Second half of the 19th century – beginning. XX century brought dramatic changes to the historical destinies of the countries of Asia and Africa. The development of China, India, Japan and other Asian societies was marked by important shifts in socio-economic and political life, which ultimately entailed a formational and civilizational breakdown. The national liberation movement is becoming the most important factor in the historical development of Afro-Asian countries. In the beginning. XX century The East was shaken by the first bourgeois revolutions.
China.
First decade of the 20th century. was marked by the rapid growth of anti-Manchurian and national liberation sentiments. In the summer of 1905, under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, various Chinese bourgeois-democratic and bourgeois-landowner organizations united, with the goal of overthrowing the Qing monarchy and establishing a republic. The Chinese Revolutionary United Alliance was created in Tokyo. The United Union program was based on the “three principles of the people” formulated by Sun Yat-sen in November 1905—nationalism, democracy and people's welfare. The principle of nationalism meant the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty, democracy meant the elimination of the monarchical system and the establishment of a republic, and the principle of people's welfare reflected the requirement for the gradual nationalization of the land.
1906–1911 marked by an increase in anti-government armed protests in various provinces of Southern, Central and Eastern China. The largest uprisings of miners were in Pingxiang in 1906 and in 1911 in Guangzhou. The movement of general discontent also gripped the army. In January 1910, there was an uprising of the garrison in Guangzhou.
The Xinhai Revolution (the Wuchang uprising and the abdication of the Qing dynasty occurred in the Xinhai year according to the Chinese lunar calendar - January 30, 1911 - February 17, 1912) began with a soldier uprising on October 10, 1910 in Wuchang. A military government was created in the city, proclaiming the overthrow of the Qing monarchy and the establishment of a republic. During October-November 1911, 14 provinces of the Qing Empire announced the overthrow of the Manchus. By the end of 1911, only three of the eighteen provinces officially recognized the authority of the Qing government. Having failed to suppress the revolutionary movement, the Qing handed over real power to General Yuan Shikai. He received the post of commander-in-chief of the Pinsk armed forces and then the post of prime minister. Yuan Shikai began secret negotiations with certain factions in the Republican south.
On December 29, 1911, in Nanjing, deputies of independent provinces elected Sun Yat-sen as provisional president of the Republic of China. In a short time, a provisional government was formed and a bourgeois-democratic constitution was adopted.
During the confrontation between North and South, Sun Yat-sen was forced to resign as interim president in favor of Yuan Shikai, in exchange for the abdication of the Qing dynasty. On February 12, 1912, the last emperor, Pu Yi, abdicated the throne.
In July-September 1913, Yuan Shikai suppressed armed uprisings against him in the central and southern provinces. These events went down in Chinese history under the name of the “second revolution.” The military dictatorship of Yuan Shikai was established in the country. Sun Yat-sen and other leaders of the radical wing of the Chinese bourgeoisie were forced to emigrate abroad.
During the revolution, the Qing dynasty was overthrown and a republic was established for the first time in Asia. The power of the Manchu aristocracy was eliminated.
India.
At the beginning of the 20th century. In the socio-economic and political life of India, the trends that emerged in the second half intensified. XIX century The development of capitalism has not led to a significant change in the overall structure of the country's economy. India still remained a backward agrarian country. Nevertheless, the process of drawing India into the system of the world capitalist economy led to a further intensification of new economic phenomena. The exploitation of India as an agrarian and raw material appendage of the metropolis began. English capital was directed to the construction and operation of railway lines and communications, irrigation, plantation farming, mining, textile and food industries. British investments in India in 1896–1910. increased from 4-5 to 6-7 billion rupees. National capitalist entrepreneurship has developed. Most of the enterprises owned by Indian capital were small and medium-sized. Attempts were made to establish heavy industry in India. A metallurgical plant was built in 1911, and a hydroelectric power station was launched in 1915.
This period is associated with the growth of national self-awareness in the most diverse classes and social groups of Indian society. The policies of the colonial authorities contributed to the growth of discontent and the development of the national liberation movement in India. In 1883–1884 The first attempts were made to create an all-Indian organization. In 1885, the first congress of the Indian National Congress, the first all-Indian political organization, took place in Bombay. The emergence of the radical left wing of the Indian national liberation movement is associated with the name of the outstanding democrat Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920).
The partition of Bengal in 1905 led to the beginning of a massive all-India national movement. The swadeshi movement (boycott of foreign goods and encouragement of domestic production) spread beyond Bengal in the fall of 1905. Shops selling Indian goods and industrial enterprises appeared, and stores selling foreign goods were boycotted. Mass rallies and demonstrations were complemented by the strike struggle of Indian workers. The strike movement in the summer-autumn of 1906 differed from previous years in that, along with economic demands, the workers began to put forward some political slogans.
In the autumn of 1906, at a session of the National Congress, the demand for “swaraj” - self-government within the British Empire - was formulated. Since 1907, the “swadeshi” movement began to develop into a movement for the implementation of “swaraj” (self-government). The mass protests reached their greatest scale in the spring of 1907 in Punjab.
As the national liberation struggle grew, disagreements between moderate and radical (extreme) movements worsened. The moderates demanded protectionist policies, restrictions on foreign capital, expanded self-government, etc. The extremes advocated the complete independence of India on the basis of a federal republic. The result of these differences was the split of Congress in 1907.
The British colonial authorities began to suppress national-patriotic forces. In 1907, a law on riotous gatherings was issued, according to which rallies and demonstrations were dispersed, and in 1908, a law on newspapers, on the basis of which any press organ could be closed. Tilak's arrest and trial followed in July 1908. He was sentenced to a heavy fine and six years in prison. In protest, a general political strike began in Bombay on July 23, 1908. It ended after six days.
The rise of the national movement in 1905–1908 marked the onset of a period of mass struggle for independence.
The entire northern and almost the entire northeastern part of the African continent was conquered by the Arabs in the early Middle Ages, starting in the 7th century, when the warriors of Islam created the Arab Caliphate. Having experienced a turbulent era of conquests and wars, ethnic mixing during migrations and assimilation of the local Berber-Libyan population by Arabs, the countries of the Maghreb (as the western part of the Arab-Islamic world is called) in the 16th century. were, with the exception of Morocco, annexed to the Ottoman Empire and turned into its vassals. However, this did not prevent Europeans, primarily the neighbors of the Maghreb Arabs, the Portuguese and Spaniards, at the same time, at the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries, from beginning colonial conquests in the western part of the Maghreb, in Morocco and Mauritania. Mauritania has become a colony of France since 1920, as already mentioned in the previous chapter. Accordingly, its historical destinies during the period of colonialism turned out to be more connected with the destinies of Sudanese Africa. Morocco was and remains a country in the North African Maghreb, which will now be discussed.
Rulers of the country in the 15th - 16th centuries. The sultans of the Wattasid dynasty, descendants of the Berber Marinid dynasty (XIII - XV centuries), tried to contain the onslaught of the colonialists who plundered the coastal areas and took away Moroccans as slaves. By the end of the 16th century. these efforts have led to some successes; The sherif sultans (that is, those who traced their lineage to the prophet) Arab dynasties of the Saadians and Alawites came to power, relying on fanatical supporters of Islam. XVII and especially XVIII centuries. were a time of strengthening of centralized administration and displacement of Europeans (the Spaniards managed to retain only a few fortresses on the coast). But from the middle of the 18th century. a period of decline and decentralization and internal strife began. Weak governments were forced to make concessions to foreigners (in 1767 agreements were concluded with Spain and France), but at the same time retained a monopoly on foreign trade, carried out in several ports (in 1822 there were five).
The French colonial conquests in Algeria in 1830 were received in Morocco with some satisfaction (a formidable neighbor and rival was weakened) and with even greater fear. The Moroccans supported the anti-French movement of the Algerians led by Abd al-Qadir, but this was precisely the reason for the French ultimatum to Morocco. An attempt under the banner of jihad to resist the onslaught of the colonialists was unsuccessful, and after the defeat of 1844, only the intervention of England prevented the transformation of Morocco into a French colony. In exchange for this intervention and the subsequent patronage of the British, the Sultan, under the treaty of 1856, was forced to open Morocco to free trade. Spanish-Moroccan War 1859--1860. led to the expansion of Spanish possessions on the Moroccan coast and to additional trade concessions, after which the previous monopoly on foreign trade was abolished in 1864.
The 60-80s were a time of energetic penetration of Europeans into Morocco. A regime of benefits and capitulations was created for traders and entrepreneurs, some cities, primarily Tangier and Capablanca, were Europeanized, and a layer of comprador-intermediaries was formed from among wealthy Moroccans with business ties to European companies (these intermediaries were called the French word “protégé”). In an effort to prevent the country from becoming a semi-colony, Sultan Moulay Hassan (1873-1894) undertook a series of reforms, including the reorganization of the army and the creation of a military industry. But these reforms, very limited in nature compared to, say, the Turkish Tanzimat, aroused resistance from traditionalists, led by religious brotherhoods led by their marabout sheikhs. Under Hassan's successor Abd al-Aziz (1894-1908), attempts at reform were continued, but with the same result: the few supporters of reform and modernization of the country, inspired by the ideas of the Young Turks and publishing their own newspapers, even dreaming of a constitution, encountered increasing discontent among the masses, whose insurgent movement was directed both against “their” reformers and, above all, against foreign invasion, in defense of traditional, customary norms of existence under the banner of Islam. The movement expanded, and in 1911 the Sultan was forced to turn to the French for help, who did not hesitate to occupy part of Morocco. By the treaty of 1912, Morocco became a French protectorate, with the exception of a small zone made into a Spanish protectorate, and declared the international port of Tangier.
A period of rapid industrial development and exploitation of the country's natural resources began: phosphorites and metals (manganese, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, iron) were mined and exported, citrus fruits were grown, and cork bark was harvested. Foreign, mainly French, companies invested huge capital in the industrial development of Morocco, built railways, developed energy and trade. Up to a million hectares of fertile land were transferred to European (mostly French) colonists who farmed using hired labor. Industrial construction and the modernization associated with it had an impact on the traditional structure, which until recently had so vigorously resisted the invasion of Europeans: a considerable number of peasants left the village for the city, where the ranks of workers and educated classes grew. And although the resistance did not stop, and sometimes even took somewhat unexpected forms, the traditional structure not only resisted, but also somehow adapted to the new conditions. In the 1930s, the first political movements emerged - the National Action Committee (1934), the National Party (1937). In 1943, the Istiklal Party was created and demanded independence. The independence movement developed with particular force after the war, reaching its peak in the late 40s and early 50s. Its results were the conquest of independence in 1956 and the reunification of Morocco, including Tangier, in 1958.
Algeria, located east of Morocco in the 16th-17th centuries. was under the rule of rulers who considered themselves vassals of the Turkish Sultan. Since the 18th century Algeria began to be led by their leaders, the dei, who were elected by the Janissaries, and the country's vassal dependence on the Sultan became illusory, while the influence of Europeans grew stronger: there were consulates of powers, trade relations developed, cities and crafts flourished. There were many Muslim schools and even several higher educational institutions in the country.
In 1830, using a minor conflict as a pretext (during the reception of the French consul, with whom negotiations were being held about the Algerian debt, an angry dey hit him with a fly flapper), King Charles X began a war with Algeria, although it ended in a quick victory, but which caused long-term resistance, the uprising of Abd al-Qadir. The suppression of this and other uprisings that followed it required considerable efforts from the French, but did not prevent them from vigorously establishing themselves in Algeria as its colonizers. The public lands fund generously allocated plots for European colonists, the number of which quickly increased. So, in 1870 they had a little more than 700 thousand hectares in their hands, in 1940 - about 2700 thousand hectares. Among the French settlers there were many radicals, even revolutionaries: the Republican Association of Algeria (an organization of European settlers) created in 1870 included workers with socialist convictions. There was even an Algerian section of the First International, and during the days of the Paris Commune in 1871, demonstrations in its support took place in the cities of Algeria.
As for the Arab-Islamic population, they took a wait-and-see attitude and resisted European colonization by all means, including sporadic uprisings, mainly led by religious and sectarian leaders. However, the spread of European forms of labor organization and the need for labor in the farms of the colonists, as well as in the industrial enterprises that arose in the cities, led to the gradual drawing of a certain proportion of Algerians into new production ties. The first detachments of Algerian workers arose, artisans and traders joined the capitalist economy (initially the urban population consisted mainly of the non-Algerian population - Turks, Moors, Jews, etc.). On the whole, however, the economic dominance of European, mainly French, capital was undeniable. As for the forms of administration, until 1880, special “Arab bureaus” headed by French officers were in charge of the affairs of the indigenous population, then “mixed” communes appeared in areas of mass Algerian residence, managed by French administrators. Where there was an influential European population or Europeans were numerically dominant, “full-fledged” communes were created, where there was an electoral procedure, elective municipalities (Algerians in any case had no more than two-fifths of the total number of deputies of the municipality). A small stratum of wealthy Algerians (at the end of the 19th century - about 5 thousand) could take part in the elections of the Algerian section-curia of the council under the governor general.
At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. In Algeria, a noticeable layer of intellectuals appeared who opposed the “native code” (introduced in 1881), which limited the rights of Algerians and prohibited their participation in political life. Various cultural and educational associations began to be created, newspapers, magazines, and books were published. Although in form these were predominantly speeches in defense of Islam, the Arabic language (it was noticeably replaced by French) and Sharia, there was also an influential group of Young Algerians who, by analogy with the Young Turks, were oriented towards rapprochement with Western, French culture, demanding equal rights for Algerians with the French.
The participation of many tens of thousands of Arab-Algerians (along with French Algerians) in the First World War gave a strong impetus to the development of national identity in the post-war years, which was facilitated by a significant increase in the layer of Arab-Algerian intellectuals, including those educated in Europe. Influential organizations arose - the “Young Algerian” (1920), the Federation of Elected Muslims (1927, meaning members of municipalities), and finally, the famous “North African Star” (1926), which in 1933 put forward the slogan of the struggle for the independence of Algeria. Among intellectuals, the Islamic organization “Union of Ulema”, which developed ideas about the identity of the Algerians and their culture, began to enjoy greater recognition. In general, the 30s gave impetus to the development of political activity among Algerians, which was facilitated, in particular, by a change in the national composition of the workers of Algeria (if in 1911 Europeans numerically prevailed in it, now the picture was reversed, there were twice as many Algerians).
The Popular Front's victory in Paris led to reforms that granted Algeria new democratic freedoms and political rights. The Second World War temporarily interrupted the process of development of national identity, but after the war it manifested itself with even greater force. New political parties emerged and demands for autonomy and independence intensified. The 1947 law guaranteed Algerians the status of French citizens, established an Algerian Assembly of 120 deputies, half of which were elected by Europeans, and a government council under the governor general. But this was no longer enough. The movement for the triumph of democratic freedoms, formed in 1946, began to prepare for armed struggle. A Revolutionary Committee was created, which in 1954 transformed into the National Liberation Front. The National Liberation Army, created by the Front, began to fight throughout Algeria. In 1956, the National Council of the Algerian Revolution was elected by the Front, and in 1958 the Algerian Republic was proclaimed. And although Algerian extremists of European origin tried to prevent de Gaulle’s decision in 1959 to recognize Algeria’s right to self-determination, which resulted in their raising in 1960 rebellion against the French government, in 1962 the Algerian revolution finally won. The Algerian People's Democratic Republic was created.
Tunisia. Became from the 16th century. part of the Ottoman Empire, Tunisia, located east of Algeria, was for a long time a base for Mediterranean corsair pirates and one of the centers of the slave trade (“the goods” were most often captured Europeans who became prey for corsairs). A large number of such slaves, as well as those expelled at the beginning of the 17th century. From Spain, the Morisco Moors, Spanish Muslims, who were persecuted there, played a certain role in the formation of the ethnic culture of the Tunisian elite, the descendants of the Moriscos, Turkish Janissaries and Christian harem slaves. The beys of the Husseinid dynasty (1705-1957), although considered vassals of the Sultan, behaved as independent rulers and, in particular, entered into trade agreements with European states. Connections with Europeans, active trade, piracy, Morisco migration - all this contributed to the development of the country, 20% of whose population at the end of the 18th century. lived in cities that were experiencing a period of prosperity after the abolition of the state monopoly on foreign trade. Tunisians exported olive oil, aromatic essences and oils to Europe, including rose oil, which was especially highly valued in Paris, as well as wool and bread. Having achieved complete independence from neighboring Algeria in 1813, the Beys of Tunisia, however, soon found themselves in serious financial difficulties, which was facilitated by the cessation of income from piracy and the slave trade. Having supported the French expedition of 1830 to Algeria, Tunisia in the 30-40s tried, with the help of France, to carry out reforms in the country and, in particular, to create a regular army instead of the Janissary corps.
Ahmed Bey (1837-1855), having rejected the principles of Tanzimat (in which he followed Muhammad Ali of Egypt, whom he admired), nevertheless, following the example of the same Muhammad Ali, began to rapidly establish the military industry and European education, including military education. Colleges and schools began to be founded in the country, newspapers and books were published. All this placed a heavy financial burden on the country and led to a crisis. Ahmed Bey's successors changed his policies, supported the ideas of Tanzimat and began to rebuild the administration and economy according to European standards. In 1861, the first constitution in the Arab-Islamic world was adopted in Tunisia, establishing a system of limited monarchy with a government responsible to the Supreme Council (the council was partly appointed, partly elected by lot from a list of privileged notables). These innovations were perceived by the people, as was the case somewhat later in Morocco, with distrust and gave rise to internal resistance and rejection. The peasants, led by religious marabout leaders, rebelled. The most powerful of them was the speech of 1864, whose participants demanded the abolition of the constitution and reduction of taxes, and the restoration of the traditional Islamic Sharia court. To suppress the uprising, the government had to resort to the help of foreigners and foreign loans. The growth of debt led in 1869 to the bankruptcy of Tunisia and the creation of the International Financial Commission, which greatly limited the country's sovereignty and brought it to the brink of becoming a semi-colony. The crisis, unbearable taxes, uprisings - all this led the relatively recently prosperous country into a state of deep decline, to a reduction in the population by almost three times, to 900 thousand people.
Prime Minister Hayraddin Pasha, who came to power in 1873, did not worry about reviving constitutional norms, but instead undertook a number of important reforms that led to streamlining taxation, changing the nature of land use, and developing education, health care, and improvement. He tried to emphasize vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire in order to protect the country from the onslaught of colonial powers. However, after the Berlin Congress of 1878, France achieved recognition of Tunisia as its sphere of influence, and in 1881 Tunisia was occupied by the French and turned into a protectorate.
The colonial authorities began active economic development of the country. Mining enterprises (phosphorites, iron), railways, and piers were built. European colonists were attracted to Tunisia: at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. they made up about 7% of the population and owned 10% of the best lands that produced marketable grain (mineral fertilizers and agricultural machines were used there). The influx of colonists contributed to the growth of nationalist sentiment among the Tunisians, among whom workers began to appear and the stratum of the educated increased. Various circles and associations appeared, and connections were established with national movements in Turkey and Egypt. As in Algeria, the Young Tunisians were inclined to reconstruct the traditional structure with the help of the French, and the traditionalists who opposed them, on the contrary, considered it necessary to rely on ancestral norms and, above all, on Islam. As in Algeria, the most militant part of the trade union movement at the beginning of the 20th century. were represented by European workers, while the uprisings of Tunisian peasants were a reflection of the resistance of the traditional structure, which did not accept and rejected innovations. Representatives of the colonial administration also made certain concessions: in 1910, a special section-curia was created for the Tunisians at the Consultative Conference, convened in 1891 and then consisting of deputies from the European population.
In 1920, the Destour party was formed. In 1922, under the colonial administration, a Grand Council was created with representation from the entire population of Tunisia. World economic crisis 1929-- 1933 dealt a severe blow to the Tunisian economy. Many enterprises closed, peasants went bankrupt. All this led to a sharp increase in discontent. In 1934, X. Bourguiba, based on Destour, formed the Neo-Destour party, which was distinguished by socialist tendencies and led the protests of the dissatisfied. The victory of the Popular Front in France in 1936 brought Tunisia, like other French colonies, some new orders: the system of democratic rights and freedoms was strengthened, and conditions arose for the activities of various parties and groupings. And although at the end of the 30s the pressure of the colonial administration again sharply increased, and many parties, including the Communist Party that took shape in 1939, were subjected to repression, the struggle for national liberation intensified. In 1946, the National Congress, convened on the initiative of the Neo-Destour party, adopted the Declaration of Independence of Tunisia. Negotiations with the French government and the mass anti-colonial movement of 1952-1954. led to France recognizing the autonomy of Tunisia in 1954. In 1956, Tunisia achieved independence, and in 1957 it became a republic.
Libya. The ancestors of the Berbers, the Libyans, who gave this country its modern name, inhabited the area to the west of Egypt in ancient times, and in the late period of the existence of ancient Egyptian society, they even developed many lands in the Nile Delta and created the Libyan dynasties that ruled Egypt. After the 7th century Libya, like the entire Maghreb, was conquered by the Arabs and began to become Islamized and Arabized, and in the middle of the 16th century. it became part of the Ottoman Empire. Like Tunisia, Libya had long been a base for Mediterranean corsairs and a center for the slave trade. It was ruled by people from the Janissaries, after which power passed to the Karamanli dynasty of Turkish origin (1711-1835), under which vassal dependence on the Turks noticeably weakened, and Arabic became the official language.
Beginning of the 19th century passed under the sign of the increasing pressure of European powers, which, under the pretext of stopping piracy and the slave trade, forced Libya to conclude a number of agreements, and in particular the unequal treaty of 1830 with France. Heavy taxes and foreign loans here, as in Tunisia, led to a financial crisis, but the way out of it turned out to be different than in Tunisia: with the help of England, which feared the strengthening of French positions in the Maghreb, Turkey in 1835 managed to restore its almost long-lost sovereignty and begin vigorous reforms based on the principles of the Tanzimat. The reforms, with their orientation toward a Europeanized system of administration, court, trade, education, and publishing, to a large extent transformed the traditional structure and thus caused a sharp protest from the population accustomed to it. The protest took the form of religious resistance, led by the Senusite order, founded by the marabout al-Senusi, a native of Algeria, who fortified himself in 1856 in the desert area of Jagoub, an oasis in the middle of the vast southern Libyan Sahara.
From the lands adjacent to the oasis, the Senusites created vast possessions (not only in the desert), a kind of state within a state with its own trading centers and military fortifications. The coming to power in Turkey of the opponent of the Tanzimat, Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909), was perceived by the Senusites as a signal for an attack: the Senusites opposed both the liberal reforms of their own government and those operating to the south of them in the lake area. The children of the French colonialists. The influence of the order continued to expand, and the French were forced to wage a long, grueling war with it, which ended in their favor in Central Africa only in 1913-1914. As for Libya, only after the start of the Young Turk revolution in Turkey in 1908, the situation here again began to change in favor of supporters of reforms: elections to the Majlis were held, and the problems of adapting Islam to new conditions, including technological progress, began to be actively discussed on the pages of periodicals , women's rights, etc.
In 1911, Italy, having started a war with Turkey, tried to seize Libya. However, after the capture of Tripoli and some areas of the coast, the war became protracted. And although Turkey, under the 1912 treaty, agreed to recognize part of Libya as an autonomous territory under Italian control (with the Sultan retaining supreme sovereignty), the war, which took on the character of a guerrilla struggle led by the Senusites, continued. In 1915, a Senusite government was created in Cyrenaica, and in 1918, the leaders of the Tripolitan uprising of 1916 created the Republic of Tripolitania. In 1921, it was decided to join the efforts of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in the struggle for national liberation.
After the fascists came to power in Italy, that country's pressure on Libya intensified again, and by 1931 the Italians achieved success. Libya was turned into a colony of Italy, and its rapid economic development began: the most fertile lands were expropriated and transferred to Italian colonists, and the production of marketable grain was increased. World War II brought an end to Italian colonialism. Libya was occupied by Allied forces. After the war, political organizations began to be created here, advocating the formation of an independent and united Libya. In 1949, at a meeting of the UN, it was decided to grant Libya independence by 1952. In December 1950, the National Constituent Assembly began to prepare a constitution, which came into force in 1951: Libya was proclaimed an independent United Kingdom, and the head of the Senussites, Idris I became its king.
Egypt. The reforms of Muhammad Ali (1805-1849) put Egypt, formally still associated with the Ottoman Empire, but actually independent of it and even more than once defeating its armies and seizing its lands, among the leading and most developed countries of the East, a strong regular army (up to 200 thousand soldiers), strictly centralized administration, well-established agriculture with a government monopoly on the export of cash crops (cotton, indigo, sugar cane), construction of state industrial enterprises, primarily military, encouragement of the achievements of European science and technology, creation of a network educational institutions of various profiles - all this was the basis for strengthening the power of Muhammad Ali, who, not by chance, became an object of imitation for certain segments of the population in other Maghreb countries. It is also worthy of mention that Muhammad Ali did not follow the path of tanzimat reforms, but, on the contrary, in every possible way emphasized the national “I” of Egypt and forced the strengthening of the country so that it would not suffer the sad fate of a colony. Faced with the opposition of powers (especially England), who robbed him of the fruits of victories in his successful wars with the Sultan, Muhammad Ali in the early 40s was not only forced to give up what he had conquered (Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Crete) and return those who had gone over to his side Turkish fleet, but also to give in to the onslaught of foreign capital, opening the doors to free trade.
The penetration of foreign goods dealt a heavy blow both to the backward state industry (state-owned factories in conditions of free competition turned out to be unprofitable, not to mention the fact that yesterday’s fellahins, who were forcibly mobilized to work for them, did not want to work and often damaged expensive cars), and throughout financial system exhausted by wars. Under Muhammad Ali's successors, many of the state-owned enterprises, as well as expensive educational institutions, were closed. But European private enterprise, including the construction of railways, cotton gins and sugar factories and, finally, the strategically invaluable Suez Canal, was in full swing. The development of market relations and commodity-money relations forced the Egyptian authorities to issue a number of reforms aimed at expanding the rights of owners in the village and changing taxation. The country's construction costs (Khedive Ismail (1863 - 1879) insisted on Egypt's participation as a state in the construction of the canal and in the creation of some other enterprises] and interest on foreign loans led the financial system to collapse: in 1876, Ismail declared bankruptcy, after which, at the insistence of England and France, a special commission was created, which took over a significant part of the treasury revenues. The Khedive's shares in the Suez Canal were sold. Finally, the Egyptian debt commission forced Ismail to create a government headed by Nubar Pasha, known for his pro-English sympathies. Posts The ministers of finance and public works (i.e. those who controlled the country's revenues) were occupied by an Englishman and a Frenchman, respectively.
Dissatisfaction with these concessions and with the entire policy of the Khedive and the colonial powers was mature and increasingly open in the country. In 1866, the Chamber of Notables was created - an advisory body in which representatives of influential strata of Egyptian society, who formed the National Party (Watan) in 1879, began to set the tone. This chamber demanded that the Khedive dissolve the “European Cabinet,” which he did. In response, the powers forced the Sultan to depose Ismail, and the new Khedive dispersed the House and restored foreign financial control, while infringing on the interests of army officers (the army was reduced). In September of the same 1879, the Cairo garrison led by Colonel Orabi (Arabi Pasha) rebelled. The Khedive was forced to submit to the pressure of the dissatisfied and restore the national cabinet headed by Sherif Pasha and with the participation of the Vatanists. But events developed rapidly. Soon the new government began to look very moderate against the background of the demands of the radical members of the dissatisfied movement led by Orabi. In February 1882, the army overthrew the Vatanist government. M. Abdo, a prominent theorist of the National Party and ally of al-Afghani, the founder of the theory of pan-Islamism, also lost his influence.
The radicals, led by Orabi, came up with anti-foreign slogans and began to energetically cleanse the country of the European “infection”: cafes and brothels, restaurants and opera houses were closed, and traditional norms of Islam were restored. Orabi also received support from the Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid, who awarded him the title of pasha. In February 1882, a new cabinet was created, in which Orabi took the post of Minister of War. Tension in the country increased. Peasants began to rise up under the slogans of fighting the infidels. All Europeanized layers of Egyptian society fled to Alexandria under the protection of the English squadron that arrived there. Soon the Khedive arrived here. At the same time, a Military Council was formed in Cairo, and the National Majlis was convened, in which Arabi's supporters, including his officers, became the decisive force. An open confrontation began. In July 1882, the Khedive removed Orabi, declaring him a rebel. In response to this, Orabi stated that he considered the Khedive a hostage of foreigners, “a captive of the British.” England supported the Khedive and soon its troops occupied Cairo. Arabi was put on trial and exiled to Ceylon, and Egypt became a protectorate of England.
However, formally Egypt had a special status and was still considered an autonomous part of the Ottoman Empire. According to the Organic Law issued in 1883, the Legislative Council and the General Assembly were created here (in 1913 they were united into the Legislative Assembly), while all executive power was concentrated in the hands of the British consul, who retained full control over the activities of the cabinet headed by prime minister. Of course, real power remained with the colonialists, but the very fact of the existence of both the legislative chamber and the cabinet of ministers was intended to emphasize that Egypt has a special status.
English and other foreign capital, which began to actively penetrate Egypt after 1882, contributed to the acceleration of the country's development. At the beginning of the 20th century. industrial workers numbered almost half a million people - a very respectable figure for that time (this number also included those who were employed in small enterprises; slightly less than half of the total number of workers were Europeans). Among the Egyptians there were already many educated people, intellectuals; a national bourgeoisie was also emerging. The external attributes of Europeanization, which were destroyed at the turn of the 70s and 80s, reappeared: clubs, restaurants, salons. The telegraph and telephone, cinema, universities, and publishing houses operated. Fierce debates began to take place again about the fate of the country and the people, and the opposition was between liberals who advocated Westernization, mostly people with a European education, and traditionalists who defended the norms of Islam, a significant part of whom were quite close to the broad masses of the Egyptian population, dissatisfied with the colonization of the country. As in a number of other Maghreb countries, at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. In Egypt, a labor, trade union and socialist movement began to emerge, but its representatives were mainly immigrants from Europe, workers or intellectuals. As for the Egyptian indigenous population, they were drawn into this movement very slowly.
This was facilitated by the increasingly pronounced religious-nationalist emphasis in the socio-political life of Egypt. On the eve of the World War, the position of religious extremists, who resorted to methods of armed terror, strengthened in the Vatanist party, which was disintegrating into factions. The murder in 1910 of Prime Minister B. Gali, a native of Copts, Egyptian Christians, further intensified religious strife in the country. In 1912, the Vatan party was banned, and new forces came to the forefront in the political struggle after the war, primarily the Wafd party created in 1918. This party launched a powerful movement demanding national independence, which played a role: in 1922, England agreed to recognize the independence of Egypt, but on the condition that it retained its troops and a commissar, not to mention the economic positions of British capital. According to the constitution of 1923, Egypt became a constitutional monarchy headed by King Fuad I. A parliament and a cabinet of ministers responsible to him and the king were created, headed by the leaders of the Wafd. In 1924, they raised before England the question of the withdrawal of British troops and the unification of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan with Egypt. This demand led to a conflict, as a result of which the Wafdists were forced to resign. However, they won the next elections again, and the pressure of the cabinet and the young Egyptian bourgeoisie ultimately led to the fact that England was forced to agree to important economic concessions: in 1931, a new customs tariff was introduced, designed to protect Egyptian industry and trade from competition.
The global crisis affected the deterioration of Egypt's economic situation and led to another aggravation of the political struggle, during which the Wafdists were again removed from power in 1930, and the constitution of 1923 was replaced by another, more reactionary in nature. However, in 1934, under the leadership of the same Wafdists, another political campaign was launched, as a result of which King Fuad, with the consent of the British, restored the constitution of 1923. According to the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, British troops were withdrawn from Egypt, the commissioner became the British ambassador and only in the Suez Canal zone did some British armed forces remain. This was a considerable success for the Wafdists, but, strange as it may seem, it caused a new division of political forces and a sharp struggle, attacks on the Wafd from the right and left.
Over the following years, Egypt continued to pursue a policy aimed at completely freeing the country from foreign interference. A powerful movement, waves of rallies, demonstrations, and strikes forced the British in 1946 to sit down at the negotiating table to revise the 1936 agreement. The negotiations did not lead to success: England did not want to give up control over the Suez Canal or a condominium in Sudan. In 1951, the next Wafd government led by Nahhas Pasha introduced a bill to the Egyptian parliament to abolish the 1936 treaty, in response to which the British transferred additional military contingents to the canal zone and occupied a number of cities. A crisis was again brewing in the country, manifested in the acute dissatisfaction of various segments of the population with the created situation. Under these conditions, the Free Officers organization came to the fore, whose head, Naguib, took power into his own hands as a result of the 1952 coup. King Farouk abdicated the throne. A revolutionary council was created, reforms were carried out in the field of agrarian relations and in the political structure. The previous parties were dissolved, the constitution was abolished, and the monarchy was abolished. The radical wing of the movement strengthened its position, which resulted in the emergence of Nasser, who became prime minister in 1954. In 1956, a new constitution was adopted, and soon President Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal. During the 1956 Anglo-French-Israeli military campaign against Egypt in the Suez Canal zone, the Egyptian army survived and prevailed. The troops of foreign countries, including England, were withdrawn. Egypt finally gained the complete independence it had so desired and cost it so much.
Thus, it can be noted that the heyday of African colonial empires dates back to the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The most extensive and richest possessions were those of Great Britain. In the southern and central part of the continent: Cape Colony, Natal, Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Basutoland (Lesotho), Swaziland, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). The colonial empire of France was not inferior in size to the British, but the population of its colonies was several times smaller, and its natural resources were poorer. Most of the French possessions were in Western and Equatorial Africa. The main incentives that led to the heated battle of European powers for Africa are considered economic. Indeed, the desire to exploit Africa's natural resources and people was of paramount importance. But it cannot be said that these hopes were immediately realized. The south of the continent, where the world's largest deposits of gold and diamonds were discovered, began to generate huge profits. But before income could be received, large investments were first necessary to explore natural resources, create communications, adapt the local economy to the needs of the metropolis, suppress the protest of the indigenous people and find effective ways to force them to work for the colonial system. All this took time.
Another argument of the ideologists of colonialism was not immediately justified. They argued that the acquisition of colonies would open up many jobs in the metropolises themselves and eliminate unemployment, since Africa would become a large market for European products and enormous construction of railways, ports, and industrial enterprises would begin there. If these plans were implemented, it was more slowly than expected and on a smaller scale.
After the end of the war, the process of colonial development in Africa accelerated. Colonies increasingly turned into agricultural and raw materials appendages of the metropolises. Agriculture became increasingly export-oriented. During the interwar period, the composition of agricultural crops grown by Africans changed dramatically - the production of export crops increased sharply: coffee - 11 times, tea - 10 times, cocoa beans - 6 times, peanuts - more than 4 times, tobacco - 3 times, etc. .d. An increasing number of colonies became monoculture countries.
The Second World War, which had a great impact on all aspects of life, contributed to the further development of the struggle of the peoples of colonial and dependent countries for their liberation. The victory of democratic forces over fascism, in which the USSR played a major role, had a fruitful influence on the development of the national liberation movement in Asia, Africa and Latin America. After the Second World War, a new era began in the struggle of peoples for liberation. The colonial system began to disintegrate.
At the end of World War II, a massive national liberation movement against the Japanese occupiers and colonialists unfolded in Indochina, Indonesia, and Maly.
Factors that influenced the course of the national liberation movement in the region
1. The fight against the Japanese invaders during the Second World War.
2. Civil war in China, the victory of the communists.
3. The beginning of the Cold War.
4. The desire of the former metropolises to restore their colonial possessions in the region (France, England, Holland).
By the end of World War II, the colonies of the Asian region were already covered national liberation movement . As a result of the Japanese occupation Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, Indochina And Philippines European and American colonial authorities were eliminated. The local population, having created armed partisan detachments and entire armies, fought first against the invaders, and then against the metropolises.
The movement became especially widespread during Vietnam , which was part of French Indochina .
During August revolution 1945 rebels led by Ho Chi Minh disarmed the Japanese garrison and overthrew the puppet government of the emperor Bao Dai .
September 2, 1945 , on the day of Japanese surrender, National Liberation Committee , led by the Communist Party, proclaimed Vietnamese independence , whose first president was Ho Chi Minh .
Unwilling to accept the loss of the colony and the power of the communists, the French government took the path of force, unleashing the most exhausting and bloody of all colonial wars, which lasted from 1946 to 1954 During this war, called in history " dirty war ", the French colonialists widely used torture, murder and mass repression against civilians, which only strengthened resistance.
By 1954 French troops were surrounded in the area Dien Bien Pha , which prompted Paris to seek help from the United States. However, the American proposal to use atomic weapons did not suit the French, because as a result of such an action, the encircled French corps would also suffer.
After 2 month blockade
French garrison in Vietnam capitulated
, A in June 1954
at a meeting of the foreign ministers of the five permanent members Security Council
And Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) in Geneva
was signed agreement on the cessation of hostilities in Indochina and the division of the territory of Vietnam along the 17th parallel
.
Subsequently, it was planned to hold democratic elections throughout Vietnam, but this decision, as in Germany and Korea, was not implemented.
Two states emerged in Vietnam: one relying on Western assistance South Vietnam with the capital Saigon , and communist DRV with the capital Hanoi .
August 17, 1945 declared independence Dutch Indonesia , whose first president was the leader of the National Party Sukarno .
IN English Burma Japan was regarded by many as an ally in the struggle for independence. In 1941 was created here Burma Independence Army headed by Aung Sanom who collaborated with the Japanese. However, realizing that the Japanese were seeking to maintain control over Burma even after the proclamation in 1943 her independence, Aung San changes his views. In 1944 was created Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League , which in March 1945 revolted against the Japanese. Post-war attempts by the British to maintain control over the colony failed and in 1947 Burma gained independence, and Aung San became the first head of government.
The expansion of the anti-colonial movement greatly worried the metropolitan countries, forcing them to become more active.
England, as the largest colonial power, took the path of providing the colonies dominion rights , transforming the empire into British Commonwealth of Nations . The Dominions received self-government and formal equality in the union, while maintaining their allegiance to the British Crown.
I followed a similar path France , proclaiming formation with its colonies French Union .
However, not all colonies were satisfied with these concessions, forcing the metropolises either to recognize their independence or to begin period of colonial wars .
August 15, 1947
England announced partition of India along religious lines
for 2 states: Hindu India
And Islamic Pakistan
, and providing them dominion rights
.
The first chapter of the new India
became an outstanding figure in the Indian national liberation movement Jawaharlal Nehru
.
Head Pakistan
became leader of the Muslim League Liaquat Ali Khan
.
Both India and Pakistan turned out to be very complex state entities with many problems and contradictions, the most acute of which were religious and territorial.
India in its initial stage was a union consisting of princely states. Moreover, since the conquests of the Great Mughals, the princely aristocracy, for the most part, professed Islam and gravitated towards Pakistan. The population was predominantly Hindu, which predetermined the affiliation of the principalities.
England also continued to actively influence the development of the dominions. in 1948 granting the right of dominion to a former colony of India O. Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) .
Pakistan, in turn, consisted of two parts - in the east and west of India, which in 1971 led to the separation of the eastern part and the proclamation of a state there Bangladesh .
Having achieved self-government, the ruling groups and the population of the dominions continued to move towards complete independence.
In 1950 India
renounced dominion status and proclaimed a republic, in 1956
took a similar step Pakistan
.
USA Having achieved dominance in the Pacific region as a result of the defeat of Japan, in relations with their colonies they were more concerned about maintaining their military influence in the region. By granting independence to the colonies, the Americans sought to maintain their military bases.
So, by providing in 1946 independence Philippine Islands , Washington concluded a series of agreements with the Philippine government that allowed the preservation of US naval bases on the islands and provided economic privileges to the Americans.
The former colonies that achieved independence formed a special group of so-called developing countries or third world countries " They had a lot in common: backwardness in development, dependence on foreign capital, lack of processing industry. But most importantly, they were all subject to fear of a possible loss of independence.
Politically, the former colonies had very great authority of the USSR as the main champion of freedom and independence of the colonies, but economically they were closely connected with the former metropolises. This prompted them to look for new approaches in relations with the West.
The former metropolises also understood that only through economic ties could they maintain their influence in young states and avoid their excessive rapprochement with the USSR. In an effort to preserve their gains, the countries of the “third world” followed the path of unity of goals and actions in the struggle for freedom.
In June 1954 Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru and Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China Zhou Enlai proclaimed " Five principles of peaceful coexistence ”, which became the core for all relationships between the former colonies and the more developed world:
mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty;
non-aggression;
non-interference in each other's internal affairs;
equality and mutual benefit;
peaceful coexistence.
In 1955 these " Five principles » have been approved conference of 29 countries of Asia and Africa in Bandung (Indonesia) . The countries present strongly criticized racial discrimination and colonialism, declaring the need to eradicate them as soon as possible. In addition, it was adopted Declaration on Promoting World Peace and Cooperation , which called for disarmament and the banning of atomic weapons.
By combining their efforts, the countries of the “third world” hoped to achieve a certain influence on world politics. But the economic backwardness and dependence of most of them on financial investments from more developed countries did not allow them to occupy an equal position with other countries. And the further history of most former colonies is replete with interethnic, religious and territorial conflicts, strengthened by Eastern fanaticism and intransigence.
60. The growth of the national liberation struggle of the peoples of Africa and the formation of independent states.
THE SECOND WORLD WAR, WHICH HAD A GREAT INFLUENCE ON ALL ASPECTS OF LIFE, CONTRIBUTED TO THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRUGGLE OF THE PEOPLE OF COLONIAL AND DEPENDENT COUNTRIES FOR THEIR LIBERATION. THE VICTORY OF DEMOCRATIC FORCES OVER FASCISM, IN WHICH THE USSR PLAYED THE MAIN ROLE, HAD A FRUITLY INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENT IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA. AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR, A NEW ERA CAME IN THE PEOPLES' STRUGGLE FOR LIBERATION. THE COLONIAL SYSTEM STARTED TO DISCOVER.
THE PEOPLES OF THE MIDDLE EAST FOUGHT A PERSISTENT STRUGGLE AGAINST THE COLONIZERS.
Following the states of the Middle East, the countries of North Africa launched a struggle against the colonialists.
In the 50s achieved independence Italian Libya, French Lebanon And Tunisia , after 8 year colonial war became independent Algeria .
But the most serious consequences during the anti-colonial movement could have been “ Suez crisis» 1956
In 1952
V Egypt
an anti-feudal and anti-imperialist revolution took place.
Having overthrown the monarchy, patriotic officers came to power in the country, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser
.
July 26, 1956
Nasser announced nationalization of the Suez Canal Company
, which was dominated by Anglo-French capital, with subsequent compensation and guarantees of free passage through the channel for ships of all countries.
Such an action dealt a powerful blow to the economic and political interests of England and France, which caused an immediate response.
On the night of October 30, 1956
England's Middle Eastern ally Israel
invaded Egypt and via the Sinai Peninsula
rushed to the Suez Canal
.
October 31
Anglo-French aircraft bombed Egyptian cities.
The world community sharply condemned this aggression, and Extraordinary session of the UN November 2 adopted a resolution demanding a ceasefire.
However, the aggressor did not react the next day, the 3rd of November dropped off at Port Said your landing. Egypt could not resist three such powerful powers at once, but it took its side USSR .
November 5 Moscow
demanded an immediate cessation of hostilities and the cleansing of Egypt, declaring its readiness to provide military assistance to the Egyptian government with any type of weapon.
The only one who could equalize the forces was USA
, but the American government chose to remain neutral. Because of other people's interests, it did not want to start a nuclear war with the USSR and, in addition, the weakening of the positions of England and France in the Middle East would lead to a strengthening of American positions in this region.
« Suez crisis " ended with the withdrawal of Anglo-Franco-Israeli troops from Egypt. And already in January 1957 US presidential government D. Eisenhower proclaimed the doctrine according to which it is the United States that is called upon to fill the “ force vacuum ", formed in the Middle East.
The French Constitution of 1958 provided for a new version of unification - the so-called Community, which included 17 African colonies that received local autonomy. The remaining territories retained their previous status. Article 77 of the Constitution proclaimed self-government and “free disposal of their own affairs” of the states belonging to the Community. At the same time, according to Art. 78, foreign policy, defense, the monetary system and some other important areas of public life were removed from the competence of individual members of the Community. The President of France, who was also the President of the Community, was represented in each State of the Community by a High Commissioner who oversaw the activities of the local administration. The Constitution provided for the possibility of changing the status of a member state of the Community based on a decision of the legislative assembly of that state, followed by confirmation of such a decision in a local referendum. Subject to these conditions, a member state of the Community could become independent and leave the association. However, in 1958, only in Guinea was it possible to achieve the rejection of the 1958 Constitution in a referendum and gain independence peacefully.
In the two decades following World War II, the collapse of colonial empires was largely complete. At the end of the 40s. The largest colonies of South and Southeast Asia won independence in the 50s. - most Middle Eastern countries. In the late 50s - early 60s. The colonial system in Africa collapsed. The last large colonies in Africa, which belonged to Portugal, were liberated in the 70s. XX century, and in 1990 the UN plan to grant independence to Namibia was implemented.
The question of development paths and the typology of liberated states is one of the most difficult both politically and scientifically. In the conditions of the split of the world into two socio-political systems, liberated or “developing” countries were usually included in the so-called “third world”, which faced the choice of two alternative paths of development - capitalist or non-capitalist. It should be noted that this choice was determined to a much greater extent by the ideological and foreign policy orientations of the ruling groups of these countries than by the objective conditions of their development.
Thus, in the overwhelming majority of countries, regardless of “orientation,” as a rule, authoritarian political regimes have developed with a characteristic concentration of power in the hands of the head of state, a special role for the army, the merger of the party and state apparatus, over-centralization of the state structure, the absence of a unified system of representative bodies of power and etc.
All developing countries were also characterized by the advancement of the state to a leading role in public life, the strengthening of its regulatory functions, which covered all spheres of social life.
The total intervention of the state in public life as a means of modernizing society, however, could not solve the important problems of the socio-economic development of the new, liberated countries. At the end of the 20th century. their dependence on the world capitalist economy continued to increase, and foreign debt to leading Western countries became one of the global problems of our time. The uneven development of the liberated countries is deepening. While the “new industrial” and some oil-producing countries of Asia (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait) have gained economic growth rates, a number of other countries in Asia and Africa are experiencing stagnation and even degradation of their economies. Recently, many developing countries have announced their abandonment of authoritarian development models and have begun to introduce various elements into the economic structure and political superstructure that have proven their effectiveness and universal significance (equality of forms of ownership, market relations, multi-party system, parliamentarism, etc.).
The apartheid regime in South Africa was eliminated; in 1994, an interim Constitution was adopted there. In the early 90s. More than 30 new constitutions have been adopted in African countries, providing for the separation of powers, the existence of several parties, and legal guarantees of human rights. However, the situation in many countries continues to remain unstable; new institutions cannot strengthen themselves and often act ineffectively. To a lesser extent, these changes affected Asian countries, although in some of them authoritarian regimes were eliminated (Philippines, South Korea, etc.).
Like their neighbors India and Indonesia, the countries of Indochina early became objects of European colonial expansion. Even at the turn of the XVI - XVII centuries. The first wave of colonization, the Portuguese, noticeably affected the Burmese states of Ava and Pegu, Thai Siam and especially the Malay sultanates. Having stayed here not too long and without achieving noticeable success, the Portuguese in the 18th century. gave way to the second wave of colonialists, the Dutch. While not very vigorously touching the other countries of Indochina, Dutch colonial trade paid special attention to Indonesia's neighboring Malaya. It was here that the Dutch East India Company fought serious wars for political control of the lands adjacent to the straits. These wars occurred at the end of the 18th century. led the company to success, but the fruits of this success were reaped by the British, who ousted the Dutch from Malaya, which was secured by the Treaty of London in 1824.
The British, as well as the French, began to actively develop their colonial trade in Indochina back in the 17th century. French missionaries energetically preached Catholicism, the English and French East India Companies sought to consolidate their economic and political positions in Burma and Siam. However, France's position was weakened and then practically eliminated at the end of the 18th century. due to the revolution that shook France. England, on the contrary, since the 18th century. significantly increased its penetration into the countries of Indochina, especially Burma, Malaya and Siam.
The penetration of French influence into the countries of Indochina began in the 17th century. with the appearance of the first French Catholic missionaries in these countries. The number of Catholic missions led by French priests and bishops increased in the 18th century, and at this time a considerable number of French traders were active here. The political crisis associated with the Tay Son uprising at the end of the 18th century served as a reason for increasing French intervention in the affairs of Vietnam: Bishop Pinho de Behen, appointed as an official representative of France with the rank of vicar back in 1774, took an active part in the misfortunes of the dethroned Nguyen Anh and , appealing for help to Louis XVI, managed to achieve the organization of a military expedition to Indochina. Although for a number of reasons, including the revolution that broke out in France, the 1790 expedition turned out to be small, numbering only a few dozen volunteers, it played a significant role in providing Nguyen Anh with military and military engineering assistance, which helped him ultimately defeat the Tay Sons.
Nguyen Dynasty (1802 - 1945) in the first half of the 19th century. has achieved significant success. The economy destroyed by the uprising was restored, the system of administrative power was strengthened, a combat-ready army and navy were created, and fortresses were rebuilt. The development of crafts and trade provided an influx of income, which was regulated by an improved tax system. Attention was paid to land relations and a land cadastre was compiled. Confucian education flourished again with competitive examinations to qualify for senior positions in the administration. A collection of administrative and legal regulations was published in the form of an official code. All this was accompanied by the maintenance of active ties between Vietnam and France, which was interested in it as an important market and a support base in Southeast Asia - a base that was all the more important and necessary because at the beginning of the 19th century. The French had no others in this area of the world.
Mindful of the help of Bishop Pinho and his volunteers, the first rulers of the Nguyen dynasty were sympathetic to the desire of France to establish strong contacts with Vietnam, although they did not create any illusions in connection with the possible consequences of these contacts, especially in the middle of the 19th century, when not only had India and Indonesia long been colonies, but China had also been forcibly opened up to colonial expansion. Strong ties with France contributed to the economic development of Vietnam, and Catholicism took ever deeper roots in this country, especially in the south, where the influence of Confucian civilization was less noticeable than in the north.
In 1858, using the need to protect persecuted Catholic missionaries in Vietnam as a pretext, the French sent a military squadron into Danang Bay, and in 1859 Saigon was captured. The occupation of the country caused vigorous resistance, during which the French were forced to leave Danang and concentrate their forces in the south, in Cochin China (Nambo). The 1862 treaty cemented French occupation of the western part of Cochin, and in 1867 the rest of it was annexed. The entire south of Vietnam from then on came under the control of the French colonial administration, which was officially recognized by the Franco-Vietnamese Treaty of 1874.
The annexation of the southern part of the country by the French, who were friendly in the recent past, was very painfully perceived in Vietnam. Government officials refused to cooperate with the occupiers and left for the north, leaving the French to make do with a few poorly trained local petty employees, often openly corrupt adventurers from among graduates of Catholic missionary schools barely familiar with the French language. In the south, even a partisan movement was launched, which, however, did not gain much scope. As for the French who captured Cochin, they quickly began to establish commercial rice production here, for which, in particular, numerous canals were laid in the swamps. At the same time, taxes were increased and new ones were introduced - on alcohol, opium and gambling, which were now legalized by the authorities. All these and a number of other similar measures turned out to be cost-effective and contributed to attracting trade and banking capital from France to occupied and colonized South Vietnam.
During the second Franco-Vietnamese war of 1883 - 1884. French troops occupied key military positions in the country and forced its rulers to recognize the French protectorate over all of Vietnam, which was greatly facilitated by the death of Emperor Tu Duc in 1883 and the dynastic strife and political strife that began in connection with this. The colonialists divided the protectorate into two parts, northern (Thin or Bakbo) and central (Annam, Chungbo), putting their resident governors at their head and turning them into the colony of Cochin.
The consolidation of the French colonial administration in Vietnam was the impetus for increasing French pressure on Cambodia and Laos, neighboring Vietnam. Cambodia in the middle of the 19th century. found itself under the rule of the skillful and capable king Ang Duong, who carried out a number of important reforms in this very backward and politically weak country aimed at strengthening the central government, streamlining taxes, improving the situation of peasants and including building roads, establishing finances, publishing a code of administrative regulations /
During the First War of Resistance (1946-1954), the partisan movement also unfolded in all its glory and power, which became the key to the luxurious victory of Vietnamese weapons at Dien Bien Phu. It is doubly strange that, years later, the Americans so thoughtlessly got involved in the Vietnam War: they clearly underestimated the strength of the Vietnamese liberation movement, and yet its characteristic features: unparalleled patriotism and fortitude, strategic and tactical art, partisan skill - all this was tempered in tireless battles with the Chinese dynasties and manifested itself already during the years of resistance to French aggression.
How naive were the thoughts of the Americans, who hoped to destroy Vietnam with the power of their ultra-modern weapons, while they were opposed at best (before the aid agreement with the USSR, 1965) by outdated “anti-aircraft guns”; the main means of defense of ordinary peasants were agricultural implements, bamboo stakes and the animal instinct of self-preservation. The United States, by force of its weapons, wanted to “return the country to the Stone Age,”** the Vietnamese responded with ingenious traps set in the jungle, carefully camouflaged “wolf pits”, falling into which the soldiers defending the Star-Spangled Banner either died or were sentenced to life remained crippled. The losses among the Vietnamese population as a result of massive bombing are incalculable, however, and this is an obvious fact, the US Army, in turn, lost more people in clashes with partisans than in direct clashes with the armed forces of Vietnam! The Americans tried to destroy the Viet Cong shelters: they fired at them with machine gun fire, sprayed poisonous gas at them and even bombed them from a height of many meters, but to no avail! The clever, evasive Vietnamese subjected the American platoons to surprise attacks again and again, using their primitive weapons. Vietnamese patriots did not have a wide selection of weapons, and, nevertheless, had a significant advantage in such skirmishes: they “read” the situation faster, predicted what the enemy would do in the next moment, and the enemy could only guess what the Viet Cong were preparing for him.
The Vietnamese war with the French, as it turned out, did not teach the Americans anything, although they took an indirect part in this conflict and were direct witnesses to the formal beating of the Europeans. The whole point is that the powerful national liberation movement that unfolded in 1946-1954 led not only to a brilliant victory at Dien Bien Phu. It gave impetus to the partisan movement: many bases and partisan shelters were built, Vietnamese fighters mastered all the intricacies of guerrilla warfare. Everything that the Vietnamese used during the war with the United States was not built in one day - this is the result of vast experience in the struggle for independence, which the American president should have known about before he decided to send his soldiers to Vietnam.
A simple example is the main partisan region of the South - the legendary Kuti - a huge, “three-story” underground fortress, which occupied 180 km2 in area. The total length of the passages and galleries extended over 250 km, thanks to which 16 thousand soldiers could be present here at the same time. An extensive network of passages and holes allowed the partisans to move freely around the area and unexpectedly appear in places where the enemy least expected to see them. The endless underground passages provided everything needed for a long stay, including fresh water wells. It is unlikely that the fortress was built directly during the Second Resistance War, when the Americans were constantly firing on Vietnamese soil. This is the result of many years of painstaking work. All this was built long before American aggression; The creation of Kuchi embodied the centuries-old experience of the struggle of the Vietnamese people, the great tradition of Resistance. This experience, as a result, became the key to victory: the Vietnamese fought on their own territory, where everything was provided for protracted battles, everything was permeated with the spirit of Resistance. Most of the wars that the United States has waged in its history have been short-lived because the United States' rivals, unable to resist the frantic onslaught of American weapons, wisely threw out the white flag. The Vietnam War was the longest in American history.
It was truly impossible to destroy fortifications and bases that had seen many sieges. The Americans understood that they needed to destroy Ku Chi, because from the North this area was surrounded by impenetrable jungle, through which the “Ho Chi Minh Trail” passed, and in the South it was just a stone’s throw from Saigon, which posed a real threat to the latter. They threw all their resources into destroying the base, but their efforts were dashed against the impregnable wall of the Vietnamese resistance. Desperate to destroy the base on the move with napalm, the Americans expelled the entire civilian population from the area and turned Kuti into a continuous “death zone”, surrounding it with checkpoints on all sides. What came of it? Nothing at all.
It is even more strange that a country that is so proud of the history of the struggle for its own independence, without a twinge of conscience, encroached on someone else’s. Ideology is ideology, however, since the state highly values its example of gaining independence, it, in theory, should encourage the aspirations of other countries to achieve independence. The only justification was the fact that American leaders considered Vietnam the cornerstone of Southeast Asia, and believed that with its loss, other states in the region would be under the threat of the spread of the “red infection”, and, perhaps, those territories that the United States had long considered their patrimony (like Japan). Vietnam was hopelessly lost to the United States by 1968, neighboring states remained faithful to following the capitalist path, and the war, meanwhile, lasted for several more years. Does this indicate a mistake in strategy? Unlikely. Questions the goals, aspirations and values of the United States? Undoubtedly...
Just as an athlete, over the course of several years of hard training, “brings” himself to the main competition, so the Vietnamese, over many years of struggle against foreign aggressors, have prepared themselves for this victory. This was not a one-day quiz. It doesn’t even fit into the usual chronological framework - 1965-1973. This is a centuries-long victory, and each uprising against Chinese oppression, against French domination brought the people of Vietnam closer to it, laying a pebble in the powerful foundation of the Resistance. They strengthened the Vietnamese people, and centuries of struggle made the national liberation movement the meaning of life for many thousands of people. Vietnam did not become a southern appendage of the Celestial Empire. Vietnam has thrown off the long-term French yoke. Vietnam withstood the furious onslaught of the United States. And, undoubtedly, there will be many more glorious pages in the history of this country. I want to believe, peaceful pages.
Since the formation of the Van Lang Union, for many centuries, the Vietnamese people have tirelessly demonstrated miracles of resilience. Although at first glance this is not so obvious. The Vietnamese are short, mostly frail people, whose physical parameters are not at all amazing. They are a very peace-loving, “sunny” people: the Vietnamese love to smile and greet guests with great pleasure and cordiality. During the Second War of Resistance, they marveled at the remarkable strength of Soviet soldiers and gasped when the Russian “Vanya” shouldered a heavy “piece of an F-105 wing”**. And yet, according to the stories of Soviet soldiers who went through Vietnam, not a single Vietnamese soldier thought for a second when his Soviet partner needed help. The Vietnamese covered them with their bodies - they so appreciated the help provided to them by their fraternal state. It was incredibly difficult for them. However, before the eyes of these people there was always the image of each of their great ancestors: Chac and Ni Trung, Ba Trieu, Ly Bon, Ngo Quyen, Nguyen Chay, Le Loy, Ly Thuong Kiet, Tran Hung Dao... And how many others were there, nameless for us heroes during the war with the French and Americans? But they are nameless only for us, people far from those events. How many times have we heard from quite adequate Russian people, tired of living in the difficult social conditions of Russia, the phrase, “It would have been better in 1945.” The Germans conquered us. We would live happily now.” We, embittered by the injustice of the current world, for some reason forget about the cost of this victory to our ancestors, what today’s peaceful sky above their heads cost them. The victory of the Soviet Union in the Great Patriotic War and the Vietnam War are somewhat similar: they were a demonstration of the best qualities of the nation and the enormous will of the state in both cases. But the Vietnamese never forget those to whom they owe their lives in calm and peace. The Vietnamese remember those who died in the war by name: each name can be found on the walls of the memorial temple in the partisan region of Ku Chi. There are no unburied or unknown soldiers in Vietnam. Having gone through a path of the most difficult trials for almost 2000 years, the Vietnamese people proved their right to freedom and independence, which the great Ho Chi Minh so dreamed of. The Vietnamese people were not broken by any trials. However, although the events of those years are still carefully stored in the memory of every Vietnamese, all this is already part of the rich history of the country. Today, Vietnam is a rapidly developing state in Southeast Asia, claiming to be one of the major Asian “tigers”. At the same time, Vietnam still adheres to the socialist path of development, following its own traditions. This means that there are still many millennia ahead of a history no less rich and full of glorious events. Stories without deafening volleys and furious bombings. A story in which the tradition of Resistance will remain only a source of pride, a rich heritage of the Vietnamese people. After all, in spite of everything, I want to believe that the great teacher of life - history - has taught a lot not only to Vietnam, but also to other independent, strong states/
In an effort to get rid of the oppressive pressure on Cambodia from the strong Siam, the king decided to resort to the help of the French and began to seek an alliance with France, which was entrenched in Vietnam. However, using this desire for rapprochement, the French colonial administration already in 1863 imposed its protectorate on Ang Duong’s successor, the formal pretext for which was Cambodia’s vassal ties with Vietnam (France considered it possible to act as its successor after the annexation of Cochin China, which bordered Cambodia) . The energetic penetration of the French into Cambodia began, the resident's interference in the country's political ties with its neighbors, primarily with Siam. The matter ended with the actual transformation of Cambodia into a French colony (1884).
The penetration of the French into Cambodia was a signal for their movement also towards Laos. A French consul appeared in Luangarabang in 1886, and in 1893 Laos became a French protectorate. All territories east of the Mekong River became the sphere of political domination of France, which created the Indochina Union (the colony of Cochin and four protectorates - Annam, Thin, Cambodia and Laos) headed by a governor-general. This completed the colonization of Indochina by the French. The question arose about the development of the colony.
It should be noted that the five parts from which French Indochina was divided were very unequal. Cambodia and Laos were the most backward and inaccessible for economic development, and Cochin China found itself in the most advantageous position, which became not only a rice granary, but also a place for growing hevea and exporting rubber, which brought considerable income. Monopolies on opium, salt and alcohol were introduced, which also soon began to bring multimillion-dollar revenues to the colonial treasury. The construction of roads began, including a railway connecting the south and north of Vietnam, coal mining and export expanded, and coffee and tea plantations were created. At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. French entrepreneurs were already investing a lot of money in the industry of French Indochina, mainly Vietnam, which brought in huge interest, which was facilitated by the tariffs that protected French capital. Much attention was paid to mining in Cambodia and Laos, as well as plantation and road construction in these protectorates.
The unceremonious invasion of the countries of ancient culture by the colonialists could not but provoke their resistance, which took its most distinct and strong forms in Vietnam. First of all, it was a movement in defense of the emperor, “kang vuong,” which peaked at the end of the 19th century. Its essence boiled down to support by the country's ruling apparatus and wide circles of the population for the dignity of the overthrown and humiliated ruler by the colonialists. Having retired to a remote and inaccessible region of Vietnam and taking refuge with his family in a fortress specially built for this purpose, Emperor Ham Nghi began in the late 80s a kind of campaign of open disobedience, accompanied by guerrilla fighting. Captured in 1888, Ham Nghi was deported to Algeria, but the protests did not stop for about another decade, until an agreement in 1897 recognized the rights of the leader of the movement, General De Tham, to autonomously govern the liberated region he created. At the turn of the XIX--XX centuries. De Tham's army became a serious support for the nascent movement for national liberation in Vietnam, led by such recognized ideologists from among the already formed new intelligentsia as Phan Boy Chau, who in 1904 headed the Society for the Renewal of Vietnam that he created, reorganized in 1912 into Vietnam Revival Society.
If the movement, led in the first decades of the 20th century. Phan Boi Chau, was quite radical and aimed at the violent overthrow of the power of the colonialists and the restoration of the independence of the country led by a half-monarch-half-president (such a leader was being prepared from Prince Cuong Dz, who was secretly taken to Japan), another influential direction in the national liberation movement of those years was represented by Phan Thu Chin, who emphasized the enlightenment of the people, the progress of science and the familiarization of the Vietnamese young intelligentsia with the culture of Europe, for which the works of European thinkers were actively used in Chinese translations (hieroglyphics was still the main element of education in Vietnam). However, for the colonialists this difference was not very significant, so at the turn of the second decade of the 20th century. The activities of both recognized leaders were forcibly suppressed.
Conclusion: The second period of Asian transformation ended along with the entire post-war world order. The most important factor in this process was the planetary collapse of socialism. Revolutionary eschatologism has come to its logical end. In 1991, of all the socialist countries in Asia, only one, Mongolia, took the path of completely stopping socialist experimentation. However, the democratic movement in China, reforms in Vietnam, Laos, the approaching settlement of the situation in Cambodia, the further aggravation of the crisis in North Korea - all this marked the end of revolutionary eschatologism. The socialist fluctuation in Asia began to self-destruct, as had already happened by this time in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. One channel of the civilizational stream had already dried up at its source, and only its last waves were rolling in Asia (perhaps the very last wave swept over Nepal in 1990). All former socialist countries had to look for a new model of existence; The intellectual elite of these countries looked with increasing attention at their neighbors, who chose the model of borrowing Western artifacts while preserving some traditional structures of existence.
Consequences of the First World War for colonial and dependent countries. Strengthening the position of national medium and large enterprises. Changes in the social structure of Afro-Asian states. Deepening differentiation of the peasantry and growth in the size of the working class. The attitude of metropolitan countries to the peoples of colonies and dependent countries.
Western social democracy and the national-colonial question. League of Nations and the mandate system. Decisions of the Versailles-Washington Conference and the fate of the Afro-Asian colonies and semi-colonies.
The October Revolution in Russia and its influence on the development of the national liberation movement in neighboring countries. The rise of the national liberation movement in 1918-1922 in Iran, China, Korea, Mongolia, and Turkey. Anti-imperialist struggle in India and North Africa.
Conclusion of treaties of friendship and cooperation between Russia and Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey and Mongolia in 1921, agreements with China in 1924.
Comintern national-colonial question. The attitude of the leaders of the liberation movement of Asian and African countries to the October Revolution, Soviet foreign policy, the personality of V.I. Lenin: M. Kemal, M. Gandhi, D. Nehru, Sun Yat-sen, Nguyen Ai Quon (Ho Chi Minh), A. Sukarno and others.
Liberation movement in 1923-1933. National revolution of 1925-1927 in China. The Satyagraha movement in India. Uprisings in Indonesia and North Africa. The struggle for Soviet power in China and Vietnam. The problem of a united national front in the liberation movement of Asian countries on the eve of the Second World War.
The development of nationalism in the colonial and dependent countries of the East.
Hippology of nationalist ideologies and their character. Ideas of Pan-Islamism. The emergence of political Islamic fundamentalism in Egypt, the creation of the Muslim Brotherhood organization. Afro-Christian movement. The problem of Arab unity in the liberation struggle. Development of the Pan-African movement. The emergence of petty-bourgeois socialist movements in the countries of the East.
Topic 3. The collapse of the colonial system of imperialism and general problems of development of the countries of the East after the Second World War.
The results of the Second World War and their impact on colonial and dependent countries. General weakening of the positions of the imperialist powers in the East. The rise of the national liberation movement in Asian and African countries. The main stages of the collapse of the colonial system. The formation of independent states in Asia and Africa before 1960. The UN Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial and Dependent Countries and the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism. General problems of development of liberated countries. The struggle to choose the path of development. The influence of international relations, the confrontation between the two great powers and camps on the national liberation movement. Features of the development of the national liberation movement in the 1970s. The failure of US aggression in Vietnam and the retreat of the forces of imperialism.
Problems of socialist-oriented countries. US counteroffensive in the 1980s. The collapse of the world socialist system. International terrorism. Regional conflicts and their impact on the development of the liberation movement. The struggle of the liberated countries for equal economic relations. OPEC and other economic associations. Liberated countries at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries.