RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
the language of the Russian people, a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of Russia. Refers to eastern group Slavic languages.
The origins of the Russian language go back to ancient times. Around the 2nd-1st millennium BC. from a group of related dialects Indo-European family languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - approximately in the 1st - 7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic). Where the Proto-Slavs and their descendants, the Proto-Slavs, lived is a debatable question. Probably Proto-Slavic tribes in the 2nd half. I century BC. and at the beginning of AD occupied lands from the middle reaches of the Dnieper in the east to the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west, south of Pripyat in the north and forest-steppe areas in the south. In the 1st half. I century The pre-Slavic territory expanded sharply. In the VI-VII centuries. The Slavs occupied lands from the Adriatic in the southwest to the upper reaches of the Dnieper and Lake Ilmen in the northeast. The pre-Slavic ethno-linguistic unity collapsed. Three closely related groups formed: eastern ( Old Russian people), western (on the basis of which Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatians, Pomeranian Slavs were formed) and southern (its representatives are Bulgarians, Serbo-Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians).
The East Slavic (Old Russian) language existed from the 7th to the 14th centuries. His characteristics: completeness (“crow”, “malt”, “birch”, “iron”); pronunciation of “zh”, “ch” in place of Praslav. dj, tj, kt (“walking”, “candle”, “night”); change of nasal vowels o, e into “u”, “ya”; ending “-т” in 3rd person verbs plural present and future tense; ending “-e” in names with a soft base “-a” in genitive case singular(“earth”); many words not attested in ancient Slavic languages (“bush”, “rainbow”, “milk”, “cat”, “cheap”, “boot”, etc.), and a number of other Russian features. In the 10th century on its basis writing emerges (Cyrillic alphabet, Cyrillic alphabet). Already in Kievan Rus(IX - early XII centuries) the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the XIV-XVI centuries. southwestern variety of literary language Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Principality of Moldova.
In the XIII-XIV centuries. part of the Russian people fell under the occupation of the Tatar-Mongol and Polish-Lithuanian conquerors. As a result, unity is destroyed Old Russian language. New ethno-linguistic centers are emerging. The peculiarity of the existence of some parts of the Russian people leads to the emergence of three main adverbs of the Russian language, each having its own special story: northern (northern Great Russian), middle (later Belarusian and southern Great Russian) and southern (Little Russian).
During the era of Muscovite Rus' (XIV-XVII centuries) they continued to develop dialect features. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian (approximately north of the Pskov - Tver - Moscow line, south Nizhny Novgorod) and South Great Russian (in the south from the indicated line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions) adverbs that overlapped with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which the Moscow dialect began to play a leading role. Initially it was mixed, then it developed into a coherent system. The following became characteristic of him: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; plosive consonant “g”; ending “-ovo”, “-evo” in the genitive case of the singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending “-t” in 3rd person verbs of the present and future tense; forms of the pronouns “me”, “you”, “yourself” and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language. At this time, in living speech, a final restructuring of the categories of time occurs (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and plusquaperfect are completely replaced unified form to “-l”), loss of the dual number, the previous declension of nouns according to six stems is replaced modern types declination.
In the XVIII - 1st half. XIX century a national literary language is being created. Played a big role here language theory and practice M.V. Lomonosov, the author of the first detailed grammar of the Russian language, who proposed to distribute various speech means depending on purpose literary works into high, medium and low styles.
M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, N.M. Karamzin and other Russian writers prepared the way for great reform A.S. Pushkin. The creative genius of Pushkin synthesized into unified system various speech elements: Russian folk, Church Slavonic and Western European, with Russian becoming the cementing basis vernacular, especially its Moscow variety. The modern Russian literary language begins with Pushkin, and a rich and varied language styles(artistic, journalistic, scientific, etc.), closely related to each other, all-Russian phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms, develops and generalizes lexical system. In the development and formation of the Russian literary language big role played by Russian writers of the 19th-20th centuries. (A.S. Griboedov, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.A. Krylov, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A P. Chekhov and others).
Kn. XX century By vocabulary, variety of meanings and possibilities for conveying the most subtle shades human experiences, descriptions of nature and public relations Russian language belonged to one of the richest literary languages, which naturally led to complete displacement from cultural sphere outdated dialects and dialects. All cultured people of Russia, no matter where they lived - in Siberia or Belarus, in the Urals or in Little Russia - used the Russian literary language.
As in the 7th-14th centuries. Old Russian language was one of the most important factors national unity, so in the 19th century. XX century this factor became the all-Russian literary language of Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy. The Russian literary language united all branches and parts of the Russian people, creating favorable conditions for the development of all-Russian culture and mutual understanding between Russians and other peoples of Russia. Destruction Russian Empire, the division of the Russian people leads to the forcible displacement of the all-Russian language from the territory of Little Russia and Belarus and a number of national regions. Long-outdated, archaic dialects are being exhumed, and artificial languages are being implanted.
Source: Encyclopedia "Russian Civilization"
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Russian language - largest language peace. In terms of the number of people speaking it, it ranks 5th after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish.
Origin
Slavic languages, to which Russian belongs, belong to the Indo-European language branch.
At the end of the 3rd – beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. separated from the Indo-European family Proto-Slavic language, which is the basis for Slavic languages. In the X – XI centuries. The Proto-Slavic language was divided into 3 groups of languages: West Slavic (Czech, Slovak arose from it), South Slavic (developed into Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian) and East Slavic.
During feudal fragmentation, which contributed to the formation of regional dialects, and Tatar-Mongol yoke Three independent languages emerged from East Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian. Thus, the Russian language belongs to the East Slavic (Old Russian) subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European language branch.
History of development
During the era of Muscovite Rus', the Middle Russian dialect arose, the main role in the formation of which belonged to Moscow, which introduced the characteristic “akan”, and the reduction of unstressed vowels, and a number of other metamorphoses. The Moscow dialect becomes the basis of the Russian national language. However, a unified literary language had not yet emerged at that time.
In the XVIII–XIX centuries. rapid development received special scientific, military, and naval vocabulary, which was the reason for the appearance of borrowed words, which often clogged and burdened native language. There was a growing need to develop a unified Russian language, which took place in the struggle between literary and political movements. The great genius M.V. Lomonosov in his theory of “three” established a connection between the subject of presentation and the genre. Thus, odes should be written in a “high” style, plays, prose works– “average”, and comedy – “low”. A.S. Pushkin in his reform expanded the possibilities of using the “middle” style, which now became suitable for ode, tragedy, and elegy. It is with language reform The history of the great poet dates back to the modern Russian literary language.
The emergence of Sovietism and various abbreviations (prodrazverstka, people's commissar) are associated with the structure of socialism.
The modern Russian language is characterized by an increase in the number special vocabulary, which was a consequence scientific and technological progress. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI centuries lion's share foreign words comes into our language from English.
The complex relationships between the various layers of the Russian language, as well as the influence of borrowings and new words on it, have led to the development of synonymy, which makes our language truly rich.
The Russian language is the language of the Russian nation, which underlies the formation of its culture. He is also official language Russian Federation, which serves all areas of activity of Russians. AND we're talking about not only about official documents. People communicate in Russian, they teach in Russian in schools, Russian is used in the absolute majority of cases, which means that you need to know it at a good level.
In general, language is something special and sacred for every nation, because it becomes the basis and solid foundation on which culture is subsequently built. A striking example can be considered literature. The modern Russian language, as we are accustomed to seeing it today, first appeared on the pages of literary collections back in the 19th century, during the era of A.S. Pushkin. This one great writer is considered the founder of the modern Russian language, with all its inherent turns, techniques and methods of presentation.
The Russian language consists of literary and non-literary parts. In the first case, we are talking about a language that necessarily respects everything grammar rules. In the second case, these rules may be violated for the sake of convenience and vernacular. A non-literary language is characterized by jargons, dialects, various kinds deviations from generally accepted norms and rules.
In the modern world, the Russian language plays the role of a national, official and international language. It is one of six languages that the UN has adopted as official and working languages. Much attention is paid to Russian and from outside ordinary people who take care of him, which is expressed in the gradual ordering of new and new linguistic phenomena into one set of unified rules.
Russian language is one of the most diverse and complex in the world. And this fact is generally accepted and widely known. It should be known to you too, dear friend, because you are its carrier.
Best regards, Dedok Yurik.
The Russian language is a kind of mirror that reflects the spirit inherent in all people. Its sound means of expression, artistic possibilities - an integral part of culture and at the same time its extremely concentrated essence. The qualities of the Russian language were very colorfully described by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov: it is characterized by the tenderness of Italian and the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French and the strength of German, the richness and expressive brevity of Greek and Latin. All these properties did not arise suddenly. The history of the Russian language goes back centuries.
Parent language
Today there are several theories of the development of the Proto-Slavic language. All researchers agree that it separated from Proto-Indo-European. Some scientists note that for a long time there was a Proto-Balto-Slavic language, which then split into Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic. This speaks in favor of a large number of discovered similarities. However, other researchers write about the parallel development of two or more languages late period their rapprochement.
Be that as it may, the separation of the distant “ancestor” of Russian from Proto-Indo-European dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. Written sources that time does not exist. However, careful and collected data allows scientists to reconstruct the development of language in such distant times.
As a result of the movement and settlement of tribes, their relative isolation, the Proto-Slavic language in the VI-VII centuries. n. e. split into three branches: southern, western and eastern.
Old Russian
The eastern branch was called the “Old Russian language”. It existed until approximately the 13th-14th centuries. Old Russian was spoken by the Eastern Slavs.
In fact, it was the sum of several dialects, interpenetrating and constantly interacting with each other. Their closeness largely contributed to the XI-XII centuries. Several dialects have emerged within the language:
- southwestern - in Kyiv, Galicia and Volyn;
- western - in Smolensk and Polotsk;
- southeastern - Ryazan, Kursk, Chernigov;
- northwestern - Novgorod, Pskov;
- northeastern - Rostov and Suzdal.
The dialects differed in a whole set of characteristics, some of which have been preserved in these areas today. In addition, there were discrepancies in written language, used for legal documents. According to scientists, it was based on the ancient Kiev dialect.
Cyril and Methodius
The written period of the history of the Old Russian language begins in the 11th century. It is associated with the names of Cyril and Methodius. In the 9th century they created Church Slavonic alphabet. The letters of the Russian language, familiar to us from childhood, “grew” precisely from it. Cyril and Methodius translated into Church Slavonic Holy Bible. This version of the language is still the main one for Orthodox services today. For a long time it was used as a written, literary and never as a colloquial language.
Church Slavonic is based on the South Bulgarian Slavic dialect. It was native to Cyril and Methodius and influenced the vocabulary and spelling of the Old Russian language.
Three branches
Old Russian was more or less unified until the 11th century. Then the state began to turn into a union of principalities relatively independent from each other. As a result of this division, the dialects of different folk groups began to separate and over time turned into completely independent languages. Their final formation dates back to the XIII-XIV centuries. The Russian language is one of three branches. The other two are Ukrainian and Belarusian. Together they form a group
Old Russian period of language history
Modern literary Russian is the result of combining the features of two dialects: northwestern (Pskov and Novgorod) and central-eastern (Rostov, Suzdal, Ryazan and Moscow). Its development preceded the appearance of some new features in the XIV-XVII centuries. Let's look at them in a little more detail.
At this time, the language of the Moscow principality borrowed several syntactic and lexical features. However, in to a greater extent he was exposed to Church Slavonic. His influence was reflected in the vocabulary, syntax, spelling and morphology of the Russian language. At the same time, the formation of our own, unborrowed new features was also observed:
- loss of alternations k/ts, g/z, x/s during declension;
- change in vocabulary;
- disappearance of the IV declension and so on.
The period from XIV to XVII in the history of the language is called Old Russian.
Modern literary Russian
The language we are accustomed to was actually formed in the 17th–19th centuries. The activities of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov played a significant role in this process. He created the rules of versification in Russian and was the author of scientific grammar.
However, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is rightfully considered the direct creator of the modern Russian literary language. Of course, if you look at any book recent years and compare it, for example, with the text “ The captain's daughter", a lot of differences will be revealed. And yet exactly great poet and the writer was able to combine the features of the literary language of previous eras with conversational features, and this became the basis for further development.
Borrowing
Of great importance in the history of any language is the influence of dialects spoken by the population of neighboring or simply friendly states. Over the course of many centuries, Russian has been replenished with words of foreign origin. Today they are called borrowings. They are easy to hear in almost any conversation:
- English: football, sports, hockey;
- German: barber, sandwich, gateway;
- French: veil, muffler, jacket, floor lamp;
- Spanish: cocoa, bullfighting, castanets;
- Latin: vacuum, delegate, republic.
Along with borrowings, they also distinguish primordially They arose in all periods of history, some of them passed from ancient form language. Original Russian words can be divided into several groups:
- common Slavic (formed before the 5th-6th centuries): mother, night, day, birch, drink, eat, brother;
- East Slavic (formed before the XIV-XV centuries, common to Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian): uncle, walk, forty, family;
- Russians proper (from the 14th century): nouns denoting persons with the suffixes -schik and -chik (machine gunner), abstract nouns formed from adjectives with the suffix -ost (touchiness), compound words (university, BAM, UN).
The role of language
Today, several countries use Russian as their official language. These are Russia, Kazakhstan, the Republic of Belarus and Kyrgyzstan. Russian is national language our people and the basis of international communication in central Eurasia, Eastern Europe, countries former USSR, as well as one of the working languages used by the UN.
The power of the Russian language is fully reflected in classical literature. Imagery, richness of vocabulary, peculiarities of sound, word formation and syntax made it worthy of playing important role in interaction different nations the whole world. All this opens up to schoolchildren when they study the subject “Russian Language”. Grammatical and punctuation jungles become more interesting when there is a long history behind them, great power and the power of people and language.
The Russian language in skillful hands and experienced lips is beautiful, melodious, expressive, flexible, obedient, dexterous and capacious.
(c) A.I. Kuprin
What makes it different cultured person? That's right - his speech. It can be used to judge the education, outlook and even the mood of the interlocutor.
Unfortunately, the literacy rate of the population in our country is falling every year. Fortunately, the number of people striving for it is increasing.
Speaking and writing Russian correctly is difficult. Even professionals who work with texts every day make mistakes from time to time.
Linguistic knowledge and skills need to be constantly updated and improved. That is why we have collected for you the 5 best portals dedicated to the Russian language.
GRAMOTA.RU
– perhaps the most famous reference and information portal about the Russian language.
Sowing “Russian language for everyone,” the developers have collected all kinds of dictionaries in it: from spelling to anthroponymic.
Among them, audio dictionaries deserve special attention. For example, the dictionary “Speaking Correctly” - Chief Editor portal, together with the presenter of one of the Moscow radio stations, they teach you how to “strike” words correctly, and also talk about their origin in a fascinating way.
On GRAMOTA.RU you will find rich theoretical material in Russian, and what is even more important - practical tasks(exercises and dictations). So everyone can check their language level and fill in the gaps in their knowledge.
In addition, if you are in doubt about the spelling of a particular word, you can ask the appropriate question and receive a qualified answer from GRAMOTA employees.
Culture of writing
– an unofficial portal created by a group of enthusiasts from St. Petersburg teachers of Russian language and literature. They provide consultations, edit texts, but most importantly, they accumulate educational and reference material on the Russian language.
We are talking about both journalistic and scientific articles, as well as dictionaries, spelling, punctuation, orthoepic and other rules.
Particularly interesting is the section that contains typical mistakes, committed by us in Russian oral and writing.
There is also a lot of normative and methodological material. Therefore, it will be useful for Russian language teachers, as well as their students preparing to take exams.
Web edition of Russian language rules
– a reference site created by a designer and blogger (together with Roman Parpalak and Shurik Babaev).
Here you will not find any dictionaries, tests or question-answer forms. Only spelling and punctuation rules of the Russian language. But! They are well structured according to the morphemic principle, concise and provided with examples.
At the same time, the main feature of the portal is search. Fast and convenient. You can enter the suffix you are interested in or the entire word with it into the search bar; You can write “commas in complex sentences” or simply put a “,” sign.
This site is indispensable for journalists, copywriters, bloggers and anyone for whom efficiency in editing texts is important.
Textual criticism
– a site about Russian language and literature. The target audience quite wide: from philologists and linguists to high school students.
The site also presents all the basic language rules, dictionaries; There is a forum and a help desk to help you understand complex cases.
From the point of view of the Russian language, there is nothing new on the portal, but the “Literature” section is very interesting and informative. You will find there a variety of materials on the theory of literature (kinds, genres, text and much more) - an excellent help for aspiring writers and publicists.
Best-language
– a site-collection of rules for the Russian language. As with therules.ru, it contains all the basic rules (plus sections on phonetics, vocabulary and morphology), but they are even more concise.
It is stated that the site will help you improve your literacy and pass exams. This should also be facilitated by tests, a link to which is provided after some of the rules. But, alas, the links are not working.
In conclusion, a short survey: what services and portals about the Russian language do you use? Share links in the comments.