South America is the fourth largest continent on Earth. Its length from north to south is more than 7,000 km, from west to east - about 5,000, and total area reaches 17.8 km². Most of the continent is in the Southern Hemisphere. The total number of inhabitants is more than 385 million people: according to this indicator, South America ranks fourth among the continents. But if we discard the dry facts, one thing can be said: this is a whole world, unknown, bright, alluring and frightening at the same time. Each country on this continent deserves the closest study, the most curious tourists and the most enthusiastic reviews.
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How to get there
The cost of air travel to South American countries varies significantly on regular days and during sales periods. If a regular ticket can cost on average 1700-2000 USD, then sale and promotional tickets can be purchased with a discount of up to 50%. The most profitable option for Russians is to purchase a ticket to Venezuela (the cheapest can be purchased for 500-810 USD on days of maximum discounts). Or fly to relatively large Caribbean countries, such as Cuba and the Dominican Republic, from where you can travel to the mainland by domestic airlines.
If you have time and money, you can arrange an unforgettable ocean trip: a boat trip to Buenos Aires will cost 1500-2000 EUR. Such a voyage will take much more time than a flight, because most often it is not just a voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, but a full-fledged cruise calling at ports in Europe and Central America.
Transport in South America
Air travel within the continent is quite expensive, but cruise travel by sea is widespread (the cost depends on the class of the liner). Railways are used primarily for freight transportation - there are very few passenger trains, but bus service is very common. Traveling by bus, of course, is less comfortable, but very economical (prices vary depending on the country and destinations - tourist or domestic). In addition, car rentals are very cheap here.
Weather
IN different parts South America has different climates. In the north - equatorial zone with the highest temperatures in January, in the south there is a frosty polar zone. This is where you can meet New Year in a bikini under the scorching sun, and then go to a more familiar climate zone at a ski resort in the Andean highlands. In the south of the continent, plump king penguins are walking around with might and main - Antarctica is close!
Hotels
If you find yourself in South America for the first time and are accustomed to international class of service, choose large hotel chains (preferably international). Their rooms cost from 50-90 USD per night. Students and exotic lovers often stay in small hotels or private apartments - the cost can start from 15-20 USD per day. The appearance and amenities of housing will depend on the country, proximity to popular resorts and personal luck. Prices on the page are for October 2018.
Iguazu Falls
South American countries
Venezuela- a state in the north of South America, washed by the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The capital is the city of Caracas. Here there are conditions for a beach holiday - luxurious beaches of the Caribbean coast, a fashionable secluded holiday on the island of Margarita, and for an active one: Avila National Park near Caracas, the Amazonian jungle, the highest waterfall on the planet - Angel, the longest cable car in the world with a length of 12, 6 km and the highest mountain peak in the country - Pico Bolivar (4981 m).
Guyana- a state on the northeastern coast of South America. The capital is Georgetown. Almost 90% of the country is covered by humid jungle. It is precisely because of the unfavorable conditions for tourism in the traditional sense that Guyana is visited primarily by ecotourists. They are fond of the waterfalls of the Guiana Highlands, the Pacaraima mountains, National parks Kaieteur and Iwokrama, where visitors learn the wisdom of rafting, and also go hiking and horseback riding through the Rupununi savannahs.
Guiana(or French Guiana) is the largest overseas region of France, located in northeastern South America. A French visa is required to enter Guiana. The administrative center is the city of Cayenne. 96% of the country's territory is occupied by tropical forests - this region is one of the most forested and environmentally friendly in the world. Tourist centers and villages local residents concentrated in the coastal strip, central areas practically deserted.
Colombia- a state in the north-west of South America, named after the great traveler. The capital is Bogota. Russians are allowed visa-free entry into Colombia for up to 90 days. This country is famous for its historical heritage, many museums and an amazing fusion European culture, brought by Spanish conquistadors in the 15th century, and Indian, still carefully preserved in some areas of the country. Colombia has stunning nature: national parks, the peaks of the Sierra Nevada, the Amazon River, palm valleys and coffee plantations.
Paraguay called the heart of America, since this country is landlocked. Its population has retained its originality: the Guarani Indian dialect appears here state language on par with Spanish. The capital is Asuncion. "Guiana" is translated from Guaranese as " great river" - this refers to the Rio Paraguay (the third largest and longest river on the continent), dividing the country into the arid Gran Chaco plain and the humid areas between the Rio Paraguay and Rio Alta Parana rivers. The country has been favored by ecotourists and connoisseurs of superbly preserved architectural monuments from the period of the Jesuit state.
Peru- a state on the west coast of South America. The capital is Lima. Fans of antiquities know Peru as the site of the Inca settlement - the Inca state of Tawantinsuyu was largest empire pre-Columbian America and still remains a mystery to ethnographers and archaeologists. Here is the famous Machu Picchu, which has become one of the new wonders of the world, and landscapes with the mysterious Nazca Lines, the origin of which scientists still cannot explain. In total, Peru has more than 180 museums and many archaeological parks, lost in the valleys of the Andes.
Visa-free entry into Peru is open for Russian tourists for up to 90 days.
Suriname- a state in the northeast of South America. The capital is Paramaribo. People come here in search of ecotourism in unusual places: tropical forests, Atabru, Kau, Wanotobo waterfalls, the Galibi Nature Reserve, the Sipaliwini region, which occupies most of the territory, and the Trio, Acurio and Wayana Indian reservations.
Uruguay- a state in the southeast of South America. The capital is Montevideo. If you want to relax on the beach, visit Uruguay between January and April. Connoisseurs of colonial architecture will certainly enjoy the sights of Cologna and Montevideo. Every year, a month and a half before Easter, two days before Lent, Catholics in Uruguay host a colorful carnival.
Visa-free entry into Uruguay is open for Russian tourists for up to 90 days.
Chile- a state in the southwest of South America, occupying a long strip from the Pacific coast to the highlands of the Andes. The capital is Santiago. In Chile, balneological tourism is common (33 sanatoriums with water and mud therapy), beach holidays (Arica, Iquique, Valparaiso regions), as well as travel to the national parks of La Campana, Torres del Paine, to Lake San Rafael, to the towns of Altiplano and San Pedro and, of course, to the famous Easter Island. For ski lovers - 15 resorts with slopes from the most extreme to simple.
Ecuador is located in the north-west of the mainland and gets its name from the Spanish “equator”. The capital is Quito. Particularly noteworthy are the Galapagos Islands, famous not only for their fauna, but also for their fantastic beaches, Oriente National Park and a journey through the Amazon, the El Kayas region with 200 lakes and lagoons, the monument ancient culture Ingapirca and museums of the colonial and pre-colonial eras in Quito.
A visa-free regime has been introduced for Russian tourists to visit Ecuador for up to 90 days.
In addition, South America includes the disputed island territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, as well as the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), which are still disputed by Great Britain and Argentina. Tourists arrive to the islands as part of cruise tours. The most common activities are mountaineering, hiking and kayaking. The Falkland Islands (Malvinas) are places almost forgotten by tourists. Their climate is similar to that of Iceland: cold, strong winds, and not only seagulls, but also plump king penguins scurry along the coast.
Nature of South America
After the breakup of the Gondwana continent at the end of the Cretaceous period into Africa, Australia, Antarctica and South America, the latter remained an isolated continent. The Isthmus of Panama, which connects what is now North and South America, appeared about three million years ago, significantly influencing the flora and fauna of the continent.
The variety of landscapes and climatic zones amazes the tourist’s imagination. The Andes, the world's longest mountain range, is also called the "ridge" of South America, stretching almost its entire length for 9 thousand km. The highest peaks - Aconcagua (6960 m) in Argentina and Ojos del Salado (6908 m) are covered with snow all year round. A movement that continues to this day earth's crust in this region causes earthquakes and active volcanic eruptions.
The famous Amazon flows here, the second largest river on the planet, always full of water thanks to its numerous tributaries. On its banks rise the endless Amazonian jungle, so dense that some parts of it remain unexplored to this day.
The Amazon jungle is called the “lungs of the planet.”
In contrast to the Amazon rainforest, the mainland has one of the driest places on the planet, the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. Argentina and Uruguay have hot and dusty pampa steppes.
There are vast lakes, high waterfalls, and rocky islands in South America. From the north, the mainland is washed by the warm waters of the Caribbean Sea, while its southernmost point - the island of Tierra del Fuego - is subject to frequent cold storms. Atlantic Ocean.
MO before WW1.
Advance of the 20th century. - the arrival of a new era. Capitalism is entering the corporate stage and has begun to spread to all regions. The capitalist order is acquiring a new, global character. Arises one system world economic relations. In this process, increasingly deeper contradictions are ripening. Every country is trying to expand its sphere of influence. By the end of the 19th century. the territorial division of the world is practically ending; there are no free territories left. By this time, a sharp discrepancy between the potentials is revealed. England begins to weaken: it does not have enough money for its fleet. Germany and the USA are developing and leading, but do not have colonies. They strive to redistribute spheres of influence. They are trying to solve the problem using the old forceful methods, and the whole world is covered in hot spots. The number of these conflict zones is growing: fr. – English, German – English Politicians believed that these skirmishes on the periphery would not lead to a violation of the theory of equilibrium. They did not realize that the world is one, there is neither center nor periphery. No benefits were found from this; 1 m.v.
By the end of the century, the United States becomes the leader. The doctrine of this country is being formed - an expansion program. The bottom line: we need to gain a foothold in the Caribbean; the key to Central America– Cuba (then – from Spain). Then - Latin America, across the Pacific Ocean to the East, Southeast Asia.
The first step is 1898. Spanish-American War. Spain is losing its colonies, losing Cuba. The policy of penetration into the South began. Am. Ideology – the idea of pan-Americanism: all countries of the Western Hemisphere have common interests, “we are a team.” It is based on the Monroe Doctrine (1723) – “America for the Americans.” At first the slogan had a positive meaning, but by the end of the 19th century. - “America for North Americans" Theodore Roosevelt in 1901 substantiated the principle of US intervention in the internal affairs of Latin America - the US as a guarantor and arbiter, wanted to prevent the penetration of England and other countries into this region.
An example of such a policy is events around Panama Canal. The idea of a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans arose in the mid-19th century. - so that the American fleet can control two oceans. In 1850, England and the United States entered into an agreement to build a canal at the narrowest point, on the Isthmus of Panama. England received the right to free, duty-free passage of its merchant ships through the canal. Problem - Colombia did not agree. The Senate refused to ratify the treaty between England and the United States.
The Americans organized a revolution there. In 1903, the Republic of Panama was created, which was separated from Colombia. In 1914, the construction of the canal was completed. In 1977, under Carter, the deadline for the return of the canal to Panama was set at December 31. 1999.
The state of Saint Christopher (Saint Kitts) and Nevis consists of two islands: Saint Kitts and Nevis. The first one looks like a chicken leg, the second one looks like a chicken egg.
Saint Kitts and Nevis are known for selling their citizenship for about 20 years now. Moreover, the distribution of passports with beautiful fish is on a regular basis here. Unlike neighboring Antigua and Barbuda, which requires new citizens to visit their new homeland for at least a week a year, you don’t even have to come to the country to obtain citizenship in St. Kitts and Nevis. You pay money and after 6 months they send you a passport by mail. That's it, you are a citizen! Especially for those who receive passports of this dear island state by mail, on the first page of the document there is a map of the world, on which an arrow shows where to look for your homeland.
As in Antigua (you don’t have to say the second word in the name of the country), a passport from St. Kitts (you don’t have to say the second word in the name of the country) gives you the right to travel around Europe, Canada, England and other countries without visas. 
Citizenship is given in exchange for investment in the Sugar Industry Diversification Fund. It would be more correct to say: “We are selling you a beautiful passport with fish for $300,000.” But there are romantics in St. Kitts, so they say: “You invest $300,000 in the sugar industry diversification fund, we will use this money to raise the country from its knees, and in gratitude we will give you a passport with wonderful fish!” This doesn’t change the essence, no one will return 300,000.
The second option is to buy real estate, here the entrance starts from 400,000, but for that kind of money there are no real estates for a long time. Therefore, you can buy a share in some villa, or save up several million for a normal house by the sea. Judging by the number of construction projects on the island, there are many people who want to buy citizenship. According to Henley Estates statistics, most of them are Russian and Chinese. 
Unfortunately, no one says how much it costs to renounce this citizenship. You never know. And then suddenly the entrance is a ruble, and the exit is two.
Well, while you are thinking whether you need a passport with fish, I suggest you see what your homeland looks like for $300,000.
Looks nice. 
To the left is the restless Atlantic Ocean, to the right is the calm Caribbean Sea. On the Atlantic there is a beach where turtles lay their eggs. In a few weeks, the season will begin, and the beach will be cordoned off by police and animal rights activists to ensure no one disturbs the turtles.
Former volcano. 
The island is being actively developed, it feels like every second building is for new citizens. 
Apparently, money from the sugar industry diversification fund is not reaching everyone. 
On the horizon is St. Eustatius. 
Capital 
Saint Kitts and Nevis is a former British colony. In the very center of the capital there is a clock that the locals call Big Ben. The clock has long stopped, just like time here. 
Although we recently celebrated 30 years of independence. In honor of the holiday, the fountain in the central park was restored and painted. 3 beautiful nymphs became blacks after restoration. I wonder if this is banter, or if the locals have always seen black women in these sculptures? 
Nothing has changed in the capital for 30 years. 
The aborigines carefully preserve the colonial legacy. 
There is a telephone booth here. The glass was stolen, the telephone has not been working for a long time, but the booth is regularly painted in the signature red color. 
In general, the locals are very neat. Everyone parks correctly, no one throws trash on the street. 
Previously, the narrow-gauge railway served sugar cane and cotton plantations; now the train carries tourists around the island 
Everyone runs in St. Kitts. You’re driving in the morning, and there are herds of runners along the side of the road. 
Monkeys sit in trees along the roads. 
Soon everything here will be built up with villas. 
It's already built up here. All this is real estate in exchange for citizenship. 
The second island, Nevis, is a 10-minute boat ride. Once a year there is a swim between the islands. 
One of the construction sites. There will be a hotel here soon. 
You can buy a house like this for 600,000. 
More precisely, this is not a house, but a hotel room. There is one bedroom inside. 
The most interesting thing is that once you buy this house, you will not be able to live in it. Since it is part of the hotel, the hotel will rent it out and share the proceeds with you. Theoretically, you will return your investment in 10-20 years. You can only live for free for a little more than a month a year. But 5 years after receiving citizenship, you can sell the house to the next lover of passports with fish. 
There will be villas here. The site is worth $2 million. 
A house like this, 500 square meters, costs $4,500,000 with a plot. They buy it in parts, usually 10 owners. Further, each owner has 5 weeks a year when he can dispose of the house (live or rent it out). All 10 receive citizenship 
The Saint Kitts are somewhat similar to the Russians. Christmas has already passed 3 weeks ago, and the whole city is decorated with cotton wool and penguins. 
Apparently, here the decorations are not taken down until spring, just like we don’t throw away the Christmas tree. 
Local police officers have the same facial expressions as most of their Russian colleagues. “Is there anything? What if I find it? 
By the way, Saint Kitts and Nevis is the smallest state in the Western Hemisphere both in terms of area and population. 
Description of the presentation by individual slides:
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Topic: Countries of the Western Hemisphere in the 19th century. The countries of the Western Hemisphere freed themselves from colonial dependence before European countries created a system of using the resources of the colonies for their own industrial development. Due to geopolitical peculiarities, America avoided re-colonization. All this gave a special character to the life of its peoples. Homework: § 48, p/r. according to § 44-48
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Plan Liberation revolutions in Latin America USA in the first half of the 19th century. American Civil War
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GOAL: How did the formation of independent states take place in Latin America? Questions: - the course, results and significance of the liberation wars in Latin America in the first half of the 19th century. - features of the economic and political development of Latin American countries in the 19th century. Latin America in the 19th and early 20th centuries: a time of change.
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1492 - Columbus's discovery of America. XV-XVI centuries - colonization of South America (Spain, Portugal). XVII century - colonization of North America (England and France).
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Social structure of colonial society 1. White natives of the metropolis: representatives of the noble nobility and wealthy merchants (highest administrative, military and church positions). 2. Creoles - “purebred” descendants of Europeans born in the colonies: large and medium-sized landowners, the middle layer of bureaucrats. 3. Mestizos (descendants of mixed marriages of whites and Indians); 4. mulattoes (white and black); 5. sambo (Indians and blacks) - were deprived of civil rights: they could not participate in elections of local authorities, they could not hold positions of officials and officers; craft, trade free professions.
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Multi-structure economy (XVI-XVIII centuries) Subsistence patriarchal economy of Indian tribes Feudal structure Slave-owning structure (plantation slavery, peons - debt slaves) Small-scale commodity economy (urban crafts, farms of peasant colonists) Elements of a capitalist economy.
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END XVIII-BEGINNING XIX century - strengthening liberation struggle in Latin America Reason: aggravation of contradictions between the population of the colonies and the metropolis: strengthening of financial and administrative control; arbitrariness of the colonial administration; tax increase. Example: Aug 22 1791 – uprising on the island of Haiti (French Saint-Domingue). At the head of the uprising was Toussaint Louverture. RESULT: winning freedom in 1804
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Main periods of the struggle for independence Period I (1810-1818) Declaration of independence of most colonies, creation of republics. Creole revolutionaries were unable to attract the masses to their side. 1810 - massive peasant uprisings in Mexico under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo. 1813 - Mexican independence was proclaimed. 1816 - Argentina. 1818 - Chile gained independence. II period (1819-1826) Liberation of the territory of Central and South America; formation of independent republics throughout the territory spanish colonies except Cuba and Puerto Rico. 1819 - Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador. 1821 - Peru. 1821 - creation of Gran Colombia (Venezuela, Panama, Ecuador). 1824 - Mexico. 1826 - Upper Peru - Bolivia
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Independent republics in South America: Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Chile, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Argentina. In Central America: Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador. Brazil separated from Portugal in 1822, but became a republic in 1889; 1844 - Dominican Republic; 1898 - Cuba; 1903 - Republic of Cuba. RESULT: in the 19th century. Together with the Mexican Republic and the Republic of Haiti, 20 Latin American states were formed. RESULT
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State structure new countries' Constitutions: president, two chambers, a narrow circle of voters. Dominant position: large landowners. Preservation of slavery of blacks and Indians, peonage of the peasantry (abolition of slavery from 1811 (Chile) to 1888 (Brazil)).
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The backwardness of Latin American countries, the incompleteness of bourgeois-democratic transformations. Economic and financial dependence on foreign capital. Grand total
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2. USA in the first half of the 19th century. Victory in the war with England and the creation of an independent state created the conditions for the development of the modernization process in the United States; by the end of the 19th century, the United States had become world power. The first task that the United States solved was to increase its territory. After the end of the Revolutionary War, the country's territory stretched from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and in the mid-19th century it expanded to the Pacific Ocean. Way to the West
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Lands were intensively taken away from the Indians, on whose lands the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio arose. Wars with the Indians
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The Path to the Ocean In 1803, the United States bought Louisiana from France, although it did not even know its borders. Spain was forced to cede Florida. Texas was captured in 1845. As a result of the war with Mexico 1846-48. New Mexico, California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah were annexed. RESULT: the US border began to run along the Pacific coast.
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Emigrants arriving in the United States moved to the West, seeking to obtain land there. In accordance with the law of 1841 a migrant could register the land if there was a house on it. The hut is the earth
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To do this, they built light huts and dragged them from site to site. First day in America
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The West was naturally rich; besides, gold was discovered in California. New states were formed - Nebraska and Dakota, and in 1867 the United States bought Alaska from Russia. Land of the Free
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The conditions for the development of industry and the industrial revolution in the USA were favorable: the USA used the European achievements of scientific and technological revolution; the flow of emigrants provided skilled workers and specialists. Problems: competition of English goods and the departure of workers to the West slowed down the PP; the country needed to solve the transport problem. The USA is covered by a network of rivers and lakes. The Americans took advantage of this and actively built canals. Already by 1840. The length of the canals was about 5 thousand km. Evans' steam engine was actively used. In 1838, the American steamships Sirius and Gray Western crossed the Atlantic. From the second quarter of the 19th century. The USA is actively building railways. Railroad fever Industrial Revolution in the USA
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Industrial Revolution in Agriculture The Industrial Revolution also affected agriculture, because most Americans in the mid-19th century. were farmers: some used farm labor, some began to use machinery; A real revolution in agriculture was made by the invention of the mechanical harvester by Cyrus McCormick. RESULT of agricultural development: homemade tools, clothing, and household items disappeared from the life of farmers. CONCLUSION: the development of agriculture contributed to the development of industry.
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The Industrial Revolution almost did not touch the south. In the southern states, the plantation economy, based on the use of slave labor, flourished. The exploitation of slaves generated huge profits. This product was in great demand, and despite the law of 1809, slaves were smuggled. The situation of the slaves was terrible. Blacks were bought and resold, families were destroyed, terrible punishments and torture were applied for misdeeds and disobedience, especially as racism was gaining strength. Negro slaves responded to merciless exploitation with uprisings and flight to the North or Canada. Slavery
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Black rebellion, abolitionism (movement in the United States for the abolition of slavery) Nat Turner's rebellion is an example of the struggle of blacks against slavery. White Americans also supported the blacks' struggle. The Age of Enlightenment has left its mark on most US citizens. Since the 30s of the 19th century, a mass abolitionist movement developed in the United States. One of them was John Brown.
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Republican Party In 1854, the Republican Party was formed in the USA - an alliance of the bourgeoisie and farmers. Republicans demanded a ban on slavery in the West and the distribution of Western lands for free. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln became President of the United States from the Republican Party.
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REASON FOR THE CIVIL WAR: The anti-slavery president aroused acute dissatisfaction among the planters. Eleven slaveholding states rebelled and formed a confederation with the capital in the city of Richmond, planter D. Davis became president. War of North and South
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3. Civil War (1861-1865) This division of the country caused a civil war that lasted 4 years (R. Lee - the army of the southerners; W. Grant, W. Sherman - the northerners). In 1862, Lincoln's government imposed taxes on the rich and passed a law confiscating rebel property. On May 20, a law was passed according to which a US citizen who served in the army could receive 160 acres of land in the West (the Homestead Law). After 5 years, the plot became property. On January 1, 1863, a law was passed abolishing slavery without any ransom. Emancipation Proclamation
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RESULTS and SIGNIFICANCE of the American Civil War In April 1865, the Confederate army ceased resistance. The civil war ended with the victory of the North. The unity of the country was preserved, democracy, justice, humanity won. And 5 days later, on April 14, 1865, A. Lincoln was killed by a supporter of slavery, J. Booth. In February 1865, an amendment to the Constitution was passed banning slavery forever. The reconstruction of the South began. But former slaves didn't receive land, they didn't have equal rights with whites. The emerging terror organizations, the Ku Klux Klan, made the lives of black Americans full of horror and hopelessness.
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Lincoln's Assassination The last photograph of Abraham Lincoln during his lifetime, taken on April 10, 1865, five days before the assassination. The Civil War ended with the surrender of the Confederate States of America on April 9, 1865. The country had to carry out Southern Reconstruction and begin the process of integrating blacks into American society. Five days after the end of the war, on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, at the performance of My American Cousin (at Ford's Theatre), pro-Southern actor John Booth entered the presidential box and shot Lincoln in the head. In the morning next day Abraham Lincoln died without regaining consciousness. Millions of Americans, white and black, came to pay their last respects to their president during the two-and-a-half week journey of the funeral train from Washington to Springfield, where Lincoln was buried in Oak Ridge Cemetery. Tragic death Lincoln contributed to the creation around his name of an aura of a martyr who gave his life for the reunification of the country and the liberation of slaves.
The line of the Western Hemisphere represented a new, no longer Eurocentric, but, on the contrary, a global line, opposed to the Eurocentric lines of the global picture of the world, the implementation of which called into question the meaning of old Europe. The public international legal history of this new line begins with the proclamation of the so-called Monroe Doctrine in December 1823.
1. In the political testament of US President General Washington, in the famous farewell letter, nothing is yet said about the Western Hemisphere in a geographical sense. But in President Monroe's message of December 2, 1823, the word "hemisphere" is used quite deliberately and, moreover, is especially emphasized. In it, the space that Americans consider theirs is called as America, so and this continent And this hemisphere(this hemisphere). Whether intentional or not, the expression hemisphere turns out to be connected with the fact that the political system of the Western Hemisphere as a regime of freedom is opposed to a political system of a different kind, the then absolute monarchies Europe. From this point on, the Monroe Doctrine and the concept of the Western Hemisphere were inextricably linked with each other. They represent the sphere special interests United States." Thus, they designate a space much larger than state territory, region in the international legal sense. Traditional American international law legally established it as a zone of self-defense. IN global world every true empire laid claim to a similar sphere extending beyond its national borders
1 A. Lawrence Lowell. The Frontiers of the United States // Foreign Affairs. Bd 17. 1931. S. 663 f.
its supreme spatial authority. However, this circumstance rarely occurred to the lawyers who crowded each other and were obsessed with their petty exaggerated territorialism of the central European countries. For over a hundred years, much has been said about the Monroe Doctrine, but its significance for the international legal spatial structure of the Earth has nevertheless not become the subject of serious thought. Even the precise geographical determination of the boundaries of the Western Hemisphere was not of particular interest. America was so far from Europe at that time.
In 1939, for the first time, the impression arose that the expression Western Hemisphere stuck and became habitual. These words were used in important statements of the United States government, so that, even in the new conflict, they seemed from the very beginning to become a kind of slogan under which the United States carried out its policy. 1 It might therefore seem surprising that other non-Washington government statements by official representatives of American states, such as the joint resolutions of the American foreign ministers adopted in Panama (October 1939) and Havana (July 1940), did not use the expression “Western Hemisphere” ; they simply spoke of "America", the "American continent" (singular)
1 Thus, in a message from the United States government made in June 1940 and addressed to the German and Italian governments, as well as to the governments of other European countries, the following passage is contained: “In accordance with traditional policy towards the Western Hemisphere, the United States announces that it will not tolerate transfer of any region geographically belonging to the Western Hemisphere from American power to non-American power.” Cm.: Jessup. American Journal of Law. 34. 1940. S. 709.
or about "areas geographically belonging to America." However, for example, in early May 1943, the President of Brazil, in his statement regarding American occupation the French island of Martinique indicated that this island belongs to the Western Hemisphere.
To understand the spatial problem of today's international law, the above-mentioned Panama Declaration of October 3, 1939 has a very special significance, which we must consider first. This declaration establishes a certain security zone, designed to protect the neutrality of American states, within which the warring parties must not undertake any hostile actions." The line delimiting the neutral security zone is drawn 300 nautical miles from both American coasts, in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Off the Brazilian coast, this line passes through 24 ° W., thereby approaching 20° W., along which the cartographic line traditionally ran that separated the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Practical significance The American security zone thus limited in October 1939 soon faded away as the supposed neutrality of the American states lost its force. However, for understanding
"The decisive point in this declaration is in the following way: “In the exercise of their original right, the American Republics, while they remain neutral, may, as a means of continental self-defense, require that the bodies of water adjacent to the American continent and considered by the aforesaid Republics to be of special importance and used for the direct communication of those Republics with each other, remain free from any hostile action or attempted such action, whether from land, sea or air."
spatial problem of modern international law, it remains extremely important and fundamental. Firstly, unlike the policy of the United States, which does not stop at such traditional boundaries, the establishment of this zone was based on the concept "America" and the limitation it contains. In addition, the colossal, one might say sensational, consequence of its establishment is that in the course of it a leap was made from three straight to three hundred miles, thanks to which the measures and scale of the traditional three-mile zone and traditional criteria for measuring coastal waters were reduced to absurdity. And finally, the establishment of this zone also subordinates the open ocean to the regional spatial idea, delimiting in favor of neutral states a certain area of the open sea, which is generally regarded as an arena of military operations. The two-spheres-aspect of the Monroe doctrine, two-sphere configuration of the Monroe Doctrine, that is, its configuration, which combines land and sea aspects, underwent one important change thanks to the Panama Declaration of 1939. Previously, when talking about the Monroe Doctrine, by and large, only the solid land of the Western Hemisphere was meant, and the ocean was considered from the point of view of the freedom of the seas of the 19th century. Now America's borders extend to the sea. 1 This means the appearance
Quincy Wright. The American Journal of International Law. pd 34. April 1940. S. 248. Quincy Wright believes that the Monroe Doctrine in new form returns to the ideas of mare ciausum |closed sea], which at one time were divided
° the Portuguese and the Spaniards and with whom Grotius fought.
This parallel seems to me incorrect, since it is still too largely focused on the "National" representations of the pre-global spatial ""Row".
the creation of a new, modern form of sea seizure and the abolition of the results of all previous sea seizures.
The last circumstance is especially important. In world history, the transition from land to sea has always led to unforeseen consequences and results. IN in this case it affects the fundamental structure of previous European international law and the very fact of the separation of solid land and the high seas. While under Western hemisphere only the continental space of land was meant; not only a certain mathematical-geographical boundary line was associated with it, but also a certain physical-geographical and historical image. Now the expansion and spread of the Western Hemisphere to the sea region makes this concept even more abstract, i.e., turns it into the concept of an empty space, defined primarily by mathematical and geographical flat space. In the expanse and surface of the sea, in a purer form, it appears, as Friedrich Ratzel puts it, space in itself. Military scientific and strategic discussions sometimes use the radical formulation of one French author, according to which the sea is a smooth, unobstructed plain on which strategy dissolves into geometry. True, it is precisely this purely flat character of space that leads to the removal of the opposition between land and sea and the emergence of a certain new spatial structure, as soon as another dimension is added to the already existing ones - air space.
2. Impressed by the political use of the expression "Western Hemisphere" In recent years, professional geographers have also taken up the problem of the Western Hemisphere. Of particular interest is the geographical clarification of the boundaries of the Western Hemisphere, which was carried out by the geographer of the State Department of the United States.
of the United States by S. W. Boggs in connection with the creation of the area covered by the Monroe Doctrine. Boggs proceeds from the fact that in general the Western Hemisphere is understood as being discovered by Christopher Columbus New World, but what is the concept? West And East are not determined either by nature or by any universal agreement. Cartographers used to define the Western Hemisphere by drawing a line along the Atlantic Ocean corresponding to the 20th meridian west of Greenwich. In accordance with this, the Azores and Cape Verde Islands belong to the Western Hemisphere, which, however, and Boggs admits, contradicts their historical affiliation with the Old World. Whereas the American geographer almost entirely classifies Greenland as part of the Western Hemisphere, although it was not discovered by Christopher Columbus. 1 About
1 Greenland and even Iceland (cf. Stefansson's 1930 book on Iceland) are included in the Western Hemisphere by American geographers. At the Greenland trial in the Permanent International Arbitration at The Hague, the Monroe Doctrine was not, as far as I can tell, used in any way in the discussions. Gustav Smedal (“Greenland and the Monroe Doctrine”) reports that the US State Department in 1931, responding to a corresponding request, stated that it did not have any printed material on the use of the Monroe Doctrine in relation to Greenland and the polar regions . The geographic map mentioned by Smedal, compiled in 1916 by the North American historian and lawyer Albert Bushnell Hart (a map of those areas covered by the Monroe Doctrine), has no significance for the issue we are considering. It is nothing more than just geographical map, reflecting the political development of the American continents in the 19th century. In his book (Albert Bushnell Hart. The Monroe Doctrine. An Interpretation. London, 1916) Bushnell Hart does not pay attention at all to the geographical problem important for delimiting the Western Hemisphere. Under the heading “Suggested
He does not speak about the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions. On the Pacific side of the globe, he does not simply draw a boundary line at 160° longitude, which would correspond to 20°, but proposes as a boundary line the so-called international date line, i.e. 180° longitude, of course, providing for some deviations from it in the north and south. Islands west of Alaska, as well New Zealand he places it entirely in the Western Hemisphere, while Australia belongs to the Eastern Hemisphere. The fact that a gigantic area of the Pacific Ocean, at least as he says, temporarily falls into the Western Hemisphere, Boggs (before the outbreak of war with Japan) does not at all consider to create any practical difficulty, believing that this can only excite cartographers. 1 The American international lawyer P. S. Jessup in the fall of 1940, in addition to his report on the Boggs memorandum, wrote: “Today the scale is rapidly changing, and the interest that we felt in Cuba in 1860 is today matched by our interest in Hawaii; perhaps the argument of self-defense will lead to the United States one day being forced to fight a war on the banks of the Yangtze, Volga and Congo.”
For a professional geographer, the problems associated with drawing such lines are nothing new. First of all, it should be noted that from an abstract point of view, the prime meridian can be drawn anywhere and anywhere, just like
Geographical Limitation (proposed geographical limitation)" it discusses the advisability of excluding certain areas of South America, such as Chile or Argentina, from the scope of the Monroe Doctrine. The author believes that this will only facilitate the colonization of these areas by Germany.
1 Quote By: P.S. Jessup. The Monroe Doctrine // The American Journal of International Law. Bd 34. October 1940. S. 704.
how - from a chronological point of view - any moment in time can be made the starting point of chronology. It also goes without saying that the idea of the Western and, accordingly, the Eastern Hemisphere is problematic because the Earth has the shape of a ball rotating around an axis stretching from north to south. Therefore, it seems to us that north and south can be more precisely defined. The equator divides the Earth into North and Southern Hemisphere; this division does not pose the same problem as dividing the Earth into eastern and western halves. The Earth has a north and south pole, but no west or east. Oppositions associated with the idea of the right or left side are perceived to a greater extent as relative (or in any case, this relativity has a different character) than the opposition of top and bottom. This, for example, is manifested in the fact that such a term as the “Nordic race,” although purely geographical in its literal meaning, nevertheless seems more accurate than the equally geographical opposition of the Western and Eastern races. Everyone knows that the so-called Western Hemisphere can be called with the same success, and in some respects, perhaps even more justifiably, Eastern hemisphere. It was noted long ago that north and south, for immediate perception, signify the extremes of darkness and light, while east and west pass into each other and “flow towards each other, partly towards darkness, partly towards light.” Therefore, all artificially established boundaries, especially those drawn along the ocean, remain unreliable and arbitrary,
G-Pfleiderer. Die Philosophie des Heraklit von Ephesus. 1886. 162.
unless based on recognized treaty demarcations. 1
3. But the expression "Western Hemisphere" Along with the mathematical and geographical side of this distinction, it also has global political, historical and international legal content. Moreover, it is here, in the political and international legal sphere, that the sources of its true strength are located, but as a result, its internal boundaries. Here is hidden his “arcanum”, 2 the secret of his undeniable historical effectiveness. It belongs to the great historical tradition and is associated with very definite, specific phenomena of the modern understanding of the Earth and history; for this expression itself represents the most important in comparison with both types of Gaua And amity line a special case of manifestation of what we named above global linear thinking Western rationalism.
The American line of the Western Hemisphere is neither a Gaua nor an amity line. All mentioned by us
1 The young German geographer Arthur Kühn in his article
"On the concept of the Western Hemisphere" (Arthur Kihn. Zum BegrifT
der Westlichen Hemisphere // Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur
Erdkunde zu Berlin, August 1941. S. 222 ff.; article supplied
visual maps with various relations marked on them
corresponding lines) subjected to critical research
The key term itself is “Western Hemisphere”. He
indicates "geographical uncertainty" this time
borders and believes that if there is a practical
nical need to divide the spheres of influence of the European
and the American continents, then mathematically this section
tion can only be achieved through
boundary line spaced at an equal distance from
islands belonging to these continents. But such a mess
the nominative line will remain the property of the mathematical geographer
physical theory and will dissect the spheres of interests and possessions of times
personal powers.
2 Mystery (lat.).
formerly the lines are associated with a particular form of land grabbing, namely land grabbing carried out by European powers. Whereas the implementation of the American line, which already follows from the message of President Monroe (1823), was directed precisely against European claims to seize land. Therefore, from the American point of view, it is initially defensive in nature and represents an expression of protest addressed to the powers of old Europe regarding further European seizures of land on the American continent. It is not difficult to understand that thereby this line only delimits the free space for our own land grabs, that is, for intra-American land grabs on the then still vastly free American continent. But the fact that America took a position hostile to the old monarchical Europe did not mean a refusal to belong to the sphere of European civilization and the international legal community that was then still European in essence.
Moreover, one first-class specialist, Bernard Fay, established that the word "civilization" appears at the beginning XIX century and was created with the express purpose of emphasizing the continuity of the connection between ancient Europe and France and the United States of America. 1 Neither President Washington's Farewell Address (1796) nor Monroe's provided the basis for any non-European international law. On the contrary, from the very beginning the United States of America felt itself to be a representative of European civilization and European international law. 2 The Ibero-American
" Bernard Fay. Civilization Americaine. Paris, 1939. S. 9. Thus, in the Justice Story (History of Justice) regarding the case of “La Jeune Eugenie” (1822; 2 Mason 409, Fed. Cas. Nr. 1551) it is said about “Principles universally recognized as such by all civilized communities or even by those constituting what may be called the ^nnstian states of Europe" [principles recognized as
European states also, of course, considered themselves to be part of the “family of European nations” ts^ community of European international law. Without exception, all textbooks on American international law that appeared in the 19th century proceed with the greatest naturalness from this claim, although they speak of some special American international law based on European international law. Thus, the global line that emerges with the advent of the Western Hemisphere, although its very implementation is directed primarily against old Europe and with the aim of excluding this Europe from the Western Hemisphere, can only in a certain sense be called anti-European. In some other sense, it instead marks the moral and cultural claim that America represents the free, true and real Europe. However, initially this claim was veiled by the fact that it was associated with strict isolation. Moreover, at first glance, the boundary line of the Western Hemisphere represented lines of isolation in some specific way. Compared to the distributive gaua and the atonal amity line, it is something third, something completely special, namely the line of self-isolation.
Let us turn to the clear and consistent formulations in which this way of thinking expresses itself, most clearly manifested in the so-called Jeffersonian line. To do this, it is enough to quote
such as all civilized communities, or even the communities forming what may be called the Christian states of Europe].
1 Kent discusses international law in his Commentaries on American Law (1836); Henry Wheaton. History of the Law of Nations in Europe and America. New York, 1845 Calvo in 1868 entitled his famous work “Dereclw Internacional Tebguo y Practico de Europa y America”; Wed also the work of S. Vianna cited above.
Here are two famous sayings dating from January 2, 1812 and August 4, 1820. They deserve to arouse our interest simply by their connection with the promulgation of Monroe's message (1823). In both of these statements, hatred of England and contempt for old Europe clearly make themselves felt, and it should be borne in mind that the United States during this period opposed England as the guarantor of European naval law. “The fate of England,” says Jefferson early in 1812, “is almost sealed, and its present form of existence contributes to its decline. If our strength allows us to give our hemisphere a law, then it should be that the meridian passing through the middle of the Atlantic Ocean should become the demarcation line between war and peace, on this side of which all hostile actions would cease and the wolf and the lamb would lie peacefully side by side together". Something of the nature of the friendship line is still clearly felt here. However, America is no longer “free” in the sense in which it was considered in XVII-XVIII centuries, and is not an arena of unrestrained struggle, but, on the contrary, represents an area of the world, while the rest of the world is a theater of military operations, and these military operations are carried out by some other people with whom America, in principle, wants nothing to do with. What was typical of the old lines of friendship, their atonal meaning and character, here seems to turn into its opposite. In 1820, Jefferson declared: “The day is not far distant when we shall demand, in all forms, to draw across the ocean a dividing meridian, which will become the boundary between the two hemispheres, on this side of which nothing European will be felt, just as on the other side there will be nothing European.” American." As in Monroe's message itself, the expression "Western Hemisphere" is constantly used.
is such that the United States identifies itself with everything that constitutes the essence of this hemisphere from a moral, cultural or political point of view.
We should not exaggerate the significance of these ideas of Jefferson. However, they should have been mentioned so that the true historical and world-political nature of the line of isolation we are considering would become obvious. In spiritual and historical terms, the source of consciousness of one’s chosenness is the Calvinist-Puritan position. It continues to exist in a deistic and secularized form, often becoming even more acute, for it goes without saying that the feeling absolute dependence from God has not undergone parallel secularization. In the last quarter of the 18th century, after the Declaration of Independence (1775), the American sense of chosenness acquired, thanks to France, new moral forces of a purely secular, this-worldly nature. The philosophers of the Enlightenment, among whom such great names as Raynal and Condorcet should be mentioned, created new picture human history. The conquest of America, the great seizure of American soil, hitherto justified by both Catholic and Protestant conquerors with the mission of spreading the Christian faith, now turns out, from a humanistic point of view, to be an act inhuman in its cruelty. The material that made it possible to arrive at such a point of view was not difficult to find in Las Casas. Whereas the adoption of American declarations on human rights, on the contrary, is now understood as a kind of new birth of humanity. For Hobbes, the 17th-century philosopher, America was still a region of the state of nature in the sense of a pre-state, free struggle of selfish instincts and interests. And for Locke, as we have already seen, it is, albeit in a different way, but in the same
degree remained in a certain original and natural state. At the end of the 18th century, philosophers French Enlightenment begin to view free, independent North America as a region of the state of nature in a completely different, directly opposite sense, namely, as a region of the state of nature in the sense of Rousseau, that is, as a territory not yet affected by the decay of over-civilized Europe. Crucial Benjamin Franklin's stay in France was significant in this regard, not only because it led to the alliance between France and the United States (1778), but also because it contributed to the establishment of this spiritual brotherhood. Thus, America for the second time became for the European consciousness a space of freedom and naturalness, this time, however, filled with positive content, which radically changed the old meaning of the global line of struggle and gave isolation some positive content.
In its political meaning, fundamental isolation is an attempt to create a new spatial order of the Earth. It must promote this by separating the realm of guaranteed peace and guaranteed freedom from the realm of despotism and corruption. This American idea of isolation has long been known and has been discussed many times. Here for us important has its connection with the spatial order of the Earth and the structure of international law. If the Western Hemisphere represents an unspoiled New World, not yet affected by the decomposition of the old world, then it is quite natural that in international legal terms it should be in a different situation compared to the decomposed Old World, which until now has been the center, carrier and creator ev Ropeian-Christian International Law, jus Publicum Europaeum. If America is the land on
in which the chosen ones found salvation in order to achieve a new, purer existence there in pristine conditions, then all European claims to American soil disappear. American Earth and in the international legal sense now acquires some absolutely new status compared to any previous international legal status of the land. As we have seen, several varieties of such territorial status have emerged within the jus publicum Europaeum. But now American soil does not correspond to any of the types of territorial status that were known to European international law in the 19th century. America can now be considered neither an unowned land open to free occupation, nor a colonial land, nor a European land, such as the state territory of European states, nor an arena of struggle, as envisaged by the drawing of the old lines of friendship, nor a region in which, as in Asian countries, the law of extraterritoriality of Europeans and consular jurisdiction would apply.
What, then, in accordance with the implementation of this new lines represents the international legal status of the Western Hemisphere in the context of the new European international legal order? Something completely extraordinary, exceptional. At least from a strictly coherent point of view, it is not enough to say that America is some kind of refuge of justice and decency. The real meaning of this line of chosenness, rather, lies in the fact that in general only on American soil do conditions exist that, while representing a normal situation, contribute to the formation of rational modes of behavior and “habits”, 1 open up opportunities
1 Customs, habits (English).
for the existence of law and peace. In old Europe, where unfreedom reigns, even a person who is kind and decent in essence and character can become a criminal and a lawbreaker. In America, the difference between good and evil, right and wrong, decent people and criminals are not confused by false situations and false “habits.” The deep conviction that America is in a normal and pacified state, while Europe, on the contrary, is abnormal and unpacified, made itself felt as early as in a speech to Mel Frank during the Geneva League's discussion of the problem of minorities (1925). The global line drawn in this way is a kind of quarantine line, a plague cordon, isolating the infected area from the healthy area. In President Monroe's message this idea was not expressed as openly as in the statements of Jefferson that we quoted. But those who know how to read and have ears to hear will be able to detect in this text Monroe a serious moral indictment brought against the entire political system European monarchies and giving the American line of separation and isolationism its moral and political meaning and mythological force.
Quite remarkable is the fact that according to the idea of the Western Hemisphere, it is Europe, the old West, that is considered its enemy. This formula is not directed against old Asia or Africa, but against the old West. The New West claims to be the true West, the true Europe. The new West, America, seeks to displace the former West, Europe, from its world-historical topos, depriving it of its previously inherent status as the center of the world. The West, understood in all the moral, civilizational and political sense of the word, is by no means Abolished and denied, not overthrown, but only
Carl Schmitg
moves. Europe is ceasing to be the center of gravity of international law. The center of civilization is moving even further to the West, to America. Old Europe, like old Asia and Africa, is becoming a thing of the past. It should be emphasized again and again that the concepts “old” and “new” are in this case not only criteria for judgment and evaluation, but primarily criteria for classification, order and localization. As such, they constitute grounds For highest historical, political and international legal claims. They changed the structure of traditional European international law long before, starting in 1890, the European international legal community began to expand with the addition of Asian states led by Japan, ultimately becoming a community of non-spatial, universalist international law.
We do not consider here the question of how morally and politically were the claims of Jefferson and Monroe, and the extent to which their belief that America represented a morally and politically new world had a rational basis. A part of European culture was indeed concentrated and further developed on American soil. And the Europeans of old Europe, without losing their dignity in the least, must admit that such men as George Washington and Simon Bolivar were great Europeans, and even more than that, they were much closer to the ideal meaning contained in this word than most British and continental European statesmen their time. If we take into account both the decomposition of English parliamentarism and the degeneration of French absolutism XVIII century, as well as the narrowness and lack of freedom of the post-Napoleonic restorations
Metternichian reaction of the 19th century, then America really had enormous opportunities to become a true and real Europe.
Therefore, America's claim to be the bulwark of law and freedom has become a historical factor of the greatest significance. It corresponded to strong European tendencies and represented real political energy, or, to use modern formulation, colossal military potential. 1
1 The outstanding work of Bernard Fay, already quoted at the beginning of this chapter (Bernard Fay. L "Esprit Revolitionnaire en France et aux Etats-Unis a la fin du XVIII siecle. Paris, 1925) should have been supplemented, covering primarily the period of the Restoration. However, this book by B. Fay already contains important provisions that allow us to understand the origins of ideas Tocqueville and the astonishing predictions he makes in the final part of the first volume of his "Democratic en Amerique" (1935). One statement of the young Augustin Thierry also deserves special mention. Augustin Thierry, as a historian and sociologist, was a pioneer in both the field of class and in area racial theory XIX century, at the same time being an exponent of the powerful European impulse emanating from the ideas of Saint-Simon. In his article “Sur 1" antipathie de race qui divise la nation francaise [On the racial antipathy that divides the French nation]” (Censeur europeen. 2 April 1820) he says: if Europe is destined to plunge again into the old barbarism feudal Middle Ages, into the abyss of class and racial hostility, we now have a way out that our ancestors were deprived of: “La mer est libre, et un monde libre est au-dela.” As for Germany, the following work provides good material for research: Hildegard Meyer. Nordamerika im Urteil des deutschen Schrifttums bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Hamburg, 1929 (“Overseas history.” Series of essays published by Adolf Rein. t - 9); in this work (S. 540 ff.) the Quote from Rotteck’s “World History” regarding the contrast between the despotic East and the free West deserves special attention. Europe, Rottek argues, is once again returning to the shackles of historical law. The last phrase " General history" Rottek reads: "The sacred fire, formerly guarded by Europe, she
This source of historical power received an impetus back in the 19th century, especially thanks to the European revolutions of 1848. Millions of people who were enchanted and lost their illusions in Europe once left the old, reactionary ^ 8 ropa and moved to America, trying to begin
pristine conditions, new life. The false Caesarism of Napoleon III and the reactionary tendencies that appeared after 1848 in other European countries showed that Europe is not able to resolve those social, political and spiritual issues* that declared themselves with such colossal force in the decade preceding 1848, in France, Germany and Italy. In this regard, we should not forget that the “Communist Manifesto” appears in 1847, and Bakunin came to Berlin back in 1842. Instead of looking for an answer to these questions, all the then European peoples and Governments after 1848 hastened to turn away from all those deep problems that were reflected in the ideologies of socialism, communism, anarchism and nihilism, covering the gaping abyss with legitimist or legalist, conservative or constitutionalist facades.The great critics of this era, such as Kierkegaard and Donoso Cortes , Bruno Bauer and Jacob Burckhardt, Baudelaire and, finally, even Nietzsche, remained ununderstood by their contemporaries as individuals. Next to such a purely reactionary Europe, America's awareness that it is a new and true Europe becomes a majestic world-historical demand. In such a situation, America was able to dare to reject the cadaverous poison 1 aB r that exuded this world-historical k ^ lY1 and awaken to life world-political ones capable of establishing something new jus gentium.
she herself will only be able to see in the distance, opposite the Atlantic Ocean.”
But already at the end of this century, around 1900, these great possibilities, both externally and internally, appeared in a slightly different light. The 1898 war against Spain became a foreign policy signal that the world understood as a turn towards undisguised imperialism. This imperialism did not cling to the old ideas about the Western Hemisphere, but rushed deep into the Pacific Ocean and to Far East. With regard to the vast expanses of Asia, the outdated Monroe Doctrine has been replaced by the requirement to pursue a policy open doors! From a global-geographical point of view, this was a step from East to West. The American continent, in relation to the recently emerging East Asian space on a world-historical scale, occupied the position of the Eastern continent, while old Europe a hundred years earlier, as a result of world-historical flourishing, found itself forced out into Eastern hemisphere. For spiritual geography This change in lighting is a highly relevant topic. Not in last resort Impressed by this change in 1930, the the dawn of the New World, which should connect America and China. 2
Just as fundamentally as a result of these world-historical movements of the West to the East, the old faith in the New World changed from within
L. T. Mahan. The Interests of America in International Conditions. London, 1910. S. 117 f. Mayhan already emphasizes here that in relation to Europe, in particular in relation to the German Empire, the “noninterference” of the Monroe Doctrine does not mean non-presence. Mayhan's idea of uniting both Anglo-Saxon empires contained a proposal to merge the new world with the old. .., Hermann Graf Keyserlingk. America. Aufgang einer neuen W elt- 1930.
as a result of the development of America itself. At the same time that the foreign policy imperialism of the United States took shape, the internal position of the United States also underwent changes: the era when they represented something new came to an end. The prerequisites and foundations of everything that could be called in the earthly and real, and not just ideological sense novelty, disappeared Already around 1890, freedom of internal land acquisition ceased to exist in the United States and settlement of previously free territory was completed. Until this time, the old boundary line still existed in the United States, separating from each other settled land and free, that is, uninhabited, but open to free seizure of land. Therefore, until this time, there was a type of frontier inhabitant associated with this border line, the frontier, who could move from inhabited territories to free land. When it was gone free land, the former freedom also ended. Basic Order of the United States, radical title, changed, even if the norms of the Constitution of 1787 retained their force. Laws that limited immigration and allowed for various, partly racial, partly economic approach types of discrimination have closed the gates of the former abode of boundless freedom. All attentive observers immediately noticed this change. Among those numerous authors who spoke unambiguously on this subject, it seems to me that the great philosopher and typical representative of American pragmatism, John Dewey, deserves special mention, who took this end frontier as the starting point of his consideration of the concrete social situation of America; exactly the same for pony-
mania and evaluation of the ideas of Emerson and William James, it is extremely important that the optimism and joyful mood inherent in them presuppose the presence open border. In 1896, when William James published his essay“The will to believe,” the factor of the existence of a free land, still retained its reality.
In the chapter devoted to the first global lines, we pointed out the structural relationship between the pre-state state of nature in Hobbes and the area of unconditional freedom. We emphasized the fundamental historical fact, that the kingdom of freedom found its specific historical place of residence in a certain gigantic space, free and open to the seizure of land, located on the other side of the line the then New World. More than a hundred years ago, even before the revolution of 1848, Hegel, in the introduction to his lectures on the philosophy of history, wonderfully defined the structure of this New World. At the very time when the Monroe Doctrine was first formulated, Hegel, with a brilliant mixture of naivety and learning, argued that the United States of America was not yet a state, that it was still at the stage civil society, i.e. they are in a pre-state state of freedom of interests, preceding state of affairs overcoming individual freedom. Hegel proceeds from this diagnosis and develops it in one important dated 1842/43. critical statement of the young Karl Marx, in which the United States of America also receives special mention. Karl Marx notes that both in republics and monarchies of the 19th century, the property of citizens determines the real social and state system. Due to the division of the state and
society, politics and economics, the material substrate of the state is outside politics and the state system." However, the Anglo-Saxon theorists of the state raised into principle precisely this relationship between the state and society, politics and economics. In the separation of politics and economics one should indeed look for the key to explaining those contradictions between presence and non-presence, to which it is no longer the New Light that must come, but only the Light still ideologically insisting on its old novelty, if it continues to try to combine economic presence with political non-presence and develop the ideology of the former freedom, which has lost both the situation corresponding to it and its Due to the fact that in the already superstate reality the state of consciousness characteristic of non-political pre-statehood is preserved, a certain artificially prolonged state arises - the consciousness of innocence, associated with a certain dilemma, which we intend to consider in the next chapter.
1 Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe. Bd I. S. 437 (herausgegeben von Rjasanow. 1927). For pointing out this passage in his article “Towards a taxonomy of Marx’s teaching on state and society” (Ernst Lewalter. Zur Systematik der Marxschen Staats- und Gesell-schaftslehre // Archiv fur Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik-Nd. 68. 1933. S. 650) in connection with issues of interest to us this moment problems, I am grateful to the article by Ernst Lewalter. Of particular interest in this regard is the essay by Hugo Fischer “Karl Marx and His Attitude to the State and the Economy” (Hugo Fischer. Karl Marx und sein Verhaltnis zu Staat und Wirtschaft. Jena, 1932. S. 45): “To the extent that the policy of 1931 is economic policy, it is the 19th century turned from the inside out.”