1741 Bering studied the coast of both it and the Aleutian Islands in detail. Gradually, exploration of the new area began, merchants arrived and formed settlements, built a capital and called it Sitka. Alaska, as part of the Russian Empire, was not yet famous for gold, but fur-bearing animal. The furs of various animals were mined here, which were in demand both in Russia and in Europe.
Under Paul I, the Russian-American Company was organized, which had the following powers:
- she ruled Alaska;
- could organize an armed army and ships;
- have your own flag.
Russian colonialists found mutual language with the local people - the Aleuts. The priests learned their language and translated the Bible. The Aleuts were baptized, girls willingly married Russian men and wore traditional Russian clothes. The Russians never made friends with another tribe, the Koloshi. It was a warlike and very cruel tribe that practiced cannibalism.
Why did they sell Alaska?
These vast territories were sold to the United States for $7.2 million. The agreement was signed in the US capital - Washington. Prerequisites for the sale of Alaska to Lately are called different.
Some say that the reason for the sale was human factor and a reduction in the number of sable and other fur-bearing animals. There were very few Russians living in Alaska, their number was 1000 people. Others hypothesize that Alexander II was afraid of losing the eastern colonies, so, before it was too late, he decided to sell Alaska for the price that was offered.
Most researchers agree that the Russian Empire decided to get rid of Alaska because there were no human resources to cope with the development of such distant lands. The government was thinking about whether to sell the Ussuri region, which was sparsely populated and poorly managed. However, the hotheads cooled down, and Primorye remained part of Russia.
IN mass consciousness A large number of myths, including historical ones, constantly live. In fact, the historical national myth plays big role, because without it society is doomed to collapse.
In almost all countries, the history of the state is embellished and presented as better than it actually was - heroes are embellished, facts and events are clarified. The country largely rests on this foundation.
Russia is a special country in this regard - historical view the past here most often denigrates the events that took place.
The year 1917 became a significant milestone for the country. On one side there was the tsarist regime, on the other - a new, bright and happy life. From the very beginning, the Bolsheviks began to develop a negative image old Russia, in order to form their own image of fighters for the better lot of the people. This point of view survived for decades, and only at the end of the 20th century did historians set out to find out whether the Russian people lived so badly under the tsar that they happily threw off the old government? What do we know about Tsarist Russia? Bloodsucking landowners ruled illiterate, downtrodden peasants, tsarist generals they lost battles, the secret police stifled every sprout of freedom... However, despite this, for some reason economic achievements for a long time were compared with the still tsarist year of 1913... Let us remember history and debunk some pseudo-historical myths about that time.
All of advanced Europe never knew the horrors of serfdom; in this regard, only Russia distinguished itself. In fact, almost all European countries, except Sweden and Norway, went through serfdom. It’s just that this process began earlier and ended, accordingly, too. For example, in England this phenomenon appeared in the 7th century and ended in the 14th century, although a small part of the peasants were dependent on their masters for another three centuries. In Russia, as in most countries of Eastern Europe, the peasants were free all this time, and serfdom itself began only later. Of course, this phenomenon is bad and shameful, but, speaking from the point of view of statehood, there was a need for it. IN late XVI century, such an order was established in order to contain the nobility, which constituted the main military force countries. Otherwise, Russia would simply be dismantled piece by piece by its militant neighbors. Famous historian Soloviev wrote about serfdom: “a cry of despair for a state in a hopeless economic situation.” And this situation continued until 1861, when serfdom was abolished by decree of Alexander II. But even in the states of central Europe closest to Russia, it disappeared a little earlier - in Austria for 12 years, and in Prussia for 50. The era of serfdom in Russia dates back two and a half centuries, although the entire history of the state until 1917 was counted in a millennium. So only ¼ of the entire history of the country was occupied by serfdom. In general, it is incorrect to determine the level of a country through the presence of any one characteristic. For example, in the USA, slavery was abolished a century and a half after the abolition of slavery in our country and 4 years after the abolition of serfdom. Remnants of slavery and restrictions on the rights of blacks generally existed in America until the 60s of the 20th century. But no one evaluates the United States as a country of slaves, although most of the history of this country was accompanied by this shameful phenomenon. In relation to Russia, our compatriots allow serfdom to be stigmatized, in fact demonstrating their “love” for the Motherland.
The Russian people are imbued with the spirit of slavery, which is not surprising, because until 1861 all peasants were serfs. In addition to peasants and nobles, there were other classes, quite numerous - free Cossacks, service people, merchants, monks and others. And, as it turned out, not all peasants were serfs. According to the historian Gautier, according to revisions of 1743, 1763 and 1783, serfs directly accounted for about 53% of all peasants, and the rest belonged to the state. In Russia there were entire provinces in which there was no serfdom at all, and in area they exceeded entire European countries that were free from the oppression of the peasants. For example, Siberia or Pomorie. It is curious that in the European territories that gradually became part of Russia, the percentage of serfs was noticeably higher. An illustrative example is the Baltic states, where 85% of total number the serfs belonged to the master. Throughout the 19th century, the number of serfs declined rapidly as they moved to other classes. For example, from 1816 to 1856 there were a million such men. The last audit before the abolition of serfdom in 1857 calculated that only 34% of the total population were serfs.
Of the European peasantry, it was the Russians who were the poorest. We had this opinion, but the Europeans themselves, who lived on the territory of Russia, had a different idea. For example, the Croatian Krizanich, who lived in Russia for 15 years in the 17th century, noted that Russia is a country of great wealth and the standard of living of its population is better than that of its closest neighbors - Lithuania, Poland or Sweden. States Western Europe indeed they lived better, but this statement applies to the nobility and the rich. But the lower classes “live much better and more comfortably in Rus' than in those rich countries.” In Rus' at that time, even serfs and peasants wore shirts decorated with pearls and gold. Krizhanich notes that in our country at that time, poor and rich people differed little in the variety of diets; the basis of the diet was bread, fish and meat. The historian’s conclusion is clear: “Not in any kingdom simple people do not live so well, and nowhere do they have such rights as here." Under the reign of Peter I, the difference between the classes increased significantly, but even in the 18th century, Europeans traveling around Russia noted that the standard of living of Russian peasants was better than in many European powers. The Russian officers themselves, who participated in the campaign of 1812-1814, noted with surprise the poverty of the Polish and French peasantry in comparison with the domestic one. Fonvizin, who traveled around France at the end of the 18th century, noted that the presence of a cow for a peasant is a sign of luxury, in Russia and the absence of a cow is a sign of poverty. And in conclusion, a quote from 1824 by the Englishman Cochrane: “The situation of the local peasantry is much better than the condition of this class in Ireland. In Russia there is an abundance of products, they are good and cheap." He also noted that Russian men live better than the same class in England and Scotland.
The serfs had absolutely no rights; the landowner could simply torture and kill them. Indeed, the rights of the peasants were limited, but, for example, they could well participate in court, both as a plaintiff and as a witness. The serfs swore allegiance to the king and could easily move to other classes with the consent of their master. Legally, the peasants could easily complain against their landowners, which, by the way, they used with success. Russian laws protected peasants; killing them was considered a serious criminal offense. Also in Cathedral Code In 1649, a nobleman was locked in prison for unintentional murder, but for a premeditated act against a peasant, the nobleman was executed, regardless of his merits and origin. Under Elizabeth the death penalty was actually abolished, so the guilty nobles were sent to hard labor. But in neighboring enlightened Poland, the murder of a serf was not a state crime at all; punishment was only from the church. The government closely monitored the relations between landowners and peasants. Catherine II ordered the governors to punish landowners for being harsh with the serfs; the punishment could be the general confiscation of the estate. From 1834 to 1845 alone, 2,838 nobles were put on trial for cruelty, and 630 were convicted. Under Nicholas I, about 200 estates were annually under the tutelage of the state, taken from landowners for their bad attitude to his serfs. The government constantly regulated the balance of relations between these two classes. During the same period, 0.13% of peasants were put on trial for disobedience to the master and the same percentage landowners for exceeding power over their serfs.
The reform of serfdom was carried out in the interests of the landowners themselves. This myth owes its persistence largely to the works of Lenin, who wrote that “the reform was carried out by the serf-owners in the interests of the serf-owners.” However, the leader was not a historian; his view was more political than scientific or historical. In reality, the reform of 1861 led to ruin large number landowners, the sale of tens of thousands of estates, so there is no need to say that the abolition of serfdom was for the benefit of the former owners. Prince Meshchersky notes that the ideologists of the reform not only did not think about the landowners, but, on the contrary, sought to destroy the foundations of the landed nobility. True, there is a one-sided assessment here too; in fact, the state sought to find a compromise between both the nobility and the peasants. During the reform, the average peasant received about 5 hectares per capita, which was quite enough for the subsistence level. Problems of the Russian village in late XIX century, it was not the lack of land, but rapid demographic growth. Thus, from 1858 to 1914, the number of peasants doubled, and naturally, the amount of land per capita decreased significantly. It is also worth noting the low level of farming among free peasants - landowners harvested several times more crops on the same lands. French historians note that, despite all the restrictions, the reform was still very generous to the peasants. For example, in Austria and Prussia, peasants were given freedom, but no land was given away.
Until 1917, all land belonged to landowners. It was this statement that was an important factor for the development of the revolution in the country. For several decades before the revolution, agitators indoctrinated the peasants, suggesting that all their problems were caused by the dominance of landownership. The victory of the revolution transferred this myth to all history textbooks, existing there to this day. But scientists refute this myth. After the reform of 1861, the landowners had 121 million acres of land at their disposal, and the rest of the territory belonged to the state. During the reform, 34 million dessiatines were transferred from owners to peasants. It must be said that the new conditions dealt a heavy blow to the landowners, who quickly began to go bankrupt and sell off their land, mainly to peasants. Almost a million dessiatines changed hands every year. It is not surprising that by 1905 landowners had sold 42 million of their holdings. Taking into account the lands of all the peasants, as well as the Cossacks, they had a total of 165 million dessiatines, versus 53 million owned by the landowners. At the same time, a significant part of the landowners' estates was also rented by peasants. By 1916, peasants owned 90% of all arable land and over 94% of livestock. The historian Pushkarev notes that “in terms of the composition of land ownership, Russia already in 1905 was a completely peasant country (to a greater extent than any of the European countries)". The division of landowners' estates in 1918 naturally did not play any important role in the peasant economy, since 1 noble tithe accounted for 5.5 peasant tithes. In response to this, the Bolsheviks then openly declared that under the slogan of seizing land, the peasants were deliberately raised against tsarist power. So, unlike the countries of Europe, Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was a classic example of a country of small peasant farms. Continuation of this policy would lead to farm-like enterprises, which we are only returning to today. Ironically, after 1917, through forced collectivization, peasants were forced into collective farms, where their labor was exploited by the state, and those who resisted were exiled or killed. Like this Soviet authority took care of the peasants, taking away much, it must be said, that they had, and destroying up to 10 million who disagreed.
Royal Russia was backward in economically country. By the beginning of the 20th century, Russia, along with the USA, Germany, England and France, was one of the five largest countries world level economic development. 9% of all world industry is concentrated in Russia, which was the 4th indicator. At the same time, the country's growth rate was the highest among all leaders. During the reign of Nicholas II alone, the country quadrupled its industry! Growth of 10% annually continued during wartime. But the revolution immediately brought a decline of 20%. And in agriculture Russia has traditionally fed Europe, being the world's largest agricultural power. From 1894 to 1914, the wheat harvest doubled, and 25% of the world's bread was made from Russian grain. The growth in the well-being of the people was expressed in a demographic explosion - over 20 years the population grew by 40%. One of the leading economists of the time, Edmond Tary, in 1913 made next output: “if the affairs of European nations from 1912 to 1950 go the same way as they went from 1900 to 1912, Russia by the middle of this century will dominate Europe, both politically, economically and financially"Thus, the growth of the country's power was prevented by the war and the Bolshevik revolution, which threw the country back decades. That's why the achievements Soviet economy for a long time they were compared with 1913.
The workers of Russia lived in poverty. One of the significant factors in the accomplishment of the revolution was the participation of workers, who, in the opinion of Soviet historians, lived extremely poorly, and the working conditions were unbearable. In the first stages of the development of capitalist enterprises, it was indeed typical to use cheap labor. However, contrary to Marx's teaching about the constant impoverishment of workers, their wages rose steadily. Starting from the middle of the 19th century, capitalist enterprises began to emerge en masse in Russia; in some of them, the owners actually tried to exploit workers to obtain super-profits. However, the state has issued a number of laws prohibiting, for example, working more than 11.5 hours a day, and on night shifts and Saturdays - more than 10 hours. In 1903, the law specified the liability of entrepreneurs for accidents with workers at work. But in most European countries there were no such legislative acts at all. Due to the fact that the Russian government was independent of the influence of capitalists, in 1912 US President Taft said: “a perfect labor legislation has been created, like no other Democratic state cannot boast." Marxists included stories in their textbooks about how the workers were impoverished, but in their memoirs the data is completely different. Plekhanov recalled that the workers were quite smart, earned good money and food, lived in furnished rooms and dressed better than students, although they predominantly came from bourgeois and noble families. Although the workers' wages were lower than in France or England, it was possible to buy more with it, due to the cheapness of products. Already in the 19th century, at the factories of the capitalist Maltsev, workers participated in profits, had an 8-hour day for some types of work, people were allocated stone houses of 3-4 rooms with a small plot of land. And in the provinces, workers had a high standard of living. So, N.S. Khrushchev, recalling his work as a mechanic in a Donetsk mine, mentions that he was better off than when he worked as a party worker in Moscow in the 30s. And ordinary people, of course, lived even worse than a government functionary. Moreover, Khrushchev was then only 22 years old, and his earnings were like that of an ordinary worker. The revolution plunged the country into collapse, industry by 1921 decreased by 7 times, and the standard of living of workers by 3 times. And only by 1970 the standard of living of workers became comparable to what it was under the Tsar. In 1913, a carpenter could buy 135 kg of meat with his salary, and in 1985 - only 75. Perestroika and economic turmoil again set the country back. So it is still unknown whether today’s workers live better compared to the times of difficult tsarist serfdom and oppression.
Russia was a highly moral country. It would seem that a large number of believers, churches - all this testified to high morality in society. In 1917, when the Provisional Government by its decree abolished compulsory attendance at prayer services, 70% of all soldiers stopped going to church altogether. In St. Petersburg in 1913 there were as many brothels as in universities. It is worth remembering the story of Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich, who stole funds for the construction of 5 battleships. There really were problems in the country, both in the sphere of education, and in medicine, and in industry. You shouldn’t downplay them, but you shouldn’t exaggerate them either - voluminous volumes are devoted to this issue. historical works, which are worth trusting more than the above myths.
Russian empire - a state that existed from November 1721 to March 1917.
The Empire was created after the end Northern War with Sweden, when Tsar Peter the First proclaimed himself emperor, and ended its existence after the February Revolution of 1917 and the last Emperor Nicholas II abdicated his imperial powers and abdicated the throne.
At the beginning of 1917, the population of this huge power was 178 million people.
The Russian Empire had two capitals: from 1721 to 1728 - St. Petersburg, from 1728 to 1730 - Moscow, from 1730 to 1917 - St. Petersburg again.
The Russian Empire had vast territories: from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea in the south, from the Baltic Sea in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east.
The major cities of the empire were St. Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Odessa, Lodz, Riga, Kiev, Kharkov, Tiflis (modern Tbilisi), Tashkent, Vilna (modern Vilnius), Saratov, Kazan, Rostov-on-Don, Tula, Astrakhan, Ekaterinoslav (modern Dnepropetrovsk), Baku, Chisinau, Helsingfors (modern Helsinki).
The Russian Empire was divided into provinces, regions and districts.
As of 1914, the Russian Empire was divided into:
a) provinces - Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan, Bessarabian, Vilna, Vitebsk, Vladimir, Vologda, Volyn, Voronezh, Vyatka, Grodno, Ekaterinoslav, Kazan, Kaluga, Kiev, Kovno, Kostroma, Courland, Kursk, Livonia, Minsk, Mogilev, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Novgorod, Olonets, Orenburg, Oryol, Penza, Perm, Podolsk, Poltava, Pskov, Ryazan, Samara, St. Petersburg, Saratov, Simbirsk, Smolensk, Tavricheskaya, Tambov, Tver, Tula, Ufa, Kharkov, Kherson, Kholm, Chernihiv, Estland, Yaroslavl, Volyn, Podolsk, Kiev, Vilna, Kovno, Grodno, Minsk, Mogilev, Vitebsk, Courland, Livonia, Estland, Warsaw, Kalisz, Kieleck, Lomzhinsk, Lublin, Petrokovsk, Plock, Radom, Suwalki, Baku, Elizavetpolskaya (Elisavetpolskaya), Kutaisskaya, Stavropolskaya, Tiflisskaya, Black Sea, Erivanskaya, Yeniseiskaya, Irkutskskaya, Tobolskaya, Tomskaya, Abo-Björneborgskaya, Vazaskaya, Vyborgskaya, Kuopioskaya, Nielanskaya (Nylandskaya), St. Michelskaya, Tavastguskaya (Tavastgusskaya), Uleaborgskaya
b) regions - Batumi, Dagestan, Kars, Kuban, Terek, Amur, Transbaikal, Kamchatka, Primorskaya, Sakhalin, Yakut, Akmola, Transcaspian, Samarkand, Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, Syr-Darya, Turgai, Ural, Fergana, Don Army Region;
c) districts - Sukhumi and Zagatala.
It would be worth mentioning that the Russian Empire in its last years before its collapse once included independent countries– Finland, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia.
The Russian Empire was ruled by one royal dynasty- Romanovs. Over the 296 years of the empire's existence, it was ruled by 10 emperors and 4 empresses.
First Russian Emperor Peter the Great (ruled in the Russian Empire 1721 - 1725) was in this rank for 4 years, although the total time of his reign was 43 years.
Peter the Great set as his goal the transformation of Russia into a civilized country.
Over the last 4 years of his stay on the imperial throne, Peter carried out a number of important reforms.
Peter carried out a reform government controlled, introduced the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire into provinces, created regular army and a powerful navy. Peter also abolished church autonomy and subordinated
church of the imperial power. Even before the formation of the empire, Peter founded St. Petersburg, and in 1712 he moved the capital there from Moscow.
Under Peter, the first newspaper was opened in Russia, many were opened educational institutions for nobles, and in 1705 the first comprehensive gymnasium was opened. Peter also put things in order in the design of all official documents, prohibiting the use of half names in them (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), prohibited forced marriage, taking off the hat and kneeling when the king appeared, and also allowed marital divorces. Under Peter, a whole network of military and naval schools was opened for the children of soldiers, drunkenness was prohibited at feasts and meetings, and the wearing of a beard by government officials was prohibited.
To increase the educational level of the nobles, Peter introduced compulsory study a foreign language (in those days - French). The role of the boyars was leveled, many boyars from yesterday's semi-literate peasants turned into educated nobles.
Peter the Great forever deprived Sweden of the status of an aggressor country, defeating the Swedish army led by the Swedish king Charles XII near Poltava in 1709.
During the reign of Peter the Russian Empire annexed to its possessions the territory of modern Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, as well as the Karelian Isthmus and part of Southern Finland. In addition, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina (the territory of modern Moldova and Ukraine) were included in Russia.
After the death of Peter, Catherine I ascended the imperial throne.
The Empress reigned briefly, only two years (reign 1725 - 1727). However, its power was rather weak and was actually in the hands of Alexander Menshikov, Peter’s comrade-in-arms. Catherine showed interest only in the fleet. In 1726 the Supreme Council was created Privy Council, who ruled the country under the formal chairmanship of Catherine. During Catherine's time, bureaucracy and embezzlement flourished. Catherine only signed all the papers that were handed over to her by representatives of the Supreme Privy Council. There was a struggle for power within the council itself, and reforms in the empire were suspended. During the reign of Catherine the First, Russia did not wage any wars.
The next Russian Emperor Peter II also reigned briefly, only three years (reign 1727 - 1730). Peter the Second became Emperor when he was only eleven years old, and he died at the age of fourteen from smallpox. In fact, Peter did not rule the empire; in such a short period he did not even have time to show interest in state affairs. Real power in the country continued to be in the hands of the Supreme Privy Council and Alexander Menshikov. Under this formal ruler, all the undertakings of Peter the Great were leveled out. The Russian clergy made attempts to secede from the state, the capital was moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow, historical capital the former Moscow principality and the Russian state. The army and navy fell into decay. Corruption and massive theft of money from the state treasury flourished.
The next Russian ruler was Empress Anna (reigned 1730 – 1740). However, the country was really ruled by her favorite Ernest Biron, Duke of Courland.
The powers of Anna herself were greatly curtailed. Without the approval of the Supreme Privy Council, the empress could not impose taxes, declare war, spend the state treasury at her discretion, or produce high ranks above the rank of colonel, to appoint an heir to the throne.
Under Anna, the proper maintenance of the fleet and the construction of new ships were resumed.
It was under Anna that the capital of the empire was returned back to St. Petersburg.
After Anna, Ivan VI became emperor (reigned 1740) and became the youngest emperor in the history of Tsarist Russia. He was placed on the throne at the age of two months, but Ernest Biron continued to have real power in the empire.
The reign of Ivan VI turned out to be short. Two weeks later it happened palace coup. Biron was removed from power. The infant emperor remained on the throne for just over a year. During his formal reign, no significant events occurred in the life of the Russian Empire.
And in 1741 on Russian throne Empress Elizabeth ascended (reigned 1741 – 1762).
During the time of Elizabeth, Russia returned to Peter's reforms. The Supreme Privy Council was liquidated, long years replacing the real power of the Russian emperors. The death penalty was abolished. Noble privileges were formalized by law.
During the reign of Elizabeth, Russia took part in a number of wars. In the Russian-Swedish war (1741 - 1743), Russia again, like Peter the Great, won a convincing victory over the Swedes, winning a significant part of Finland from them. Then came the brilliant Seven Years' War against Prussia (1753-1760), which ended with the capture of Berlin by Russian troops in 1760.
During the time of Elizabeth, the first university was opened in Russia (in Moscow).
However, the empress herself had weaknesses - she often loved to organize luxurious feasts, which significantly emptied the treasury.
The next Russian emperor, Peter III, reigned for only 186 days (reign year 1762). Peter worked energetically state affairs, during his short stay on the throne, he abolished the Office of Secret Affairs, created the State Bank and for the first time introduced paper money into circulation in the Russian Empire. A decree was created prohibiting landowners from killing and maiming peasants. Peter wanted to reform the Orthodox Church according to the Protestant model. The document “Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility” was created, which legally established the nobility as a privileged class in Russia. Under this tsar, nobles were exempted from forced military service. All high-ranking nobles exiled during the reign of previous emperors and empresses were released from exile. However, another palace coup prevented this sovereign from further working properly and reigning for the good of the empire.
Empress Catherine II (reigned 1762 – 1796) ascends the throne.
Catherine the Second, along with Peter the Great, is considered one of the best empresses, whose efforts contributed to the development of the Russian Empire. Catherine came to power through a palace coup, overthrowing her husband Peter III from the throne, who was cold towards her and treated her with undisguised disdain.
The period of Catherine's reign had the most tragic consequences for the peasants - they were completely enslaved.
However, under this empress, the Russian Empire significantly moved its borders to the west. After the partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Eastern Poland became part of the Russian Empire. Ukraine also joined it.
Catherine carried out the liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich.
During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire victoriously ended the war with Ottoman Empire, taking Crimea away from her. As a result of this war, Kuban also became part of the Russian Empire.
Under Catherine, there was a massive opening of new gymnasiums throughout Russia. Education became available to all city residents, except peasants.
Catherine founded a number of new cities in the empire.
During the time of Catherine, it happened in the empire major uprising under the leadership of
Emelyan Pugachev - as a consequence of further enslavement and enslavement of the peasants.
The reign of Paul I that followed Catherine did not last long - only five years. Paul introduced cruel cane discipline in the army. Were returned Physical punishment for the nobles. All nobles were required to serve in the army. However, unlike Catherine, Paul improved the situation of the peasants. Corvée was limited to only three days a week. The grain tax in kind from peasants was abolished. The sale of peasants along with land was prohibited. It was forbidden to share peasant families when selling. Fearing the influence of the recent Great french revolution, Paul introduced censorship and banned the import of foreign books.
Pavel died unexpectedly in 1801 from apoplexy.
His successor, Emperor Alexander I (reigned 1801 - 1825) - during his time on the throne, carried out a victorious Patriotic War against Napoleonic France in 1812. During the reign of Alexander, the Russian Empire included Georgian lands– Megrelia and the Imeretian kingdom.
Also during the reign of Alexander the First, a successful war with the Ottoman Empire (1806-1812), which ended with the annexation of part of Persia (the territory of modern Azerbaijan) to Russia.
As a result of the next Russian-Swedish war (1806 - 1809), the territory of all of Finland became part of Russia.
The Emperor died unexpectedly of typhoid fever in Taganrog in 1825.
One of the most despotic emperors of the Russian Empire, Nicholas the First (reigned 1825 - 1855), ascends the throne.
On the very first day of Nicholas's reign, the Decembrist uprising took place in St. Petersburg. The uprising ended disastrously for them - artillery was used against them. The leaders of the uprising were imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg and were soon executed.
In 1826, the Russian army had to defend its distant borders from the troops of the Persian Shah who unexpectedly invaded Transcaucasia. The Russian-Persian War lasted two years. At the end of the war, Armenia was taken from Persia.
In 1830, during the reign of Nicholas I, an uprising against Russian autocracy took place in Poland and Lithuania. In 1831, the uprising was suppressed by Russian regular troops.
Under Nicholas the First, the first railway from St. Petersburg to Tsarskoe Selo was built. And by the end of his reign, construction was completed railway line St. Petersburg - Moscow.
During the time of Nicholas I, the Russian Empire led another war with the Ottoman Empire. The war ended with the preservation of Crimea as part of Russia, but the entire Russian navy, according to the agreement, was removed from the peninsula.
The next emperor, Alexander II (reigned 1855 - 1881), completely abolished serfdom in 1861. Under this tsar, the Caucasian War was carried out against detachments of Chechen highlanders under the leadership of Shamil, suppressed Polish uprising 1864. Turkestan (modern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan) was annexed.
Under this emperor, Alaska was sold to America (1867).
The next war with the Ottoman Empire (1877-1878) ended with the liberation of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro from the Ottoman yoke.
Alexander II is the only Russian emperor to die a violent unnatural death. A member of the Narodnaya Volya organization, Ignatius Grinevetsky, threw a bomb at him while he was walking along the embankment Catherine Canal In Petersburg. The emperor died on the same day.
Alexander III becomes the penultimate Russian emperor (reigned 1881 - 1894).
Under this tsar, the industrialization of Russia began. Throughout the European part of the empire were built railways. The telegraph became widespread. Telephone communication was introduced. In large cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg) electrification was carried out. A radio appeared.
Under this emperor, Russia did not wage any wars.
The last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (reigned 1894 - 1917), took the throne at a difficult time for the empire.
In 1905-1906, the Russian Empire had to fight with Japan, which captured the Far Eastern port of Port Arthur.
In the same year 1905 it happened armed uprising working class in largest cities empire, which seriously undermined the foundations of autocracy. The work of the Social Democrats (future communists) led by Vladimir Ulyanov-Lenin unfolded.
After the 1905 revolution rock royal power was seriously limited and transferred to local city Dumas.
Started in 1914 First World War put an end to the further existence of the Russian Empire. Nicholas was not ready for such a protracted and exhausting war. Russian army suffered a series crushing defeats from the troops of the Kaiser's Germany. This accelerated the collapse of the empire. Cases of desertions from the front have become more frequent among the troops. Looting flourished in the rear cities.
The Tsar's inability to cope with the difficulties that arose in the war and within Russia provoked a domino effect, in which within two or three months the huge and once powerful Russian Empire was on the verge of collapse. In addition to this, they have intensified revolutionary sentiments in Petrograd and Moscow.
In February 1917, a provisional government came to power in Petrograd, staging a palace coup and depriving Nicholas II of real power. The last emperor was asked to leave Petrograd with his family, which Nicholas immediately took advantage of.
On March 3, 1917, at Pskov station in the carriage of his imperial train, Nicholas II officially abdicated the throne, deposing himself as the Russian emperor.
The Russian Empire quietly and peacefully ceased to exist, giving way future empire socialism - USSR.
The editors of our site received a question from a reader:
“After reading your answers, I realized that modern society is completely corrupted by television and modern music; they say, there used to be a strong faith and a decent society. You cite quotes from Russian classics, using them as an example, making it clear that in their time things were completely different. Therefore, I have a number of questions for you.
1. If in tsarist time it was so good how you felt then about the fact that the great Russian (by the way, especially revered by me) composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was a homosexual, the writer Nekrasov played cards - I won’t stir up the past further, I hope that’s enough.
2. And if God gave us complete freedom in development, limited by the commandments, then why in the painting “Unequal Marriage”, the action of which takes place in Orthodox Church and where the priest marries an old man with a young girl, happiness and love for her husband are not visible in her eyes, and all this action takes place with the silent consent of the parents (after all, as one of the commandments says, they must be obeyed) and the priest!!! Where is the truth? So why is it that if two people live in love and harmony in a civil marriage, this is fornication (a grave sin), and “Unequal marriage”, concluded in the church and initially not implying love, but implying the lust of an old male on the one hand and the submission of a young virgin to the will of her parents on the other hand on the other hand, is interpreted completely differently? Thank you in advance. Ivan."
We asked priest Mikhail Nemnonov to answer these questions .
Ivan, first of all, I cannot completely agree with any of your initial premises. Modern society is indeed corrupted by television and music, but not completely. So before, faith among the Russian people was stronger (if we consider the people as a single whole) and society was more decent, but there was no ideal society and complete holiness in all people before. In the times of the Russian classics, indeed, many things were completely different, but it was the Russian classics that testify in their creations to many of the imperfections of the then society and the people of that time. Now about your questions.
1. How do I feel about the fact that Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was a homosexual? I don’t care at all. Because I heard nothing but gossip about it. Many people just say: “Don’t you know that Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky...” To the question “how do you know about this,” the answer usually follows something like “well, everyone knows about this.” Only two of my acquaintances referred to “irrefutable” evidence - correspondence with my brother and diaries. And one of them was kind enough to present one of these pieces of evidence: after some social event, Pyotr Ilyich described in detail, either in a diary or in a letter, the appearance of one young man. Can you imagine?! What else can we talk about! Moreover, the persistence with which this gossip is spread is surprising. I think that people of the 19th century would simply be embarrassed to call a person a homosexual on the basis of such “facts.” And besides, Tchaikovsky did not glorify either homosexuality or “free love” in general in his work - unlike many modern authors, and this is his clear advantage over them.
As for Nekrasov, while he indulged in playing cards, he wrote in his works (of which I personally, by the way, was never a fan) about something completely different. Arriving at any modern theater or book Shop, I think he would have crossed himself and hastened to leave. This modesty of people, even those subject to certain sins, is what distinguishes former times for the better from the present.
2. You write: “God gave us complete freedom in development, limited by the commandments.” No not like this. Our external freedom is limited not by commandments, but by circumstances force majeure. Inner freedom is again limited not by commandments, but by the free will of man. And if he decides to follow the commandments, it is not because he has no other choice, but because he himself wanted to.
As for the painting “Unequal Marriage,” I do not intend to be responsible for the work of the author of this painting. Therefore, let’s leave it aside and consider a similar situation in life - a young girl, with the blessing of her parents, marries an elderly man, and they are married in the Church. Happiness and love for her husband are not visible in the girl’s eyes. But during the wedding they ask her whether she is getting married of her own free will! And she agrees! And there is no need to say that in the old days all the girls got married, obeying their parents - those who did not agree with their choice knew how to insist on their own. For example, an interesting “letter of resignation” from the time of Ivan the Terrible has been preserved, in which the noblewoman gives her granddaughter’s unloved fiancé 400 rubles for refusing the marriage agreement “for her tears,” a truly gigantic sum - the cost of thirty villages! So if the girl went down the aisle, then she agreed to it one way or another. Another question is why? Perhaps it’s true out of respect for his parents, and maybe for the sake of the wealth of his elderly fiancé (which, it seems, is what the author of the picture you named had in mind). But this, excuse me, is her business, not ours. In addition, not all elderly suitors deserve the name “old males”, and not all “unequal marriages” were concluded with only the thought of lust. There is a lot more in marriage besides lust - in particular, mutual responsibility and respect for each other, and the fact that there is a person nearby who, perhaps, is not burning with love, but, in any case, is attached to you and ready to support you. Such relationships, of course, are not fornication or a grave sin, unlike extramarital cohabitation, in which people want to enjoy one pleasant side of communication with a person of the opposite sex, avoiding mutual responsibility and other “costs” in every possible way. That is why, to me personally, the marriage of an elderly man with a young girl seems less painful than the cohabitation of two people who “love” each other, but are afraid like hell of creating a real family.
In tsarist times, not everything was so good. Everything bad that exists in the world and in Russia now, one way or another existed in tsarist times. But there really was less corruption, and holiness was a life ideal, apparently, for a larger number of people. Which, however, does not prevent you and me from protecting ourselves from corruption and striving to live a Christian spiritual life.