Definition of science.
Special view cognitive activity, aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about the world. Interacts with other types of cognitive activity: everyday, artistic, religious, mythological, philosophical. comprehension of the world. Like all types of knowledge, N. arose from the needs of practice and regulates it in a special way. N. aims to identify essential connections (laws) according to which objects can be transformed in the process human activity. Any objects that can be transformed by man - fragments of nature, social subsystems or society as a whole, states human consciousness and so on. - can become subjects of scientific research. N. studies them as objects that function and develop according to their own natural laws. It can study a person as a subject of activity, but also as a special object. The objective and objective way of viewing the world, characteristic of science, distinguishes it from other methods of cognition. For example, in art, the mastery of reality always occurs as a kind of gluing together of the subjective and objective, when any reproduction of events or states of nature and social life assumes them emotional assessment. An artistic image is always a unity of the general and the individual, the rational and the emotional. Scientific concepts are rational, highlighting the general and essential in the world of objects. Reflecting the world in its objectivity, N. provides only one slice of the diversity of the human world. Therefore, it does not exhaust the entire culture, but constitutes only one of the spheres that interacts with other spheres of cultural creativity - morality, religion, philosophy, art, etc. The sign of subjectivity and objectivity of knowledge is the most important characteristic of knowledge, but it is still insufficient to determine its specificity, since ordinary knowledge can also provide individual objective and subject knowledge. In contrast, N. is not limited to the study of only those objects, their properties and relationships that, in principle, can be mastered in the practice of the corresponding historical era. It is capable of going beyond the boundaries of each historically defined type of practice and opening up new ones for humanity object worlds, which can become objects of mass practical development only at future stages of the development of civilization. At one time G.V. Leibniz characterized mathematics as science about possible worlds. In principle, this characteristic can be attributed to any fundamental N. Electromagnetic waves, nuclear reactions, coherent radiation of atoms was first discovered in physics, and in these discoveries a fundamentally new level was potentially laid technological development civilization, which was realized much later (technology of electric motors and electric generators, radio and television equipment, lasers, nuclear power plants, etc.).
The place and role of science in culture
Today science in modern society plays an important role in many industries and areas of people's lives. Undoubtedly, the level of development of science can serve as one of the main indicators of the development of society, and it is also, undoubtedly, an indicator of economic, cultural, civilized, educated, modern development states. Throughout the history of culture, people have developed various ways of understanding the world. Science is one of these methods of cognition that arises in response to the need to obtain objective, true knowledge about the world and makes a significant contribution to the development of culture. But culture is also the most important condition for development scientific knowledge(mutual enrichment occurs). The influence of culture is expressed in: 1. The historical experience of man’s spiritual exploration of the world is concentrated in culture. The higher the cultural level of development of society, the more developed science.2. Culture largely determines the historical need of society for science and even the possibility of its development. (For example, the culture of the Renaissance. Nicholas of Cusa, ... completed by Newton).3. Through culture, a connection is established between scientific discoveries and the ability of public consciousness to perceive these discoveries and give them worthy assessment. Characteristics and features of science that distinguish it from other manifestations of culture. 1. Scientific knowledge is characterized by a special dynamism of development (striving for innovation, constant renewal), everything else looks like a conservative component. 2. Scientific activity is regulated by a cognitive goal. Other social goals (practical, ethical, educational) have secondary, applied significance.3. Scientific activity is based on the professionalism of its subjects.4. Scientific knowledge forms an extremely rationalized style of thinking and requires its constant application in research activities(and outside of research activities, it also works in everyday life).
3. Forms of worldview, their features. How do knowledge and reality relate?
Homo sapiens social creature. His activities are expedient. And in order to act expediently in the complex real world, he must not only know a lot, but also be able to do so. Be able to choose goals, be able to make this or that decision. To do this, he needs, first of all, a deep and correct understanding of the world - a worldview.
Man has always had a need to develop a general idea of the world as a whole and of man’s place in it. This idea is usually called the universal picture of the world.
The universal picture of the world is a certain amount of knowledge accumulated by science and the historical experience of people. A person always thinks about what his place is in the world, why he lives, what is the meaning of his life, why life and death exist; how to treat other people and nature, etc.
Every era, every social group and, therefore, every person has a more or less clear and distinct or vague idea of solving the issues that concern humanity. The system of these decisions and answers shapes the worldview of the era as a whole and of the individual. Answering the question about man’s place in the world, about man’s relationship to the world, people, on the basis of the worldview at their disposal, develop a picture of the world, which provides generalized knowledge about the structure, general structure, the laws of the emergence and development of everything that somehow surrounds a person.
Having general knowledge about his place in the world, a person builds his general activities, determines his general and private goals in accordance with a certain worldview. This activity and these goals are, as a rule, an expression of certain interests of entire groups or individuals.
In one case, their connection with the worldview can be revealed quite clearly, while in another it is obscured by certain personal attitudes of a person, the characteristics of his character. However, such a connection with the worldview necessarily exists and can be traced. This means that worldview plays a special, very important role in all human activities.
At the center of all philosophical problems are questions about the worldview and the general picture of the world, about a person’s relationship to the outside world, about his ability to understand this world and act expediently in it.
Worldview is the foundation of human consciousness. The acquired knowledge, established beliefs, thoughts, feelings, moods, combined in a worldview, represent a certain system of a person’s understanding of the world and himself. In real life, a worldview in a person’s mind is certain views, views on the world and one’s place in it.
Worldview is an integral formation that generalizes layers human experience. This is, firstly, generalized knowledge obtained as a result of professional, practical activities. Secondly, spiritual values that contribute to the formation of moral and aesthetic ideals.
So, a worldview is a set of views, assessments, principles, a certain vision and understanding of the world, as well as a program of human behavior and actions.
Worldview includes a theoretical core and an emotional-volitional component.
There are 4 types of worldview:
1.Mythological
2.Religious
3.Everyday
4.Philosophical
Mythological worldview. Its peculiarity is that knowledge is expressed in images (myth - image). In myths there is no division into the human world and the world of the gods, there is no division into the objective and apparent world, myth gave an idea of how to live, today myth is a manipulator (a myth in the USA about the equality of all before the law)
Close to the mythological, although different from it, was the religious worldview, which developed from the depths of the still undivided, undifferentiated social consciousness. Like mythology, religion appeals to fantasy and feelings. However, unlike myth, religion does not “mix” the earthly and the sacred, but in the deepest and irreversible way separates them into two opposite poles. The creative omnipotent force - God - stands above nature and outside of nature. The existence of God is experienced by man as a revelation. As a revelation, man is given to know that his soul is immortal, eternal life and a meeting with God await him beyond the grave.
Religion is an illusory, fantastic reflection of natural phenomena that acquire a supernatural character.
Components of religion: faith, rituals, social institution - the church.
Religion, religious consciousness, religious attitude towards the world did not remain vital. Throughout the history of mankind, they, like other cultural formations, developed and acquired diverse forms in the East and West, in different historical eras. But all of them were united by the fact that at the center of any religious worldview is the search for higher values, the true path of life, and that both these values and the life path leading to them are transferred to the transcendental, otherworldly realm, not to the earthly, but to the “eternal” " life. All deeds and actions of a person and even his thoughts are evaluated, approved or condemned, therefore, by the highest, absolute criterion.
First of all, it should be noted that the ideas embodied in myths were closely intertwined with rituals and served as an object of faith. IN primitive society mythology was in close interaction with religion. However, it would be wrong to say unequivocally that they were inseparable. Mythology exists separately from religion as an independent, relatively independent form of social consciousness. But in the earliest stages of the development of society, mythology and religion formed a single whole. From the content side, that is, from the point of view of ideological constructs, mythology and religion are inseparable. It cannot be said that some myths are “religious” and others are “mythological”. However, religion has its own specifics. And this specificity lies not in special type ideological constructs (for example, those in which the division of the world into natural and supernatural predominates) and not in special treatment to these worldview constructs (attitude of faith). The division of the world into two levels is inherent in mythology at a fairly high stage of development, and the attitude of faith is also an integral part of mythological consciousness. The specificity of religion is determined by the fact that the main element of religion is the cult system, that is, a system of ritual actions aimed at establishing certain relationships with the supernatural. And therefore, every myth becomes religious to the extent that it is included in the cult system and acts as its content side.
Worldview constructs, being included in the cult system, acquire the character of a creed. And this gives the worldview a special spiritual and practical character. Worldview constructs become the basis for formal regulation and regulation, streamlining and preservation of morals, customs, and traditions. With the help of ritual, religion cultivates human feelings of love, kindness, tolerance, compassion, mercy, duty, justice, etc., giving them special value, connecting their presence with the sacred, supernatural.
The main function of religion is to help a person overcome the historically changeable, transitory, relative aspects of his existence and elevate a person to something absolute, eternal. In philosophical terms, religion is designed to “root” a person in the transcendental. In the spiritual and moral sphere, this is manifested in giving norms, values and ideals an absolute, unchanging character, independent of the conjuncture of the spatio-temporal coordinates of human existence, social institutions, etc. Thus, religion gives meaning and knowledge, and therefore stability in human existence helps him overcome everyday difficulties.
1. worldview
2.cognitive (through the Bible)
3.integrative
4.recreational (satisfaction)
5.compensatory (help)
Philosophical worldview.
The emergence of philosophy as a worldview dates back to the period of development and formation of slave society in the countries Ancient East, and the classical form of the philosophical worldview developed in Ancient Greece. Initially, materialism arose as a type of philosophical worldview, as a scientific reaction to the religious form of worldview. Thales was the first in Ancient Greece to rise to the understanding of the material unity of the world and expressed a progressive idea about the transformation of matter, united in its essence, from one state to another. Thales had associates, students and continuers of his views. Unlike Thales, who considered water to be the material basis of all things, they found other material foundations: Anaximenes - air, Heraclitus - fire.
Phil. the worldview is broader than the scientific one because scientific is built on the basis of data from particular sciences and is based on reason, phil. worldview is also based on sensations. It reflects the world through concepts and categories.
Peculiarities:
This is a rational explanation of reality
Phil-I has a conceptual-categorical apparatus
Phil-I wears systemic nature
Phil-I is reflexive in nature
Phil-I is of a value nature
Phil-I requires a certain level of intelligence
Philosophical thought is the thought of the eternal. But this does not mean that philosophy itself is ahistorical. Like any theoretical knowledge, philosophical knowledge develops and is enriched with more and more new content, new discoveries. At the same time, the continuity of what is known is preserved. However, the philosophical spirit, philosophical consciousness is not only a theory, especially an abstract, dispassionately speculative theory. Scientific theoretical knowledge is only one side ideological content philosophy. The other, undoubtedly dominant, leading side of it is formed by a completely different component of consciousness - the spiritual-practical one. It is he who expresses the meaning-of-life, value-oriented, that is, worldview, type of philosophical consciousness as a whole. There was a time when no science had ever existed, but philosophy was at the highest level of its creative development.
Man's relationship to the world is an eternal subject of philosophy. At the same time, the subject of philosophy is historically mobile, concrete, the “Human” dimension of the world changes with the change in the essential forces of man himself.
The secret goal of philosophy is to take a person out of the sphere of everyday life, to captivate him with the highest ideals, to give his life true meaning, open the way to the most perfect values.
Organic compound in the philosophy of two principles - scientific-theoretical and practical-spiritual - determines the specificity of it as a completely unique form of consciousness, which manifests itself especially noticeably in its history - in real process research, development of ideological content philosophical teachings, which historically and in time are interconnected not by chance, but as necessary. All of them are just facets, moments of a single whole. Just as in science and in other spheres of rationality, in philosophy new knowledge is not rejected, but dialectical “removes”, overcomes its previous level, that is, it includes it as its own special case. In the history of thought, Hegel emphasized, we observe progress: a constant ascent from abstract knowledge to more and more concrete knowledge. The sequence of philosophical teachings - in the main and the main thing - is the same as the sequence in the logical definitions of the goal itself, that is, the history of knowledge corresponds to the objective logic of the object being cognized.
The integrity of human spirituality finds its completion in the worldview. Philosophy as a single integral worldview is not only everyone’s business thinking man, but also of all humanity, which, as an individual person, has never lived and cannot live by purely logical judgments alone, but carries out its spiritual life in all the colorful fullness and integrity of its diverse moments. Worldview exists in the form of a system of value orientations, ideals, beliefs and convictions, as well as the way of life of a person and society.
Philosophy is one of the main forms of social consciousness, a system of the most general concepts about the world and the place of man in it.
The relationship between philosophy and worldview can be characterized as follows: the concept of “worldview” is broader than the concept of “philosophy”. Philosophy is a form of social and individual consciousness that is constantly theoretically substantiated and has a greater degree of scientificity than just a worldview, say, at the everyday level of common sense, which is present in a person who sometimes does not even know how to write or read.
With the question “is it possible to know being?” Another philosophical question is closely related: “is it reliable human knowledge? It should be noted that this question is in a certain sense is rhetorical. It is simply unthinkable to answer this question in the negative! If human knowledge has nothing to do with being, man finds himself outside of this being. This is as if in an instant a person stopped seeing, hearing, distinguishing smells, tastes and touches, and lost the ability to think. That's why this question in the most general sense it is always resolved positively.
The question of the relationship between knowledge and reality in the conditions of modern civilization it acquires a pragmatic character and is associated with ways of obtaining knowledge and its application. The effectiveness of human activity directly depends on the correspondence of knowledge to patterns of activity and the product of activity designed on the basis of knowledge with its result.
In more general case we're talking about about the relationship between the entire body of human knowledge and its inclusion in people’s life activities with the conditions in which this life activity is carried out. In the abstract theoretical language of philosophy, this question is formulated as the relationship between being and thinking.
One of the first to formulate the question of the relationship between knowledge and reality was the ancient Greek thinker Parmenides. According to his point of view, “being and the thought of it are one and the same.” This formula affirms the existential status of a thought and the identity of its content with the reality to which the thought belongs. Parmenides is convinced that the thought of an apple is identical in content to the apple itself.
Plato was less optimistic on this issue. He believed that the correspondence in question is accessible only to gods and divine children, and people are limited to a plausible meaning. In other words, knowledge does not coincide with reality, but is only similar to it, reflects it to a greater or lesser extent. He clarifies his position with the help of the image of a cave: people, being in the cave twilight, do not see the objects themselves, but only their inaccurate and unclear shadows. True, Plato leaves behind the opportunity for a person to leave the cave, but immediately notices that the people themselves do not want to leave it: “And whoever would undertake to release them from their bonds and raise them upward, as soon as they could they would take them in their hands and kill , – they would have killed.”
Who is Plato talking about here without naming a name?
That is why, from Plato’s point of view, a person’s knowledge of the world can only be considered approximate.
I. Kant explained the reliability of knowledge by the fact that man is, as it were, rooted in being.
In existence, man belongs special place, which explains the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge about reality. Later, this idea will form the content of the anthropic principle in science. At the same time, Kant’s teaching about a priori (pre-experimental) forms of knowledge in itself does not provide confidence that the knowledge being created is reliable. It is impossible to establish whether a priori forms allow one to reliably cognize being or not. One cannot be sure of the completeness of knowledge, since it is unclear whether it is possible to obtain comprehensive knowledge using a priori forms of knowledge.
As we see, despite all the desire to positively and definitively resolve the question of the reliability of knowledge, neither philosophy nor science have so far found sufficient arguments for this. Therefore, we can only believe and hope that human knowledge about reality is reliable. One of the most prominent and authoritative thinkers of the 20th century, K. Popper, denies the objective nature of knowledge; his conclusion is pessimistic: “We don’t know, we can guess.”
4. Difference between humanities and natural sciences
The role of mathematics and physics
In the modern system of knowledge we can distinguish at least four relatively independent types: humanitarian knowledge, technical knowledge, mathematical knowledge and natural science. The most specific among these types of knowledge is mathematics. It is both universal for other types of knowledge and dependent on them, since in any case it makes sense if it only defines and describes patterns regardless of the subject of research. Today it is hardly possible to imagine the development of technology, natural science and even humanities without mathematics.
Habit mathematical thinking to build purely formal logical systems, using a finite arsenal of means and without the requirement to check the model for any adequacy and consistency with extraneous requirements - after all, a formally consistent system is itself correct - this exaggerated habit, uncritically applied to reasoning about reality, usually leads to false, unrealistic conclusions. With this method, firstly, the “logical” construction begins with extremely primitive and fragmentary postulates, very weakly connected with the provisions and conclusions of the corresponding science and even with ordinary common sense and exaggerating the importance of individual particular features and facts. Secondly, since the conclusions are obtained logically, then there is no doubt about their correctness, and therefore neither the original, nor the logic, nor the conclusions are analyzed for their correspondence to reality, especially since the facts can be selected in accordance with the conclusions, and even the degree compliance can always be declared satisfactory. If reality still tries to resist, then so much the worse for it.
Physics is also exposed to a similar danger when researchers and reviewers with hypertrophied mathematical tools invade it.
In mathematics, a proof ends with a period and remains as such forever, no matter how much mathematics subsequently develops. And in physics and in all sciences about reality, which solve inverse (and always finite) problems in an inexhaustibly complex reality, the proof never ends. It is only relatively complete.
In order to “compensate” for the fundamental incompleteness of formal-logical systems, another form of knowledge of Reality is needed, based on completely different principles (if it is at all appropriate to say that it is based on some “principles”).
This is humanitarian, imaginative thinking, which sees in the richness of associations and connections of amorphous images an opportunity for a more subtle study of problems in which the use of “hard” images looks rude, even vulgar, and completely unacceptable. The heart and intuition successfully lead us to such heights where words and logic fall powerlessly silent.
Let us note in conclusion that the fundamental difference between the problem of mathematics and the problem of physics (and other sciences about reality) clearly and significantly separates mathematical and physical criteria and ideals of scientific character while bringing physical ones closer to the general ideals and criteria of scientific character in the study of the real world. And this rapprochement is such that even philosophy, like undeniably scientific physics, turns out to be scientific to the extent that and insofar as it uses scientific methods to systematically study questions about what and in what sense exists in the world and how we know it, rather than expressing for example, wishes for nature.
Attitude to nature in the natural sciences and humanities
Nature and culture are opposed to each other. This is reflected in the radical distinction between science and art, natural sciences and humanities. In nature, man now deals with a fundamentally dehumanized, transcendent being, which is subject to an endless process of cognition.
If nature is an object and acts as something external in relation to natural science, then the internal content of natural science is composed of disciplines that address individual parts - objects of nature - of the object. The totality of natural science disciplines considers the sum of objects - parts of nature, but is the knowledge they receive a valid representation of nature? Different stages of development of natural science represent nature differently. Moreover, the difference between these ideas depends on the extent to which science is involved in this.
The object has practically inexhaustible content. In turn, an object is something that specifically determines the content of nature as an object, for example, a set of physical laws, chemical, or biological, etc. Accordingly, natural science is objectively presented in the form of various disciplines that study these patterns and, ultimately, through scientific paradigm, forming a general idea of nature as an object. The concept "nature" can be used in several senses. For example, one can talk about the “nature” of man, considering him as an object of natural science. In this case, disciplines such as physiology, anatomy, psychology and others will be selected as subjects for study.
An internal inconsistency between the idea of nature and itself arises. It is simultaneously defined as an object fundamentally foreign to man (the subject of cognition) and no less fundamentally as an object homogeneous to man (the subject of practical development). Any natural scientific understanding of nature as a completely idealized substance is contrasted with a humanitarian understanding of the incompatibility of nature in the forms of human development of it. The scientific pathos of knowledge and mastery is contrasted with the artistic pathos of the material originality of the natural. The division of nature as a single object into many objects is determined by the direction of human practical activity, which, in turn, follows from the natural conditions of its existence. Man is part of the evolutionary process of nature, he is endowed with the ability to realize this process and therefore, in principle, the practical development and transformation of nature is available to him. All species have adaptive ability, but only humans master it at both the theoretical and practical levels, which changes the situation. Regardless of what nature actually is, splitting it into parts and sequential study of individual fragments is sufficient to master and transform it. This situation is expressed by the phrase about the objective and objective consideration of nature. In practice, this means that, depending on the degree of “science” of natural science, a certain set of stable connections is distinguished as a subject in nature, which ultimately leads to the formation of a discipline, which appears as a set of theoretical principles and practical methodologies aimed at mastering the selected subject. So you can do next output: The study of nature is the raison d'être of natural science. At the same time, this research must proceed from the understanding of the impossibility of a “direct”, “non-human” appeal to nature; it must be humane. Between it and natural science there will always be a person with his own culture, history and language. “Pure” as well as “absolute” knowledge is an illusion.
Religion and Science
The problem of confrontation between science and religion today can hardly be called relevant. All the “great battles” between them remained in history, and the border was determined. The advantage is on the side of science. But it is not absolute. Natural scientific experience is not able to completely replace a worldview, and here religion almost begins to compete with natural science on an equal footing. The scientific picture of the world is not able to satisfy all minds. There are a lot of gaps in it.
Scientific knowledge and religious knowledge are incompatible, since their cognitive attitudes are completely opposite. Many examples can be given to confirm this thesis. The opposite is manifested in everything: in the procedures of cognition, in relation to research, to its empirical and theoretical foundations, in the interpretation of truth, etc. But let’s try to highlight the simplest and most general difference between religion and natural science. I believe that it can be expressed by the following thesis: in scientific natural science there is no absolute truth. Any truth is only a result that is overcome. In religion there is an absolute truth that can neither be overcome nor abolished under any circumstances - this is God.
In addition, science is a field of activity that, due to its intellectual complexity, cannot be the work of many. An attempt to popularly present a scientific worldview also has its limits, going beyond which is unacceptable.
5. Pre-classical, classical and non-classical science.
Science as an integral phenomenon arises in modern times as a result of a spin-off from philosophy and goes through three main stages in its development: classical, non-classical, post-non-classical (modern). 1. Classical science(XVII-XIX centuries), exploring its objects, sought to eliminate, as much as possible, in their description and theoretical explanation, everything that relates to the subject, means, techniques and operations of its activity. This elimination was seen as necessary condition obtaining objectively true knowledge about the world. Here the objective style of thinking dominates, the desire to cognize the object in itself, regardless of the conditions of its study by the subject.2. Non-classical science(first half of the 20th century), the starting point of which is associated with the development of relativistic and quantum theory, rejects objectivism classical science, rejects the idea of reality as something independent of the means of its knowledge, a subjective factor. It comprehends the connections between the knowledge of the object and the nature of the means and operations of the subject. 3. Post-non-classical science(second half of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century) - constant inclusion of subjective activity in the “body of knowledge”. It takes into account the correlation of the nature of the acquired knowledge about an object not only with the peculiarities of the means and operations of the activity of the cognizing subject, but also with its value-goal structures.
Each stage has its own paradigm, its own picture of the world, its own fundamental ideas. The classical stage has mechanics as its paradigm, its picture of the world is built on the principle of rigid determinism, and it corresponds to the image of the universe as a clockwork mechanism. The paradigm of relativity, discreteness, quantization, probability, and complementarity is associated with non-classical science.
The post-non-classical stage corresponds to the paradigm of formation and self-organization.
Science is an important form of culture in society. Science as a whole can be viewed from three perspectives:
1) how special system knowledge;
2) as a system of specific institutions and organizations that develop, store and disseminate this knowledge;
3) as a special type of activity - a system of scientific research.
Scientific knowledge begins when a pattern is realized behind a cumulative factor - a general and necessary connection between them, which makes it possible to explain why a given phenomenon occurs this way and not otherwise, and to predict its further development.
Historically, science arose later than religion, art, and education. Although the first shoots scientific knowledge found in ancient Egyptian and ancient Greek societies in the 5th century BC, its real heyday came only in modern times - in the 16th - 17th centuries. and - was closely connected with scientific and technological progress and the industrial revolution.
Modern scientists have developed several models for the development of scientific knowledge:
Model of gradual development of science;
Model of the development of science through scientific revolutions.
The purpose of scientific activity is to obtain new knowledge. The purpose of education is the transfer of new knowledge to new generations of people, i.e. youth. If there is no first, then there will be no second. In this sense, science is more important than education.
Main function science - the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.
The language of science is different from the language of other forms of culture. Science is thinking in concepts, and art is artistic images.
Thus, science refers to theoretically systematized views of the world around us, reproducing it essential aspects in an abstract-logical form and based on scientific research data
At the core scientific process lies the transfer of information a significant property of which is objectivity, reliability, systematicity, consistency. It is from science that society expects truth in last resort. Science is created for the sole purpose of seeking and proving the truth.
On modern stage, in the conditions of scientific and technological progress, science is the most important social institution. Let's list significant features of modern science:
- versatility(modern science studies all natural and social phenomena);
- limitlessness both in spatial and chronological boundaries);
- differentiation and at the same time, the integration of scientific research (more and more new sciences are “spinning off” from traditional sciences, and new discoveries are more often made in the areas of intersection and integration of different sciences);
Convergence with the needs of a developing society.
Functions of modern science:
1) cultural and ideological(or cognitive-explanatory) - science is designed to help understand and explain the structure of the world and the laws of its development; develop your own worldview;
2) production - science as a direct productive force (synthesis of science, technology and production); process catalyst continuous improvement production;
3) prognostic- science allows us to predict the main trends in the development of society and develop recommendations for changing them;
4) social ~ science is included in the processes of social development and its management.
The methods of science and its data are used to develop large-scale plans and programs for social and economic development (for example, the economic and political integration of the member countries of the Greater Economic Community).
Sometimes these functions are combined into two main ones: educational(theoretical insight into real phenomena) and practically effective(participation in the transformative activities of man and society). According to these functions, all sciences are usually divided into fundamental And applied. In addition to this classification, science is divided according to the object of study: natural sciences study natural phenomena, technical - artificially created objects, social - society, humanitarian- person.
To category natural fundamental sciences include: physics, chemistry, biology. They reveal the structure of the material world. Technical discipline, or applied knowledge represent radio electronics, biotechnology and polymer chemistry. They rely on fundamental knowledge and serve practical purposes.
TO social sciences include: sociology, psychology, economics, political science, as well as anthropology and ethnography, etc. Social sciences operate quantitative(mathematical and statistical) methods, and humanitarian ones, with rare exceptions, - quality(descriptive-evaluative). Social disciplines are classified as behavioral sciences, those who study the interaction of people in groups, institutions, the market or in political situations, which is why they are also called behavioral sciences.
Humanitarian knowledge examines the human world, the goals and motives of his activities, his spiritual values, personal perception peace. Towards humanitarian knowledge include: philosophy, history, art history, literary criticism, etc.
Due to the fact that the power of modern science allows us to radically change the modern world, the importance of the ethical standards of a scientist increases. Freedom of scientific research sometimes conflicts with the social responsibility of scientists in the context of the increasing role of science in global changes in the world.
The consequences of such scientific discoveries, like nuclear energy, cloning of living organisms, etc. A dilemma arises, what is more important for a scientist: the search for truth or the realization that his discovery could lead to the death of humanity
Social responsibility, active position in protecting people and the planet is the foundation of the ethics of science. Ethics standards in science:
1) universal human requirements and prohibitions- you cannot steal other people’s ideas (plagiarism), lie, etc.; these norms are protected by copyright;
2) freedom to seek truth- protection of specific values characteristic of a given science (selfless search and defense of truth);
3) moral right-handed, regulating relationships between science and the scientist and society (the problem of the scientist’s social responsibility to society);
4) good faith(accuracy and evidence of all stages of the study, scientific integrity I objectivity, rejection of hasty sensational untested innovations).
Morality
Man is a social being, therefore he cannot disobey certain rules. This is a necessary condition for the survival of the human race. At the same time, rules and regulations are designed to protect the interests and dignity of the individual. Among these norms, the most important are moral norms. Morality is a system of norms and rules governing communication and behavior of people to ensure the unity of public and personal interests.
Who sets moral standards? Exist different points view:
Commandments of world religions:
Natural-historical path (from mass everyday practice norms are extracted, which are honed in various everyday situations, gradually turning into moral laws of society);
I. Kant formulated the categorical imperative of morality. Categorical imperative- this is an unconditional, compulsory requirement (command), not allowing objections, mandatory for all people, regardless of their origin, position, obligations.
The main features of morality include:
- universality of moral requirements(i.e., the demands of morality are addressed to all people, young and old, men and women, rich and poor, Catholics and Orthodox);
- voluntary compliance with requirements(unlike law, where compliance with norms is mandatory, in morality compliance with requirements is supported only by the consciousness of people and authority public opinion).
Along with the concept of morality, the concept of morality is used. In social sciences, the words “morality” and “morality” are used interchangeably. The science of morality and ethics, of proper relationships between people is calledethics.
Structure morality. Morals include:
Direct norms of behavior;
Values;
An ideal is perfection, the highest goal of human aspirations, ideas about the highest moral requirements about the most sublime in a person.
Values- this is what is most dear, sacred for an individual, for a community of people, the positive or negative significance of objects in the surrounding world for a person, a social group, and society as a whole.
The criteria and methods for assessing this significance are expressed in moral principles and norms, ideals, attitudes, and goals. There are material, socio-political and spiritual values; positive and negative values
Moral values are required. And not just mandatory, but absolutely mandatory. This means that they must be followed not under certain conditions, but always. There are seven fundamental values that are important for all people and for all areas of society. This Truth, Beauty, Goodness, Benefit, Dominion, Justice, Freedom.
There is a correspondence between spheres of society and values. basis economic sphere is Benefit. It is expressed in terms of profit, benefit, etc.).
The main motive social sphere society is justice. Equality, brotherhood, collectivism, friendship, exchange, cooperation are based on justice. She is their highest leitmotif and meaning. A sense of justice is invisibly embedded in the observance of any moral norm.
The political sphere is built around another fundamental value - Dominance. The struggle for power, leadership, dominance, suppression, career, competition - they all have one thing as their leitmotif - domination. The forms of manifestation are different, but the essence is the same.
Spiritual realm- the most heterogeneous of all four. These include education, science, culture and religion. They rely on three great values at once - Truth, Beauty and Goodness. Religion is built around of good, science is around truths culture art - around beauty. Education is at the intersection of good and truth.
Another value stands out - Freedom. Freedom is needed by all people and in all four areas. Freedom is a common property for all, a common value for all.
One sphere of society cannot be built on one single value. The scientist creates not only the true, but also useful theory, and the artist strives to bring goodness to people with his beauty.
Categories of morality are bipolar in nature - good and evil. The category “good” serves as a system-forming principle moral concepts. It is difficult to define the word “good,” but in its most general form it is that which contributes to the good of man and the progress of society.
Adjacent to this category is the category "duty"- personal responsible adherence to moral values, personal awareness of the need for unconditional fulfillment of moral requirements. One of the important moral categories "conscience"- this is the ability of an individual to recognize ethical values and be guided by them in all life situations, independently formulate one’s moral duties, exercise moral self-control, and be aware of one’s duty to other people.
Dignity is a concept that expresses ideas about the value of each person as a moral person.
The indicator of human dignity is moral choice. In a specific situation, each person must himself, guided by his conscience, make his choice between good and evil.
The criteria of morality also include the idea of happiness. Happiness- this is satisfaction with your life, experience and awareness of beauty and truth.
Moral assessment - this is approval or condemnation of human activity from the standpoint of those requirements that are contained in moral consciousness.
Moral principles and categories are reflected in a person’s self-awareness, in his actions and behaviors. Every person develops such a concept as the meaning of life. This a complex system internal spiritual values for which a person lives.
Morality reflects the main aspects of social life and changes from era to era as society itself changes. In addition, there may be moralities of different social groups. Thus, the knightly code of conduct was unacceptable to the medieval peasant. And in modern society it is customary to highlight the principles of professional ethics. The ethics of a doctor, a teacher and a forester differ from each other. However, despite these differences between eras and social groups, there are universal human moral norms and values; it is customary to highlight the “golden rule”: act towards others as you would like them to act towards you. When making a moral choice in a given situation, it is worth remembering this rule.
INTRODUCTION
1. CULTURE: DEFINITION AND MEANING
1.1. Culture as an activity
1.2. Different meanings concept of “culture”
1.3. Culture structure
2. THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN THE CULTURAL SYSTEM
2.1. Specifics of science
2.2. The formation of science
2.3. Institutionalization of science
2.4. Science and technology
CONCLUSION
LIST OF REFERENCES USED
INTRODUCTION
“Culture” in modern humanitarian knowledge - open category. In the very in a broad sense Culture is understood as opposition to Nature. Nature and Culture are related as “natural” and “artificial”. According to the famous American sociologist of Russian origin Pitirim Sorokin (1889 – 1968), culture is a “supernatural” phenomenon. Science, arising from the natural cultural need of man to understand the surrounding reality, becomes one of the most effective mechanisms for “man’s exit” from the natural world into the artificial (i.e. cultural) world or the transformation of the natural world in accordance with his needs into cultural reality.
1. Culture as an activity
The category “culture” denotes the content of social life and human activity, which are biologically non-inherited, artificial, human-created objects (artifacts). Culture refers to organized collections of material objects, ideas and images; technologies for their manufacture and operation; sustainable connections between people and ways to regulate them; evaluative criteria available in society. This is an artificial environment of existence and self-realization created by people themselves, a source of regulation of social interaction and behavior.”
Thus, culture can be represented in the unity of its three inextricably linked aspects: the methods of human sociocultural activity, the results of this activity and the degree of development of the individual.
Sociocultural activities human includes economic, political, artistic, religious, scientific, moral, legal, technical and industrial, communicative, environmental, etc. These types of activities are common to all cultures at all times. However, the forms and methods of sociocultural activity are not the same in different cultures and cultural eras (technical level of cultures of ancient civilizations, antiquity, the Middle Ages, modernity; modes of transport, methods of metal processing, clothing manufacturing technology, etc.). In this sense, culture acts as a system of extrabiological acquired and extrabiological inherited forms of human activity that are improved in the sociocultural process.
Technological aspect culture occupies a significant place in it. Depending on the types of objects they are aimed at creating, technologies are divided, firstly, into producing and transmitting symbols, and secondly, into creating physical objects, and thirdly, on the organizing systems of social interaction.
In the course of improving methods of activity, the formation, functioning and development of human personalities . Moreover, the individual simultaneously acts, firstly, as an object of cultural influence, that is, he assimilates culture in the process of his activity; secondly, a subject of cultural creativity, since in one form or another it is included in the process of creating culture; and thirdly, the individual is the bearer and exponent of cultural values, since his life activity unfolds in a certain cultural environment.
The material and spiritual results of sociocultural activity appear not only as certain achievements (values), but also as the negative consequences of this activity (environmental disasters, genocide, military disasters, etc.). The history of culture is a history not only of acquisitions, but also of losses. Culture presents both progressive and reactionary phenomena. Moreover, the basis for assessment changes over time, and the values themselves are devalued.
The results of human activity are manifested both in specialized areas of culture, where specific values are accumulated, and at the level of everyday culture, the culture of everyday life. We can say that the existence of culture is realized, as it were, on two levels: high, special, elite, and ordinary, everyday, mass. The culture of humanity manifests itself in unity and diversity. The differences between cultures that have ever existed and those that exist today are due, in particular, to spatiotemporal characteristics that give rise to a variety of life forms of individual peoples.
1.2. Different meanings of the concept “culture” ”
The concept of culture can be used in several meanings. Firstly, it can serve to designate any culturally specific -historical community, characterized by certain spatiotemporal parameters (primitive culture, the culture of Ancient Egypt, the culture of the Renaissance, the culture of Central Asia, etc.). Secondly, the term culture is used to specific designations life forms of individual peoples(ethnic cultures). Thirdly, culture can be understood as some generalization, model, built according to a certain principle. Cultural models are created by researchers as certain ideal types for the purpose of a more in-depth study of culture based on the generalization of historical material, identifying the forms of cultural life and its elements. They are often used in crop classification. In this sense, the term culture was used by J. Bachofen, N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, M. Weber, A. Toynbee, P. Sorokin and others. Cultural models can be created not only at the level of the whole, but also at the level of elements: political culture, legal culture, artistic culture, professional culture and so on.
We can talk about integrity culture in the sense that it is a purely human phenomenon, that is, developing together with man and thanks to his creative efforts. People, precisely because they are people, at all times and, despite all the differences in the natural and geographical environment, pose the same questions to themselves, try to solve the same problems, arranging their life on Earth. Revealing the secrets of nature, the search for the meaning of life, creative impulses, the desire for harmony in human relationships, common to all times and peoples - this is not a complete list of the foundations on which the integrity of culture and the unity of the world socio-cultural process are based.
During this process there are changes in the culture itself. Its value basis is updated, becomes more flexible, new meanings and images are formed, language develops, etc. Over time, the sources of culture change, they are recognized by each new generation as deeper and more ancient, they are sacralized, that is, sanctified by religious tradition, their continuity is preserved.
In addition, over time, differentiation occurs within a culture, as a result of which its separate spheres arise, requiring new means of self-expression, new spiritual and practical experience. This is how painting, music, theater, architecture, philosophy, and science were born. Today we are also witnessing the differentiation of culture: new types of art are being born - holography, light music, computer graphics; new branches of scientific knowledge are emerging.
In this sense, culture acts as a mechanism for consistent development, consolidation and transmission of values, as a balance of combining continuous modernization with extremely high degree continuity. Moreover, conservation is an immutable law of civilization, which determines the natural historicity of human activity.
Culture is a phenomenon organic to the life of humanity, its meaning is determined by the creative efforts of man to create a “new world”, “second nature”, or, as the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863 – 1945) believed, the “noosphere”, that is, the sphere human thought and mind, not subject to decay and death.
1.3. Culture structure
In accordance with modern ideas, one can outline following structure culture.
In a single field of culture, two levels are distinguished: specialized and ordinary. Specialized level is divided into cumulative (where professional sociocultural experience is concentrated, accumulated, and the values of society are accumulated), and translational. Based on the anthropological model of man, on cumulative At the level, culture acts as an interconnection of elements, each of which is a consequence of a person’s predisposition to a certain activity. These include: economic culture, political culture, legal culture, philosophical culture, religious culture, scientific and technical culture, artistic culture. Each of these elements at the cumulative level corresponds to an element of culture at ordinary level. They are closely interconnected and influence each other. Economic culture corresponds to housekeeping and maintaining a family budget; political - morals and customs; legal - morality; philosophy - everyday worldview; religions - superstitions and prejudices, folk beliefs; scientific and technical culture – practical technologies; artistic culture - everyday aesthetics (folk architecture, the art of home decoration). On translational level There is interaction between the cumulative and everyday levels; these are, as it were, certain communication channels through which cultural information is exchanged.
Between the cumulative and ordinary levels there are certain communication channels carried out through the translational level: the sphere of education, where concentrated traditions and values of each element of culture are transmitted (transmitted) to subsequent generations; facilities mass communication(QMS) - television, radio, print - where the interaction between “high” values and values takes place Everyday life, norms, traditions, works of art and popular culture; social institutions, cultural institutions, where concentrated knowledge about culture and cultural values are accessible to the general public (libraries, museums, theaters, etc.).
The development of technogenic civilization has expanded man's ability to comprehend the real world, and new ways of transmitting culture have emerged. In this regard, the problem has become urgent elitist and mass culture . The concept of “elitism” of culture was developed by F. Nietzsche, T. Eliot, H. Ortega y Gasset and others. F. Nietzsche associated cultural creativity with an excess of vitality, and the creation of spiritual values with the activities of aristocrats, a caste of “supermen”. American cultural scientist T. Eliot , depending on the degree of awareness of culture, distinguished two levels in its vertical section: the highest and the lowest, understanding by culture a certain way of life, which only a select few - the “elite” - can lead. Spanish cultural scientist H. Ortega y Gasset in the works “Revolt of the Masses”, “Art in the Present and Past”, “Dehumanization of Art”, put forward the concept mass society and mass culture, contrasting the spiritual elite that creates culture with the ideologically and culturally disunited masses: “The peculiarity of our time is that ordinary souls, not deceived about their own mediocrity, fearlessly assert their right to it and impose it on everyone and everywhere... The mass crushes everything different, remarkable, personal and better... The world was usually a heterogeneous unity of the masses and independent minorities. Today the whole world is becoming a mass.” In modern industrial society Mass culture- a concept that characterizes the features of the production of cultural values designed for mass consumption and subordinate to it, by analogy with the conveyor belt industry, as its goal. If elite culture is oriented towards a select, intellectual public, mass culture orients the spiritual and material values to the “average” level of development of mass consumers.
Speaking about the structure of culture, it is necessary to keep in mind that it is a system, the unity of the elements that form it. The dominant features of each element form the so-called “ core ”culture, which represents a non-antagonistic, stable integrity of leading value orientations. The “core” of culture acts as its fundamental principle, which is expressed in science, art, philosophy, ethics, religion, law, the main forms of economic, political and social organization, in its mentality and way of life. The specificity of the “core” of a particular culture depends on the hierarchy of its constituent values. Thus, the structure of culture can be represented as a division into a central “core” and the so-called “ periphery ” (outer layers). If the core provides stability and stability, then the periphery is more prone to innovation and is characterized by relatively less stability. The value orientation of a culture can change depending on a number of factors, which include: economic conditions, ethical standards, aesthetic ideals and the criterion of convenience. For example, modern culture is often called a society of general consumption, since these value bases are brought to the forefront of sociocultural life.
Every element of culture in various ways connected with its other elements. There is a wide variety of types of such connections in culture. Firstly, culture is systemically formed, integrated through specific organizations, institutions and public opinion, between which there are both material and spiritual connections, realized through “material” (exchange of goods, cultural values) and information exchange. Secondly, at a higher level of integration, culture appears as the interrelation and interaction of its functional elements such as beliefs, traditions, norms, forms of production and distribution, etc. If the phenomenological approach prevailed in cultural studies of the 19th century, then in the 20th century the structural-functional interpretation of culture prevails.
2. The place of science in the cultural system
2.1. Specifics of science
Science, as follows from all of the above, is the most important element of culture. Science includes both specific activities to obtain new knowledge and the result of this activity - the sum of the received at this moment scientific knowledge, which together form a scientific picture of the world. The immediate goals of science are the description, explanation and prediction of processes and phenomena of reality. The result of scientific activity is usually presented in the form of theoretical descriptions, diagrams technological processes, summaries of experimental data, formulas, etc. and so on. Unlike other types of activity, where the result is known in advance, science provides an increase in knowledge, i.e. its result is fundamentally unconventional. For example, what distinguishes it from art, as another important element of culture, is the desire for logical, maximally generalized, objective knowledge. Art is often characterized as “thinking in images,” while science is “thinking in concepts.” Thus, they emphasize that art is based on the sensory-imaginative side of human creative abilities, and science is based on the conceptual-intellectual side. This does not mean that there are impassable boundaries between science and art, as well as between science and other cultural phenomena.
2.2. The formation of science
Although elements of scientific knowledge began to form in more ancient cultures (Sumerians, Egypt, China, India), the emergence of science dates back to the 6th century BC, when the first theoretical systems arose in Ancient Greece (Thales, Democritus), and appropriate conditions arose . The formation of science required criticism and destruction of mythological systems and a sufficiently high level of culture, which made it possible for systematic knowledge by science. More than two thousand years of history of the development of science reveals a number of general patterns and trends in its development. “Science moves forward in proportion to the mass of knowledge inherited from previous generations,” wrote F. Engels. As shown modern research, this position can be expressed in the strict formula of the exponential law, which characterizes the increase in certain parameters of science since the 17th century. Thus, the volume of scientific activity doubles approximately every 10-15 years, which is reflected in the accelerating growth of the number of scientific discoveries and scientific information, as well as the number of people professionally involved in science. According to UNESCO, over the past 50 years the annual increase in the number scientific workers was 7%, while the total population was grazed by only 1.7% per year. As a result, the number of living scientists and scientific workers is over 90% of the total number of scientists in the entire history of science.
The development of science is characterized by a cumulative nature: at each historical stage it summarizes its past achievements in a concentrated form, and each result of science is an integral part of its general fund; it is not crossed out by subsequent advances in knowledge, but is only rethought and clarified. The continuity of science ensures its functioning as special type“cultural memory” of humanity, theoretically crystallizing the past experience of knowledge and mastery of its laws.
The process of development of science finds its expression not only in the increase in the amount of accumulated positive knowledge. It also affects the entire structure of science. At each historical stage, science uses a certain set of cognitive forms– fundamental categories and concepts, methods, principles, schemes of explanation, i.e. everything that unites the concept of thinking style. For example, ancient thinking is characterized by observation as the main way of obtaining knowledge; the science of modern times is based on experiment and the dominance of an analytical approach that directs thinking to the search for the simplest, further indecomposable primary elements of the reality under study; modern science is characterized by the desire for a holistic, multilateral coverage of the objects being studied. Each specific structure scientific thinking after its approval, it opens the way to the extensive development of knowledge, to its extension to new spheres of reality. However, the accumulation of new material that cannot be explained on the basis of existing schemes forces us to look for new, intensive ways and developments of science, which leads from time to time to scientific revolutions, i.e. a radical change in the main components of the content structure of science, to the promotion of new principles of knowledge, categories and methods of science The alternation of extensive and revolutionary periods of development is typical both for science as a whole and for its individual branches.
Permeates the entire history of science complex combination processes of differentiation and integration: the development of new areas of reality and the deepening of knowledge leads to the differentiation of science, to its fragmentation into increasingly specialized areas of knowledge; at the same time, the need for a synthesis of knowledge is constantly expressed in the tendency towards the integration of science. Initially, new branches of science were formed on a subject basis - in accordance with the involvement in the process of cognition of new areas and aspects of reality. For modern science, the transition to a problem orientation is becoming increasingly characteristic, when new areas of knowledge arise in connection with the promotion of certain theoretical or practical problems.
Important integrating functions in relation to individual branches of science are performed by philosophy, as well as such scientific disciplines as mathematics, logic, cybernetics, which equip science with a system of unified methods.
Scientific disciplines, which in their totality form the system of science as a whole, can very conditionally be divided into three large groups - natural, socio-humanitarian and technical, differing in their subjects and methods.
Along with traditional research conducted within any one branch of science, problematic character The orientation of modern science has given rise to the widespread development of interdisciplinary and complex research conducted through various scientific disciplines, the specific combination of which is determined by the nature of the relevant problems. An example of this is the study of problems of nature conservation, located at the crossroads of technical, biological sciences, soil science, geography, geology, medicine, economics, mathematics, etc. Problems of this kind that arise in connection with the solution of major economic and social problems are typical of modern science.
According to their focus, according to their direct relation to practical activities, science is usually divided into fundamental and applied. The task of fundamental sciences is to understand the laws governing the behavior and interaction of the basic structures of nature and culture. These laws are studied in their “pure form” without regard to their possible use. The immediate goal of applied sciences is to apply the results of fundamental sciences to solve not only cognitive, but also social and practical problems. As a rule, fundamental sciences are ahead of applied sciences in their development, creating a theoretical foundation for them.
In science, we can distinguish empirical and theoretical levels of research and organization of knowledge. Elements of empirical knowledge are facts obtained through observations and experiments and stating the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the objects and phenomena being studied. Stable connections between empirical characteristics are expressed in empirical laws, often of a probabilistic nature. The theoretical level of scientific knowledge presupposes the discovery of laws that provide the possibility of an idealized description and explanation of empirical phenomena. The formation of the theoretical level of science leads to a qualitative change in the empirical level.
All theoretical disciplines, one way or another, go their own way. historical roots into practical experience. However, in the course of the development of individual sciences, purely theoretical ones are discovered (for example, mathematics), returning to experience only in the sphere of their practical applications.
2.3. Institutionalization of science
The formation of science as a socio-cultural institution occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries, when the first scientific societies and academies were formed in Europe, and the publication of scientific journals began. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a new way of organizing science emerged - large scientific institutes and laboratories with a powerful technical base, which brings scientific activity closer to the forms of modern industrial labor. Modern science is becoming more and more deeply connected with other institutionalized elements of culture, permeating not only production, but also politics, administrative activities, etc. Until the end of the 19th century, science played a supporting role in relation to, for example, production. Then the development of science begins to outstrip the development of technology and production, and a single complex“SCIENCE-TECHNOLOGY-PRODUCTION”, in which science plays a leading role.
2.4. Science and technology
Science of the 20th century is characterized by a strong and close relationship with technology, which is the basis of modern scientific and technological revolution, defined by many researchers as the main cultural dominant of our era. The new level of interaction between science and technology in the twentieth century not only led to the fact that new technology arises as a by-product of fundamental research, but also led to the formation of various technical theories.
The general cultural purpose of technology is to free man from the “embraces” of nature, to gain him freedom and some independence from nature. But, having freed himself from strict natural necessity, man in its place, in general, imperceptibly for himself, put strict technical necessity, finding himself in captivity of unforeseen side effects technical environment, such as deterioration of the environment, lack of resources, etc. We are forced to adapt to the laws of the functioning of technical devices, associated, for example, with the division of labor, rationing, punctuality, shift work, and put up with the environmental consequences of their impact. Advances in technology, especially modern technology, require an inevitable price to be paid for.
Technology, replacing human labor and leading to increased productivity, gives rise to the problem of organizing leisure time and unemployment. We pay for the comfort of our homes through the disunity of people. Achieving mobility with the help of personal transport is purchased at the price of noise pollution, the inconvenience of cities and ruined nature. Medical technology, significantly increasing life expectancy, puts developing countries facing the problem of population explosion.
Technology that makes it possible to interfere with hereditary nature creates a threat to human individuality, human dignity and the uniqueness of the individual. By influencing the intellectual and spiritual life of the individual (and society), modern computerization intensifies mental work and increases the “resolving power” of the human brain. But the increasing rationalization of labor, production and the entire life of a person with the help of modern technology is fraught with the monopolization of computer rationalism, which is expressed in the progression of the external rationality of life at the expense of the internal one, due to a decrease in the autonomy and depth of human intelligence, due to the gap between reason and reason. “Algebroization”, “algorithmization” of the style of thinking, based on formal logical methods of forming concepts on which the operation of a modern computer rests, is ensured by the transformation of the mind into a cybernetic, pragmatically oriented mind, losing the figurative, emotional coloring of thinking and communication.
As a consequence of this, the deformation of spiritual communication and spiritual connections is increasing: spiritual values are increasingly turning into bare anonymous information, designed for the average consumer and leveling personal and individual perception.
Global computerization is fraught with the danger of losing dialogical communication with other people, giving rise to a “deficit of humanity,” the emergence of early psychological aging of society and human loneliness, and even a decline in physical health.
There is no doubt that computer technology plays a significant role in professional development person, has a great influence on the general cultural development of the individual: it promotes the growth of creativity in work and knowledge, develops initiative, moral responsibility, increases the intellectual wealth of the individual, sharpens people’s understanding of the meaning of their life and the purpose of man in society and in the universal world. But it is also true that it carries a threat of spiritual one-sidedness, expressed in the formation of a technocratic type of personality.
Federal Agency for Education
State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Russian State Professional –
Pedagogical University
Institute of economics and management
Test
at the rate "Culturologists"
on this topic: « Culture and Science"
Completed by: student gr. Br – 315 with EU m
Shestakova V.V.
Checked: _________________________
Yekaterinburg city
INTRODUCTION
1. CULTURE: DEFINITION AND MEANING
1.1. Culture as an activity
1.2. Different meanings of the concept “culture”
1.3. Culture structure
2. THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN THE CULTURAL SYSTEM
2.1. Specifics of science
2.2. The formation of science
2.3. Institutionalization of science
2.4. Science and technology
CONCLUSION
LIST OF REFERENCES USED
INTRODUCTION
“Culture” in modern humanitarian knowledge - open category. In the broadest sense, Culture is understood as opposition to Nature. Nature and Culture are related as “natural” and “artificial”. According to the famous American sociologist of Russian origin Pitirim Sorokin (1889 - 1968), culture is a “supernatural” phenomenon. Science, arising from the natural cultural need of man to understand the surrounding reality, becomes one of the most effective mechanisms for “man’s exit” from the natural world into the artificial (i.e. cultural) world or the transformation of the natural world in accordance with his needs into cultural reality.
Culture as an activity
The category “culture” denotes the content of social life and human activity, which are biologically non-inherited, artificial, human-created objects (artifacts). Culture refers to organized collections of material objects, ideas and images; technologies for their manufacture and operation; sustainable connections between people and ways to regulate them; evaluative criteria available in society. This is an artificial environment of existence and self-realization created by people themselves, a source of regulation of social interaction and behavior.” 1
Thus, culture can be represented in the unity of its three inextricably linked aspects: the methods of human sociocultural activity, the results of this activity and the degree of development of the individual.
Sociocultural activities human includes economic, political, artistic, religious, scientific, moral, legal, technical and industrial, communicative, environmental, etc. These types of activities are common to all cultures at all times. However, the forms and methods of sociocultural activity are not the same in different cultures and cultural eras (technical level of cultures of ancient civilizations, antiquity, the Middle Ages, modernity; modes of transport, methods of metal processing, clothing manufacturing technology, etc.). In this sense, culture acts as a system of extrabiological acquired and extrabiological inherited forms of human activity that are improved in the sociocultural process.
Technological aspect culture occupies a significant place in it. Depending on the types of objects they are aimed at creating, technologies are divided, firstly, into producing and transmitting symbols, secondly, into creating physical objects, and thirdly, into organizing systems of social interaction.
In the course of improving methods of activity, the formation, functioning and development of human personalities . Moreover, the individual simultaneously acts, firstly, as an object of cultural influence, that is, he assimilates culture in the process of his activity; secondly, a subject of cultural creativity, since in one form or another it is included in the process of creating culture; and thirdly, the individual is the bearer and exponent of cultural values, since his life activity unfolds in a certain cultural environment.
The material and spiritual results of sociocultural activity appear not only as certain achievements (values), but also as the negative consequences of this activity (environmental disasters, genocide, military disasters, etc.). The history of culture is a history not only of acquisitions, but also of losses. Culture presents both progressive and reactionary phenomena. Moreover, the basis for assessment changes over time, and the values themselves are devalued.
The results of human activity are manifested both in specialized areas of culture, where specific values are accumulated, and at the level of everyday culture, the culture of everyday life. We can say that the existence of culture is realized, as it were, on two levels: high, special, elite, and ordinary, everyday, mass. The culture of humanity manifests itself in unity and diversity. The differences between cultures that have ever existed and those that exist today are due, in particular, to spatiotemporal characteristics that give rise to a variety of life forms of individual peoples.
1.2. Different meanings of the concept “culture” ”
The concept of culture can be used in several meanings. Firstly, it can serve to designate any culturally specific-historical community, characterized by certain spatiotemporal parameters (primitive culture, the culture of Ancient Egypt, the culture of the Renaissance, the culture of Central Asia, etc.). Secondly, the term culture is used to specific designations life forms of individual peoples(ethnic cultures). Thirdly, culture can be understood as some generalization, model, built according to a certain principle. Cultural models are created by researchers as certain ideal types for the purpose of a more in-depth study of culture based on the generalization of historical material, identifying the forms of cultural life and its elements. They are often used in crop classification. In this sense, the term culture was used by J. Bachofen, N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, M. Weber, A. Toynbee, P. Sorokin and others. Cultural models can be created not only at the level of the whole, but also at the level of elements: political culture, legal culture, artistic culture, professional culture, etc.
We can talk about integrity culture in the sense that it is a purely human phenomenon, that is, developing together with man and thanks to his creative efforts. People, precisely because they are people, at all times and, despite all the differences in the natural and geographical environment, pose the same questions to themselves, try to solve the same problems, arranging their life on Earth. Revealing the secrets of nature, the search for the meaning of life, creative impulses, the desire for harmony in human relationships, common to all times and peoples - this is not a complete list of the foundations on which the integrity of culture and the unity of the world socio-cultural process are based.
During this process there are changes in the culture itself. Its value basis is updated, becomes more flexible, new meanings and images are formed, language develops, etc. Over time, the sources of culture change, they are recognized by each new generation as deeper and more ancient, they are sacralized, that is, sanctified by religious tradition, their continuity is preserved.
In addition, over time, differentiation occurs within a culture, as a result of which its separate spheres arise, requiring new means of self-expression, new spiritual and practical experience. This is how painting, music, theater, architecture, philosophy, and science were born. Today we are also witnessing the differentiation of culture: new types of art are being born - holography, light music, computer graphics; new branches of scientific knowledge are emerging.
In this sense, culture acts as a mechanism for consistent development, consolidation and transmission of values, as a balance of combining continuous modernization with an extremely high degree of continuity. Moreover, conservation is an immutable law of civilization, which determines the natural historicity of human activity.
Culture is a phenomenon organic to the life of humanity, its meaning is determined by the creative efforts of man to create a “new world”, “second nature”, or, as the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863 - 1945) believed, the “noosphere”, that is, the human sphere thoughts and minds, not subject to decay and death.
1.3. Culture structure
In accordance with modern ideas 2, the following structure of culture can be outlined.
In a single field of culture, two levels are distinguished: specialized and ordinary. Specialized level is divided into cumulative (where professional sociocultural experience is concentrated, accumulated, and the values of society are accumulated), and translational. Based on the anthropological model of man, on cumulative At the level, culture acts as an interconnection of elements, each of which is a consequence of a person’s predisposition to a certain activity. These include: economic culture, political culture, legal culture, philosophical culture, religious culture, scientific and technical culture, artistic culture. Each of these elements at the cumulative level corresponds to an element of culture at ordinary level. They are closely interconnected and influence each other. Economic culture corresponds to housekeeping and maintaining a family budget; political - morals and customs; legal - morality; philosophy - everyday worldview; religions - superstitions and prejudices, folk beliefs; scientific and technical culture - practical technologies; artistic culture - everyday aesthetics (folk architecture, the art of home decoration). On translational level There is interaction between the cumulative and everyday levels; these are, as it were, certain communication channels through which cultural information is exchanged.
Between the cumulative and ordinary levels there are certain communication channels carried out through the translational level: the sphere of education, where concentrated traditions and values of each element of culture are transmitted (transmitted) to subsequent generations; media of mass communication (MSC) - television, radio, print - where interaction takes place between “high” values and the values of everyday life, norms, traditions, works of art and mass culture; social institutions, cultural institutions, where concentrated knowledge about culture and cultural values are accessible to the general public (libraries, museums, theaters, etc.).
The development of technogenic civilization has expanded man's ability to comprehend the real world, and new ways of transmitting culture have emerged. In this regard, the problem has become urgent elitist And popular culture . The concept of “elitism” of culture was developed by F. Nietzsche, T. Eliot, H. Ortega y Gasset and others. F. Nietzsche associated cultural creativity with an excess of vitality, and the creation of spiritual values with the activities of aristocrats, a caste of “supermen”. American cultural scientist T. Eliot , depending on the degree of awareness of culture, distinguished two levels in its vertical section: the highest and the lowest, understanding by culture a certain way of life, which only a select few - the “elite” - can lead. Spanish cultural scientist H. Ortega y Gasset in his works “Revolt of the Masses”, “Art in the Present and the Past”, “Dehumanization of Art”, he put forward the concept of mass society and mass culture, contrasting the spiritual elite that creates culture with the ideologically and culturally separated masses: “The peculiarity of our time is that the ordinary souls, not deceived about their own mediocrity, fearlessly assert their right to it and impose it on everyone and everywhere... The mass crushes everything that is different, remarkable, personal and better... The world has usually been a heterogeneous unity of the mass and independent minorities. Today the whole world is becoming a mass.” 3 In modern industrial society, mass culture is a concept that characterizes the features of the production of cultural values designed for mass consumption and subordinate to it, by analogy with the conveyor belt industry, as its goal. If elite culture is oriented towards a select, intellectual public, mass culture orients the spiritual and material values it disseminates towards the “average” level of development of mass consumers.
Speaking about the structure of culture, it is necessary to keep in mind that it is a system, the unity of the elements that form it. The dominant features of each element form the so-called “ core” culture, which represents a non-antagonistic, stable integrity of leading value orientations. The “core” of culture acts as its fundamental principle, which is expressed in science, art, philosophy, ethics, religion, law, the main forms of economic, political and social organization, in its mentality and way of life. The specificity of the “core” of a particular culture depends on the hierarchy of its constituent values. Thus, the structure of culture can be represented as a division into a central “core” and the so-called “ periphery”(outer layers). If the core provides stability and stability, then the periphery is more prone to innovation and is characterized by relatively less stability. The value orientation of a culture can change depending on a number of factors, which include economic conditions, ethical standards, aesthetic ideals and the criterion of convenience. For example, modern culture is often called a society of general consumption, since these value bases are brought to the forefront of sociocultural life.
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Introduction
Each person in his development from early childhood to adulthood goes through his own own way development. The most common thing that unites all these individual paths of human development is that this is the path from ignorance to knowledge. Moreover, the entire path of development of man as gomo sapiens and humanity as a whole also represents a movement from ignorance to knowledge. True, there is a significant difference between the knowledge of an individual person and humanity as a whole: a child up to the age of three masters approximately half of all the information that he has to learn in his entire life; and the amount of information that humanity possesses doubles on average every 10 years.
How is the knowledge that humanity possesses obtained and increased?
Every human society - from the family to humanity as a whole - has a social consciousness. The forms of social consciousness are diverse: collective experience, morality, religion, art, etc. One of the most important forms public consciousness is science. It is science that serves as the source of new knowledge.
What is science? What is its place in the social system of society? What is its essential characteristic that fundamentally distinguishes it from other spheres of human activity?
The answer to these questions, especially at the present stage, has not only theoretical, but also practical significance, because science has an unprecedented impact on the minds of people, on the system of social life as a whole, in its strength and scale. Finding and revealing a comprehensive answer to the questions posed is not possible within the framework of one or even a series of works.
Science as a cultural phenomenon
Unlike morality, art and religion, science arose at a later time. This required the entire previous experience of mankind in transforming nature, which required generalizations, conclusions and knowledge of the processes occurring in the surrounding world.
Even in the ancient cultures of the East and in Egypt, scientific knowledge began to form; information on astronomy, geometry and medicine appeared. But most often the emergence of science is dated back to the 6th century BC, when Greece reached a level of development in which mental and physical labor became the spheres of activity of different social strata. In this regard, that part of society that was engaged in mental work had the opportunity for regular classes. In addition, the mythological worldview no longer satisfied the cognitive activity of society.
Science, like other forms of spiritual culture, has a dual nature: it is an activity associated with obtaining knowledge about the world, and at the same time the entire totality of this knowledge, the result of knowledge. From its very foundation, science has systematized, described, and searched for cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomena that have become the subject of its attention. Such a subject for her was the entire world around her, its structure, the processes occurring in it. Science is characterized by the search for patterns of various phenomena of reality and their expression in a logical form. If for art a form of expression and reflection of the world is artistic image, then for science it is a logical law that reflects the objective aspects and processes of nature, society, etc. Strictly speaking, science is a sphere of theoretical knowledge, although it grew out of practical necessity and continues to be associated with the production activities of people. In general, in the presence of specific sciences, it is characterized by a desire to generalize and formalize knowledge.
Unlike other types of spiritual culture, science requires special preparedness and professionalism from those who engage in it. It does not have the property of universality. If morality, religion and art in their various forms are closely connected with almost every person, then science influences society as a whole only indirectly, in the form of a certain level of knowledge, the development of various branches of production, and the realities of everyday life.
Science is characterized by a constant increase in knowledge; there are two counter processes in it: differentiation in various sectors and integration, the emergence of new branches of scientific knowledge “at the junction” of its various spheres and areas.
In the process of its development, science has developed various methods scientific knowledge, such as observation and experiment, modeling, idealization, formalization and others. Over the many centuries of its existence, it has gone through a difficult path from non-conceptual knowledge to the formation of theory (Fig. 1). Science has an impact on the intellectual culture of society, developing and deepening logical thinking, offering a specific way of searching and constructing argumentation, methods and forms of comprehending the truth. In one form or another, science leaves its mark on moral norms and the entire moral system of society, on art and even, to a certain extent, on religion, which from time to time has to bring its basic principles into line with irrefutable scientific data. (For example, already at the end of the 20th century, the official Catholic Church was increasingly moving away from the idea of the creation of man. It recognizes the creation of the world, believing that its further development is a natural process).
It is science that demonstrates that the material and spiritual spheres of culture are in constant interaction and represent a single alloy from which the conglomerate of a single culture of a particular society is built in each specific era. This circumstance underlies the existence of mixed, material-spiritual varieties of culture.
Rice. 1. Development of scientific knowledge
Some theorists distinguish types of culture that include both cultures - both material and spiritual.
Economic culture contains knowledge of the laws and features of the specific economic development of society, in the conditions in which one has to live and work. The level of economic culture of a society is determined by how its members participate in the production structure, in the processes of exchange of activities and distribution, in what relation they have to property, what roles they are able to perform, whether they act creatively or destructively, how the various elements of economic structures.
Political culture reflects the degree of development of various aspects of the political structure of society: social groups, classes, nations, parties, public organizations and statehood itself. It is characterized by the forms of relations between elements of the political structure, especially the form and method of exercising power. Political culture also concerns the nature of the activity of each of its individual elements in the system of state integrity and - further - in interstate relations. It is known that political activity is closely related to the economy of each society, so it can contribute to its development or hinder economic progress.
IN political activity It is important to be able to see and formulate the goals of the development of society, to participate in their implementation, to determine methods, means and forms of personal and social activity to achieve these goals. “Political experience shows that the success that can be achieved through the use of inhuman means to achieve a human goal is ephemeral in nature and leads to impoverishment, dehumanization of the goal itself.” The validity of this position is supported by our domestic experience, when the goal - communism - did not justify the means of its construction.
Legal culture is associated with the rules of law created in a particular society. The emergence of law dates back to the period of the emergence of statehood. There were sets of rules - barbaric truths, but they included only a system of punishments for violations of the customs of the tribe or - later - property rights. These “truths” were not yet laws in the full sense of the word, although they already performed one of the functions of law: they regulated relations between individual and the community as a whole. Any society is characterized by a desire for a certain ordering of relations, which is expressed in the creation of norms. On this basis morality arose. But as soon as various types of inequality appeared in society, norms were needed that would have a certain force behind them.
Thus, legal norms gradually emerged. They were first brought into a system by the Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). The main articles of the laws were supposed to consolidate the emerging and established property relations: issues relating to inheritance, punishment for theft of property and other crimes. For the first time in the history of mankind, the subjects of the state were presented with fixed requirements that everyone had to follow. In many articles of the law there were still echoes of barbaric “truths”: the accused himself had to prove his innocence, this evidence depended on oratory skills or the plaintiff's wallet, and the richer the accused was, the less punishment was imposed on him. In the culture of other, later civilizations, legal norms developed, and special institutions were developed to maintain them.
Legal norms are mandatory for everyone in every society. They express the will of the state, and in this regard, legal culture consists of at least two sides: how the state imagines justice and implements it in legal norms, and how the subjects of the state relate to these norms and comply with them. Socrates, whom the Athenian democracy condemned to death penalty and who could pay off or escape, told the disciples that if every person violates the laws of even a state that he does not respect, then the state will perish, taking all its citizens with it.
The measure of legal culture also lies in how moral the legal system functioning in society is, how it views human rights and to what extent it is humane. In addition, legal culture includes the organization of the judicial system, which should be fully based on the principles of evidence, presumption of innocence, etc.
Legal culture is connected not only with the phenomena of spiritual culture, but also with the state, property, organizations representing material culture society.
Ecological culture carries with it the problems of the relationship between man and society with the environment; it considers various forms of influence on it production activities and the result of this influence on a person is his health, gene pool, mental and mental development.
Ecological problems were posed back in the 19th century by the American scientist D.P. Marsh, who, noting the process of human destruction of the environment, proposed a program for its conservation. But the most significant part of scientific research in the field of human interaction with nature took shape in the 20th century. Scientists from various countries, having studied the geography of human activity, the changes that have occurred in the landscape of the planet, the results of human impact (geological, geochemical, biochemical) on the environment, have identified a new geological era - the anthropogenic, or psychozoic. IN AND. Vernadsky creates the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere as factors of human activity on the planet. At the end of the century, theorists of the Club of Rome studied Natural resources planets and made predictions related to the fate of humanity.
Various ecological theories also offer ways to organize the production activities of people, which reflect not only new views on the problems of the culture of relations between mankind and nature, but also those already familiar to us. For example, one can come across ideas that are close in nature to the ideas of Rousseau, who believed that technology by its nature is hostile to the “natural” state of society, to which it must be returned in the name of preserving humanity. There are also extremely pessimistic views, suggesting an imminent crisis and further self-destruction of human society, marking the “limits to growth.” Among them are the ideas of “limited growth”, the creation of some kind of “stable equilibrium”, which require reasonable restrictions on the development of the economy and technology.
The last third of the 20th century raised the question of the future of humanity with particular urgency. Ecological situation in the world, the problems of war and peace have demonstrated the consequences of the spontaneous development of production. In reports to the Club of Rome at different times, ideas were consistently expressed about the expected time of the global catastrophe, about the possibilities and the search for ways to overcome it. One of the main conditions for solving this problem was education human qualities every individual engaged in any field of activity: production, economics, politics, etc. Later, reports increasingly voiced the idea that special education plays a leading role in the development of such qualities. It is this that prepares practitioners of any kind for productive activities, as well as those on whom education itself depends.
Ecological culture involves finding ways to preserve and restore natural habitats. Among the theorists of this culture one can name A. Schweitzer, who considered any life to be the highest value and that for the sake of life it is necessary to develop ethical standards for the relationship of humanity with the environment.
Aesthetic culture permeates almost all spheres of activity. Man, creating the whole world around himself and developing himself, acts not only for reasons of benefit, not only in search of truth, but also “according to the laws of beauty.” They absorb a huge world of emotions, assessments, subjective ideas, as well as objective qualities things, attempts to isolate and formulate the principles of beauty, so to speak, “to believe harmony with algebra.” This sphere of human activity is specific to different eras, societies and social groups. With all its diverse instability, it is an indispensable condition for the existence of any society, any era and any person, including historically established ideas about the beautiful and the ugly, the sublime and the base, the comic and the tragic. They are embodied in specific activities, studied in theoretical works and, just like moral norms, are embodied in the entire system of behavior, in existing customs and rituals, in art. In the system of aesthetic culture, one can distinguish aesthetic consciousness, aesthetic cognition and aesthetic activity.
In aesthetic consciousness we distinguish between aesthetic feeling, aesthetic taste, and aesthetic ideal. Without going into a special analysis of each element, we will only note that they are all developed in the process of social practice, expressing an attitude towards the world, its assessment, ideas about harmony, perfection, and the highest level of beauty. These ideas are embodied in activity, in the world of creating things, in relationships between people, in creativity. Aesthetic cognition presupposes the development of the categories we have listed and other categories, their analysis, systematization, i.e. creation of aesthetic science. Aesthetic activity is the embodiment of aesthetic consciousness and knowledge about the aesthetic in reality and in creativity.
culture science aesthetic spiritual
Conclusion
Culture is a complex systemic integrity, each element of which has its own uniqueness and at the same time enters into diverse relationships and connections with all other elements,
Both material and spiritual cultures are interdependent on each other in their development, but at the same time they differ in their internal structure and specificity associated with the form of their existence.
In addition to the actual material and spiritual culture, there are complex types of material and spiritual culture, which includes the features of both of these cultures.
Any type of culture represents a specific supra-natural activity of people and society as a whole, the results of which are consolidated at all levels of culture - from high to marginal, and creates its own system of values and norms, sign systems as a special area of meaning and significance.
The main problem of the existence of culture in society is not only its preservation, but also its continuity.
List of used literature
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