In 1299, the Ottoman Turks created a new state in the north-west of Asia Minor, reports. First of all, the opportunity to create a state arose due to the weakening influence and power of the Byzantine Empire.
One of the leaders early Turkey became Osman the First. The states that broke away from the weakened Byzantium waged war on each other. But it was Osman who was most successful, who managed to significantly expand his borders. After Osman's death, his descendants spread their influence to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans.
For more than two centuries, Byzantium tried to re-conquer the Ottoman Empire, but the attempts were in vain. With each passing decade, this seemed more and more impossible. The turning point in the development of the empire was the capture of Bursa in 1324. In 1387, the Turks conquered the city of Thessaloniki and then successfully enslaved the Serbs.
But for more than a hundred years, the Turks were haunted by the city of Constantinople (modern Istanbul), which at that time belonged to the Byzantine Empire. It was beautiful city, buried in the garden. For about a hundred years, the city was surrounded by territories captured by the Ottomans. But the Turks still failed to capture the city itself, which existed despite the threats.
The main reason that the Turks failed to quickly capture Constantinople was the invasion of Asia Minor terrible power in the person of Tamerlane the Great. Timur captured some Ottoman territories, and even took one of the sultans prisoner. The devastating raids of Tamerlane's nomads on long years distracted the Turks from Constantinople. Moreover, in the Ottoman Empire, an internecine war for the throne between the relatives of the rulers lasted for several decades.
However, in the mid-15th century, the Ottoman ruler Mehmed II introduced a series of reforms that made the empire more sustainable. For example, even then there was an unspoken rule that candidates for the throne should kill all their competing brothers. It even went so far as to kill babies.
Strict discipline was introduced in the army; only Muslims were recruited, which made it more united.
Thanks to his innovations, Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453. And then he bent over the Trebizond Empire (modern Trabzon). In 1463, the Ottomans captured the Bosnian kingdom, and a few years later the Albanian principalities fell under the onslaught of the Turks.
In 1475, the Turks managed to capture the entire Crimea. In 1478, the Crimean Khanate recognized Ottoman suzerainty. In 1514, the Turks defeated the Persians and finally strengthened their influence in Asia Minor.
With the ascension to the throne of Suleman the First Ottoman Empire started new trip to European states. So, in 1521 the city of Belgrade fell. Then the island of Rhodes was occupied. At the same time, the Turks captured the Mamluk lands in Africa, sailing across the Mediterranean Sea.
In 1526, the Turks defeated the Hungarians and killed the Hungarian king Lajos II. In 1529 and 1532, the Ottomans even reached Vienna (modern Austria), but were never able to take it by storm.
In the XVI- XVII centuries The Ottoman Empire reached the highest point of its influence. During this period, the Ottoman Empire was one of the most powerful countries world - a multinational, multilingual state, stretching from southern borders The Holy Roman Empire - the outskirts of Vienna, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north, to Yemen and Eritrea in the south, from Algeria in the west, to the Caspian Sea in the east. Under her rule was most of the South- of Eastern Europe, Western Asia and North Africa.
The economy of the Ottoman Empire was built on slavery. With the conquest of new lands, the Turks brought slaves to large markets, where they were sold at auctions. In those years, slaves from Africa, Asia and Europe could be bought at the Istanbul slave market. For example, Crimean Tatar warriors raided Eastern Europe and regularly brought thousands of slaves from Polish, Ukrainian and Russian lands to Istanbul.
The treasury also received money from taxes, which were especially high for non-Muslims. The Ottomans also practiced devşirme, a kind of "child tax" on the non-Muslim population. These were Christian boys from the Balkans and Anatolia, taken from their families, raised as Muslims, and enrolled in Kapikulu's most famous branch, the Janissaries, special squad Ottoman army, which became the decisive force in the Ottoman invasion of Europe.
The fall of the Ottoman Empire occurred for a number of objective reasons. The main thing is the pressure of religion over the state, which negatively affected the development of the economy and production. Due to the intervention of the mosque, the Ottoman Empire lost the competition to the European powers. The second reason is the development by the Portuguese and Spaniards South America, as well as the exit of Europeans to India, bypassing the Ottoman Empire. That is, if earlier European merchants paid a huge tribute to the Turks for the passage of caravans from Asia to Europe, then with the opening sea route in India this need has disappeared. Third - getting involved in the First world war, which completely crippled the country's economy.
In 1922, the Ottoman Empire officially ceased to exist. Be that as it may, among Turkic peoples it was the greatest empire that stretched from Africa to the Caspian Sea, from Persia to the Crimean Peninsula.
The problem of foreign policy relations of the Ottoman Empire with the countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the 16th-17th centuries. has not yet been studied much, although interest in it in Turkish and Polish historical literature has recently increased significantly.
This is evidenced by the publication of several new works by Turkish historians F. R. Unat. O. L. Barkan and Kemal Beililli. There are even more similar publications in Polish historical literature. In Poland, over the past three decades, publications of sources on this issue have appeared, for example, such as the book by A. Przybos and R. Zhelevsky “Diplomats of Ancient Times, a valuable “Catalog of Turkish Documents”4, which were discovered in Polish archives and manuscript repositories by a Turkologist 3. Abrahamovich and published by him.
Finally, it should be noted that the final monographic work of Polish historians, “The Diplomatic Service of Poland in the XVI-XVIII century,” and “History Polish diplomacy”, in which, however, the activities of Polish Armenians in the diplomatic field are not emphasized.
There is only a passing mention of the names of several Armenian diplomats when considering the activities of the Polish diplomatic service during the 16th-17th centuries.
At the same time, a well-reasoned, extensive article by the prominent historian, orientalist-Turkologist Bogdan Baranovsky, “Armenians in the diplomatic service of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth”6, was published, based on numerous archival documents and narrative sources, which was later included as one of the chapters in his monograph “ Getting to know the East in medieval Poland"7.
Similar work regarding Poland’s connections with the East in the 18th century. published by orientalist Jan Reichmann8. These studies by B. Baranowski, J. Reichman, and A. Zajonczkowski are the first experience in studying the role and place of Polish Armenians in Poland’s relations with the East.
Armenian historians operate mainly with the data contained in these works of Polish orientalists. Now there is a need to continue the work they started, supplement it with new documentary materials, mainly from the archives of Lviv and Kiska, unused by Polish scientists, as well as data from Armenian sources.
This article touches on some little-studied aspects of the activities of Polish Armenian diplomats and merchants in the implementation of political contacts between Turkey and Poland.
Based on archival materials highlights the nature of the diplomatic missions carried out by Polish Armenians in Turkey. treatise on peace between Turkey and Polynia.
Sources indicate that the Polish diplomatic service in Turkey and Iran was largely carried out in the 16th-17th centuries. Polish Armenians who came to serve in the royal chancellery from the trade sector and had a large life experience and extensive political and economic ties in the East. In most cases they were polyglots.
Knowledge oriental languages, morals and customs of the Turks, strong ties with the Armenians of Istanbul, Ankara, Adrianople, Bursa, Izmir and other cities, awareness of issues of oriental etiquette, the ability to establish contacts with court circles and the vizier of the Sultan - all this was inherent in their work in the Ottoman Empire diplomatic missions, and brought success to their (sometimes very responsible) missions.
Ukrainian historian I. Linpichenko, characterizing public role Armenians in the history of South-Western Rus', in particular, wrote: “The living conditions made every Armenian a real diplomat de fasto. It is not surprising, therefore, that Armenians are often diplomats de jure.
No one knew better than the Armenians the customs and habits of the Tatars, Turks and others eastern peoples, with which they were confronted daily by trade turnover. Who else, if not the Armenians, could entrust the risky business of diplomatic negotiations with the most skilled diplomats of that time, people of the East, when a minor violation of etiquette, an awkward phrase, a violation of an empty, in the opinion of a proud nobleman, formalities could at the very beginning upset the diplomatic campaign in the East?
Who, finally, of the nobles of that time could boast of similar linguistic abilities that every ordinary Armenian possessed... That’s why, although at the head diplomatic missions to the East and are usually gentry-born Poles, some noble magnate or a young member of an important gentry family who is beginning his diplomatic career, but the ambassador de fasto is an Armenian merchant, who plays the modest role of dragoman with him.”10 The role is extremely great Slavic countries, including Poland and Ukraine, in the history of Armenian settlements throughout the Middle Ages.
The cities of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which hospitably sheltered the Armenian settlers, were actually a second homeland for them. That is why in the Armenian sources of that time - chronicles, memorial records of manuscripts about Poland and Ukraine are spoken of with gratitude as the “Polish and Ukrainian House of Armenians.”
First quarter of the 17th century was the time of economic and cultural prosperity of Armenian settlements in Poland, located in more than fifty cities of the country, mainly on its southeastern borders, in cities-centers of trade with the East, located on the routes of caravan trade with Turkey and Crimea.
The most significant settlements of Armenians were in Lvov (where one-sixth of the population was Armenians) and the border town of Kamenets-Podolsk, where they made up a third of the city's residents.
Trade with Turkey brought huge income to the Armenian merchants of Poland, as evidenced by the data available from the registers of duties paid by Armenians at the Kamenets and Snyatyn customs houses - the so-called “four penny” for rich caravans of goods brought from Turkey.
Let us point out, for example, that in just one year, 1616, the profit of the Kamenets merchant Sefer Nuridznanovnch was 9,420 gold thalers, and the merchant Bagdasar Oganesozich - over 11 thousand. .
There were a number of large trading family firms of Lvov Armenians, which had their trade missions in Istanbul and other cities of the Ottoman Empire. These so-called “trading houses” of Bernatovich, Akopsovich, Oganesovich, Muratovich, Varteresovich and Serebkovich showed interest not only in the trading situation, but also in the military-political and economic situation of the Ottoman Empire.
Active and enterprising, Armenian merchants carried out caravan trade with Turkey at great risk to their lives: participation in a caravan going to the East in those days was tantamount to participation in a military expedition.
As the elders of the Armenian community of Lvov stated in the city magistrate, “our youth... from the age of 16 to 18 were accustomed to traveling on merchant business to the Turks and overseas to eastern countries, so they are not at home for a year at a time, and sometimes even more.
On these trips with the caravan, they are often exposed to danger and practice shooting, when they are attacked by hundreds of Tatars, oprishki and robbers, and they must shoot back from them.”
The journey of the trade caravan from Lvov to Istanbul took about a month. And yet, throughout the year, Armenian merchants from Poland made several trips to the major cities of the Ottoman Empire, where they settled in well, gaining extensive connections.
Polish researcher L. Kharevicheva wrote that “the Lvov Armenians had large incomes, and although they were not numerous, their mobility misled the idea of their contemporaries about their numbers to such an extent that the traveler Deciusz declared: “Partim Polanian occupant Armeni (“Partially Armenians own Poland”), which was, of course, an exaggeration.
Poland did not have a permanent embassy in Constantinople and limited itself to visiting embassies headed by noble nobles from time to time in the Sublime Porte. These were, according to the data we collected, embassies: Prince Gursky - in 1613, Targovsky - in 1614, royal commissar Chudovsky and Koritsky - in 1618, magnate Otvinovsky - in 1619, Prince Zbarazhsky - in 1622- 1623 and a Lviv city dweller, Armenian Khachatur Serebkovich (Serobyan) - in 1623, who received the title of royal secretary from King Signsmund III for a successfully completed mission.
At similar situation Of particular value was the information of a political and military nature that was supplied to the royal office and crown hetman Stanislav Konetspolsky through messengers. They were also Armenians, for example, Stefan Serebkovich from Lviv, Minas Khacherovich from Kamenets-Podolsky and others.
In the service of Hetman Stanislav Konetspolsky were the Armenians Mark Sergievich, Hovhannes Romashkovich and Hovhannes Piotrovich. The significance of Mark Sergeevich’s services is evidenced by the safe conduct issued by the hetman, which exempted Mark Sergeevich from paying customs duties during trips to Turkey.
This document, stored in the Lviv Historical Archive, in particular, reads: “The house of Mark Sergeevich, as my assistant servant, who provides important services to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, must be protected from the presence of any guests, for which I order my noble coat of arms to be nailed above the doors of his house in Kamenets and I warn you that I will honor the insults caused to him by anyone as my personal ones.”
Hovhannes Romashkovich was famous diplomat XVII century He served in the Royal Chancery for 30 years and was awarded high title royal secretary. Romashkovich also began his diplomatic career in Istanbul as a representative of Hetman S. Konetspolsky.
From the Turkish capital, he sent a wide variety of information about the Ottomans’ preparations for war against Poland. His report on his stay in the capital of the Ottoman Empire was submitted to the royal chancellery and has survived to this day.
In the acts of the Armenian magistrate of the city of Kamenets-Podolsky, information was also preserved about another Armenian diplomat of that era, Ovaines Piotrovich, who calls himself “a servant of the noble lord Voivode Saidomirsky, Crown Hetman,” “carrying out important assignments of his master, very necessary speeches Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth."
Documentary materials from the archives of Ukraine provide specific information about the Armenians who accompanied the aforementioned embassies to Istanbul as embassy secretaries, translators and interpreters, who played an important, sometimes decisive role in negotiations at the Sultan’s court.
They were at the beginning of the 17th century. Ivashko Varterisovich, Sefer Muratovich, Armenian Tomashiz Kamenza, Lviv resident Simon Varterisovich, who enjoyed the great confidence of King Signsmund III, who entrusted him with especially important missions. In one of the statements, the Lvov Armenians, addressing Simon Varterisovich, said: “You are our elder, you must defend our rights, our religion and the Armenian church, everything will pass for you, so
The Russians played a fatal role in the fate of several of their restless neighbors, who laid claim to the lands of Russia itself and to influence in a significant part of the Old World.
Russia, while restoring and increasing the power of the Dnevnerussian state, several times found itself on the brink of death and could easily become a military trophy for its strong and ambitious neighbors. However, this never happened. And the neighbors themselves, who risked entering into confrontation with our country, later bitterly regretted it, mourning their former power...
Lithuania
Even at the beginning of the second millennium AD, a unified Lithuanian state did not exist. The scattered tribal unions of Samogitians, Lithuanians, Yatvingians and Zhemagls began to unite only in the 13th century through the efforts of Prince Mindaugas, who later headed single state. By this time, representatives of the Lithuanian nobility, thanks to dynastic marriages already controlled the ancient Russian Principality of Polotsk. Mindovg, without thinking twice, annexed a significant part of the territory of modern Belarus to the young Lithuanian state. Thus, it was Lithuania, most likely, even before the Mongol-Tatars, that became the first to benefit greatly from the fragmentation of Rus'.
Later, Lithuania, taking advantage of the suppression of the Rurik dynasty along the western line, also seized Volyn. When Muscovy strengthened so much that it was able to lay claim to Western Russian lands, Grand Duke Jagiello planned to get rid of the “legal heirs” by agreeing on a joint campaign against Moscow with the leader of the Horde, Mamai. However, I didn’t have time. Mamai, as you know, was defeated in the Battle of Kulikovo. And Jagiello himself, with his mother Juliania, swore allegiance to Dmitry Donskoy and asked to join his family, offering himself as a groom to the daughter of the winner Mamai. Naturally, recognizing the supreme power of Moscow over Lithuania. But less than a year later, his position changed. Jagiello converted to Catholicism and married the Polish princess Jadwiga, concluding the Union of Krevo with Poland. And his cousin Vytautas defeated the Tatars in the south and the Teutons in the west, extending the power of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the Baltic to the Black Sea and turning it into one of the largest and most powerful states in Europe.
But the great Lithuanian princes were well aware that sooner or later the Rurikovichs might try to return their lands, and this did not give them peace. That is why in Lithuanian documents the name “Russia” was actually banned, which officials and clergy from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania began to replace with the notorious term “Muscovy”, which was loved by Russophobes centuries later. It was in this somewhat naive way that the Lithuanians wanted to show the lack of continuity between Kievan Rus and Russia with its capital in Moscow. But terminological casuistry could not save the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
In the 16th century, Lithuania, having intervened in the Livonian War, was brutally beaten by Russian troops, and even lost Polotsk. The successes of Russian weapons decided the fate of the Principality of Lithuania. In order to escape from complete defeat, Lithuania rushed to Poland for protection, and in 1569, in accordance with the Union of Lublin, it voluntarily gave up its independence, becoming part of the state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania as a state ceased to exist. For centuries, Lithuania came under the rule of foreign monarchs, only to be reborn in the 20th century as a small republic, which retained only the memory of its former greatness and retained a rather cool attitude towards Russia.
Moscow ultimately lost the Livonian War, and then was completely forced to open its gates to foreign invaders, but this story is already connected with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in which the Poles played the first violin.
Poland
Having emerged synchronously with Russia and having experienced with it the full brunt of feudal fragmentation, as well as having learned the bitterness of numerous defeats and foreign domination, Polish state was revived in the 14th century and immediately began to grab everything that was lying badly in the neighborhood. But the lands of the Galicia-Volyn principality were in bad shape at that time; they very quickly found themselves under Polish rule.
In the 16th century, Lithuania, which actually submitted to the Poles as a result of the aforementioned Union of Lublin, brought them a rich dowry - most lands of modern Ukraine and Belarus. However, along with the acquisition, the Lithuanian fear that the Russians could sooner or later take these territories back was also transmitted to the Poles. The conquest of Russia became something of an obsession for the Poles.
Having won the Livonian War and recaptured the lands lost by the Lithuanians from the Russians, Poland did not calm down. Taking advantage of the internal turmoil during the Time of Troubles, the Poles, raising first False Dmitry and then Prince Vladislav to the banner, tried to take Russia into their hands. And they almost succeeded. A Polish garrison entered Moscow in 1610, and the Poles limited the rights of the Orthodox Russian-speaking population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the church union, as well as in the political and economic spheres.
But in 1612 the Russian people rose up. Civil uprising under the leadership of Minin and Pozharsky, drove the Poles out of Kitai-gorod and forced the Polish garrison of the Kremlin to capitulate. From that moment on, everything literally began to fall out of hand for the proud Polish nobles. Their attempts to return to Russia were unsuccessful, and the Cossacks and other Orthodox residents of the Dnieper region, dissatisfied with the Polish lords, raised one uprising after another, until Bogdan Khmelnitsky expelled the Poles from a significant part of the territory of modern Ukraine. This success was consolidated by Russian troops, who, despite the death of Khmelnitsky and betrayal by part of the Cossack elders, again drove the Poles beyond the Dnieper.
Since then, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth existed for more than a hundred years, but year after year it became more and more dependent on Russia. TO mid-18th century century, St. Petersburg already actively influenced the election of Polish monarchs and calmly led its troops through the lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and also tried to achieve Orthodox Christians living under the rule of Warsaw equal rights with Catholics. Nationalist-minded Poles rebelled in response to this, creating the Bar Confederation in 1768. However, it was defeated by Alexander Suvorov.
The uprising of the Poles provided an excellent opportunity to punish them. In 1772, Russia, Austria and Prussia carried out the first division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, depriving Poland of a number of peripheral territories. As a result of the second partition, in 1793, Russia received the lands of Rus', once captured by Lithuania, and northwestern Poland, populated by ethnic Poles, went to Prussia. In 1794, the Poles again rebelled under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, which was also suppressed by Alexander Suvorov. Thus, the gentry finally exhausted their credibility, and in 1795 Russia, Austria and Prussia divided the remnants of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth among themselves. The participation of Poles in the Napoleonic wars on the side of France led to a new redistribution of Polish lands into Congress of Vienna, as a result of which the Kingdom of Poland was formed with its center in Warsaw under the rule of the Russian monarch. The Poles regained their independence in the 20th century, but the “Rzeczpospolita from Mozh to Mozh” turned into a pipe dream for them. Every attempt by Poland to grab a piece of the Russian pie miraculously led to exactly the opposite result. And today, Polish right-wingers calling on Poland for a new confrontation with Russia would do well to remember this amazing irony of fate...
Sweden
Now this may seem incredible to many, but Sweden for quite a long time was one of the most powerful states in Europe, which for more than a hundred years really threatened Russia. The star of Sweden has already set once in the Middle Ages - with the passing of the Viking times northern kingdom weakened, lost influence and found itself subordinate to the Danish king. But already in XVI century The Swedes regained their independence and took control of their first overseas territories - in Estland.
In the 17th century, the second century began for the descendants of the Vikings. finest hour. IN Time of Troubles they competed with the Poles for influence on the Russian kingdom. And soon after that they performed very successfully in Thirty Years' War and fought with good half Europe in Northern War 1655–1660, having stood in Warsaw and deprived the Danes of Skåne.
Thanks to military victories, Sweden kept all of Northern and Central Europe in subjection. Having captured most of the Baltic states and the mouths of all the main rivers of Germany, the Swedes turned the Baltic into their inland sea and received privileges in the North Atlantic.
IN late XVII century, Sweden had economic problems, but the country was distracted from them by the young king Charles XII, who inspired his compatriots with military triumphs and diplomatic achievements. Having dealt with the coalition of Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony and Norway, Charles XII probably already felt like the most powerful monarch in the world. But the Swedish iceberg was broken by a Russian icebreaker.
After several local victories of the Russian army, the enraged Charles decided to punish the “presumptuous Muscovites” and in 1708 he moved troops to Russia. However, the inhabitants of White and Little Rus', despite the promises given to Charles by defectors like the former Peter the Great's hetman Mazepa, were by no means inclined to welcome the invaders with open arms, and either closed themselves from them behind the walls of the cities, or fled into the forests, taking with them supplies of provisions. The king ordered to rob and burn Russian cities and villages. In the spring of 1709, he unsuccessfully besieged Poltava, and it was under its walls that drastic changes took place in the fate of, probably, all of Europe.
In June, Peter I arrived near Poltava with the main forces of the Russian army. The Russian Tsar had an advantage over the enemy in both manpower and artillery. Against 37 thousand Swedes and their allies, who had 41 guns, he assembled an army of approximately 60 thousand, who had 300 guns at their disposal.
Charles XII relied on the striking power of his elite infantry and heavy cavalry, as well as on surprise, hoping to overthrow Russian army during a night attack. And - I made a mistake. The Swedes did not have time to form up in time for the offensive and attacked the Russian positions at dawn under fierce rifle and artillery fire. Even having pushed back the Russian army after a bayonet attack, Charles’s soldiers achieved nothing. Peter I inspired the regiments with his personal presence and personally led them into battle, causing the Swedes to flee in disorder. 137 Swedish banners and standards remained in Russian hands. The Russian Tsar showed respect for the captured Swedish generals by inviting them to his tent for a festive feast, where he returned the swords to the high command of the enemy army.
King Charles XII, realizing that the war was lost, abandoned the remnants of his troops and fled across the Dnieper to take refuge in the possessions of the Turkish Sultan. All swedish army, which included approximately 16 thousand soldiers, officers and non-combatants, surrendered to the mercy of the winner. In the battle, she lost over nine thousand people killed, against 1,345 people killed on the Russian side.
The battle of Poltava became one of the most fateful in world history. The army, which was considered the strongest in Europe and claimed to conquer almost all of its neighbors, was defeated. Sweden, which had counted on hegemony in Northern and Central Europe, overnight became small and lost all international influence country.
Karl tried to return his country to its former greatness, inciting Turkey to a total war against Russia, but he never succeeded. Returning to Sweden, he tried to rehabilitate himself by getting involved in a war with the Danes, but was killed under unclear circumstances - either by a stray enemy bullet, or by his own entourage, who realized that the king was pushing Sweden to the abyss with his military adventures.
Türkiye
The history of the Ottoman Empire is the story of perhaps the most stunning rise and the most tragic decline great power. Formed in the 13th century on part of the lands of the former possessions of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor, Ottoman Porte in about three hundred years it became the most powerful state on the globe.
In the 16th century, Ottoman banners developed not only over Asia Minor, but also over the Balkans, almost all North Africa, Arabia, Levant, Transcaucasia and Western Persia. The Crimean Tatar khans became vassals of the Turkish sultans. The Black Sea was internal for the Ottomans, but in the Mediterranean they felt like absolute masters. The Turks terrified the Germans and even besieged Vienna twice. From raids on Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Tatars drove millions of captives, who were then sold in slave markets to their Turkish overlords.
The Russian state stood like a bone in the throat of the Ottomans. Ivan the Terrible dared to annex the Turkic khanates and Caucasian principalities, which the Sultan had already seen as his vassals, to the Moscow state. For such an insult, the Russians should have faced severe punishment. Taking advantage of the fact that after the signing of the Union of Lublin, Livonian War did not work out for Russia in the best possible way, the Tatars in 1571 reached Moscow in a raid, and a year later, having received from the Turkish Sultan a seven-thousand-strong detachment of selected Janissaries, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray set out to conquer Russia.
However, Russian military leaders Mikhail Vorotynsky and Dmitry Khvorostin, having gone to the rear of the Turkish-Tatar troops and imposing their style of battle on them near the Russian mobile fortress “Walk-Pole”, in the end, managed to completely defeat the uninvited guests. Thus, Russia did not become a Turkish possession.
After the end of the Time of Troubles, Russia and Turkey became crowded on the same continent. In just over two hundred years, Russian and Turkish troops met in battle ten times. And only once during all this time did Turkey manage to emerge victorious from the war - defeating the Russian army in the Prut campaign of Peter I.
Starting from the second half of the 18th century, the situation of the Ottoman Empire became catastrophic. Russian troops completely ousted the Turks from the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea and Bessarabia. IN early XIX century, Russia lost the coast of the Caucasus. In 1853 - 1856, the Turks tried to take revenge by landing in the Crimea along with the British, French and Sardinians, but this did not bring anything good to the Porte. On the contrary, in St. Petersburg they confirmed their intention to oust the Turks to Asia. As a result Russian-Turkish War 1877 - 1878, the Ottoman Empire actually left Europe, retaining only a small piece of land on the banks of the Bosphorus.
The Porto was let down by the fact that its power was based primarily on cruelty and violence. Peoples conquered by force automatically became allies of Russia, which for centuries became the main enemy of the Ottoman Empire. The liberation campaign of the Russian army in the Balkans became one of the most bright examples international altruism and self-sacrifice in the name of the triumph of humanism and Slavic brotherhood, which hammered a nail into the coffin of Ottoman imperial expansion...
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Four great powers, whose power extended far beyond the territories inhabited by representatives of their titular ethnic group, and whose armies terrified their neighbors, stumbled when they tried to take aim at Russia, and, as a result of the struggle with our ancestors, turned into small nation states, in which they now only make films and write books about past greatness. History itself proves that the optimal way to interact with the Russians is peaceful coexistence.
A description of the order in the Ottoman Empire was given by the Prince of Zbarazh, the ambassador of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in Turkey.
The text is very, very good, it provides facts, analysis, and predictions that were confirmed in the future. The decline in morals of the Empire is also not poorly described.
What was the position of the Ottoman monarchy in ancient times, what is it now? Where does this disorder come from and is healing possible? What powers does it have at sea and on land? What can we expect from this world and what arguments are there for and against it?
The order and splendor of the Ottoman monarchy were once astonishing. Comparing those times with the present, which seems like a shadow of the past, it is difficult, in my opinion, to come even closer to understanding its structure (as one can know and see in other states). After all, they (Turks. - Per.) nothing is written down, everything is based on observing traditions and rules. In the very mixture of peoples and tribes, different parts of the world, various languages and religions are formed like this a chaotic mixture that does not exist in any country in the world. [In a state] where no one can gain fame, where they do not know their ancestors, they do not travel abroad, where there is no spiritual life, no desire for glory that motivates people to all sorts of exploits (for rarely do any of them remember their ancestors), there miraculous transformations take place: from a gardener, a trapper - immediately into kings, monarchs, and now again he becomes nothing, as if characters in some kind of comedy. What is rejected in other countries is preserved [here]. All this is beyond all understanding. With all the surrounding monarchies, tyrannies [ Ottoman Empire] has only some similarities, but there are many differences. An amazing manifestation of divine providence is manifested in the fact that, having created this monarchy, not like all others, opposite in form, [God] multiplied it, preserved and preserves it. Christians, who naturally should have been hostile to the faith of the Turks, as their tyrants and invaders, forgetting God and their faith, living there and constantly seeing the temples of their faith, forgetting their origins, torture and torment their own fathers and relatives when they fall into captivity . They do not remember their homeland and their freedom, in which they were born; soul and body merge with their laws and orders. And not the Turks, but the Christians and their descendants are the basis and support of the empire and its masters. All peoples have always had and still have words on their lips about how sweet [memories] are of their father’s home. Images of native places, native lands elevate the soul. Faith, once achieved, is rarely forgotten. All this has no weight there. The heirs of honest families, having fallen into captivity or found themselves there of their own free will, never return to good thoughts, although they remember their origin, and are the worst and most furious [servants of the Sultan]. So do everyone else, and I note this with amazement. What could I learn and understand about the order in this empire and the changes that took place?
In Turkey there were and are only two classes, although they have different categories, but they all have one sovereign, [before him all] the rest are slaves. The power of this sovereign is absolute, from him, as from the earthly God, come good and evil, the censure of which in human souls is dishonor and sin. This monarch is the basis and support of everything. Everything is his will. Without it, slaves have no family, no honor, no hereditary property. Therefore, no parties, no alliances are formed, because tomorrow it is not the son, but the Sultan who will inherit your property. This is the fate of everyone. Exaltation is not determined by birth or merit. The son of a slave woman has a better life [than the legal heir], therefore they do not interfere with any love affairs, do not get married.
Whoever the sovereign exalts flourishes for a while; as soon as he lowers him, he immediately fades. Therefore, between them (subjects. - Per.) there is no lasting friendship, constant envy and rivalry. One pushes the other to take his place; reveal all secrets to the sovereign. He who holds a public office gives orders and is held in high esteem. The overthrown loses everything, no one respects him.
No less important than good deeds and punishments at the will of [the sovereign] were training and exercises in the palace for maintaining order in the state. All officials went through this, as if through a school, and were a model for the whole earth. Christian sons were selected for their energy and abilities and used in various matters. They worked especially diligently with those who were supposed to rise to serve the monarch. Teaching writing greatest attention devoted to the education of modesty, abstinence and observation. Various military exercises were not neglected either. The first step was service under the Sultan: it was necessary to carry his bow, arrows, saber, buzdygan, take care of his food and drinks, toilet, storage of clothes, etc. Having proven himself well in this field (servants - Per.), moved to lower positions [at court]: falconer, huntsman, hunter. Then they became lieutenants (ketkhuda. - Per.), reached the position of Agha Janissaries. From here the path led to the positions of Asian and European pashas (beylerbeys. - Per.), and then, if they managed well, to the vizier ranks so that they could take a closer look at management. So, gradually, they reached the highest position, from where they were rarely removed, except for some great abuse. [Thanks to] the long reign of the [viziers], the power of the state grew. And they themselves, increasing their glory, accomplished magnificent deeds, erected buildings that brought glory and benefit to the state. The people under their command, when a vacancy appeared, could worthily take these places. They, in turn, taught and educated their associates. Thus, the knowledge of each class increased, and the desire to develop virtues grew. Under previous sovereigns, people rarely came to high positions in any other way.
It was considered the highest reward when the chosen one was awarded clothes of honor sent from the palace. It gave him mental strength for diligent service in the palace, for the desire to skillfully wield weapons. All this led to the fact that the greatness and power of the sovereign increased, and human souls rose above the insignificance of their origin.
The army had unbreakable order for many years. First of all, everyone had their own clothes depending on their position and type of service, no one interfered in other people's affairs. No one, under pain of execution, strove for expensive clothes; luxury and delicacy, which are ruining them now, were condemned and eradicated. The salary and other rewards were small. The Timars, which are land holdings, were so divided that no one exhibited more than two sabers (two warriors. - Per.) from the land from which he served, but since the expenses were small, everyone was satisfied with the moderate income [from Timara]. Since obedience and abstinence were revered above all else, when they fought, it was not a burden to them. This cord [of power], so beautifully woven, was in the hands of one owner, that is, the monarch himself. As long as this order was observed, the foundations [of the state] were not undermined. Under such rule, this state grew and expanded for almost a thousand years, that is, more than all other monarchies in the world. None of them retained their perfection and power for so long, especially without any reforms. But even the Roman Empire, which underwent significant changes in the 4th century, did not escape this misfortune. Then many states were included in the prosperous Eastern [Roman] Empire, in total it included 23 provinces, [each] the size of a kingdom, without the number of cities and fortresses. It included the father of luxury - New Rome(Constantinople - Per.). The nurse of the highest wisdom - Greece - got stuck in these networks. There is the top of the whole world - Egypt. There is golden Arabia. There are wonderful Cairo and Memphis connected by a single path. Above all, there, in the handful of this stepmother (Eastern Empire), is land, honey and milk, given as the highest reward for the virtues of Abraham, given to him by God and, for the greater desire of his children, punished by a long, almost eight-hundred-year famine. The grains from this handful are already falling out little by little, and you will hear how this happens.
Changes in the Empire
Since the integrity of this state and autocracy depended on the veneration of customs, observance of the old orders and their preservation, the only guardian of which was the Sultan, a change in the sovereign, the guardian [of customs], was supposed to lead to their change, and then affect the integrity of the state. After Suleiman, lazy and effete sovereigns ruled almost until now, namely Mehmed and Ahmed, who admired their greatness, but were not interested in how they achieved this greatness. First of all, the class of officials was spoiled, who began to receive benefits not for merit, but for money. And all because of the Sultan’s wives, who through their husbands contributed to the promotion of [officials], taking money for it and getting rich. Those who bought positions in order to enrich themselves and reimburse expenses, benefits (timars. - Per.), those that fell into their hands were sold for money, and more worthy merits and with courage [than themselves], they completely exterminated everyone. Then it came to the ordinary soldiers, who began to pay off their duties and became, as they call it, idiots. Thus, the trade [of positions] first of all infected the army. Also, Christians, from whose children the Janissaries are recruited, preferred to ransom their sons, seeing that everything had become an object of trade. The recruitment of troops was carried out carelessly; it was only important to ensure its strength. Misdeeds and atrocities that were previously punishable by death were now forgiven for bribes to senior commanders. A bunch of bad examples led to the growth of various vices. This poison, penetrating among the warriors, although experienced, but arrogant and arrogant, quickly grew in conditions of impunity and self-will.
More worthy and experienced warriors see that self-will is not followed by punishment, but good service- a reward that some service in the palace is valued more than military valor, when every soldier of the border garrison tries to achieve elevation rather with the help of some woman [from the seraglio] or a eunuch than by merit in the eyes of the military leader. Gradually, weapons became disgusting to them, and bows became pleasant. Those who resorted to these techniques began to live in luxury. Drunkenness, which had previously been punishable as murder, began to take root. Following such examples, many preferred to pay their way out of military service, which could be easily achieved. The fact is that the viziers, going to war, collected more money than people. The bad consequences of this disease quickly appeared.
First of all, at Eger, before the eyes of the sovereign, a lack of courage [of the warriors] was revealed. Returning home, they rebelled against the favorites of the Sultan, the brother of the current Khalil Pasha and the treasurer. The Sultan was forced to execute them and put their heads on public display. Then began the uprising of the common people in Asia, and later the most prominent pashas, who were joined by those dissatisfied with [the government] and those who believed that their merits were not appreciated. Significant devastation occurred in those countries, because from the arable lands and their homes everyone who could rushed into the ranks of the lawless bands.
And since they could not destroy them, the authorities turned to other methods of pacification: distributions, increased salaries, changes in the procedure for providing equipment, forgiveness of various offenses 10 . From here the power of the Sultan's decrees and the veneration of officials began to weaken.
Since, due to generous distributions and devastation, treasury income decreased and a significant part of it was spent on palace expenses and luxury, the salary did not often go to them (the soldiers. - Per.) act. Khalil Pasha himself, who fought in Persia, told me that when it came to hostilities, [the soldiers] demanded their salaries, brazenly arguing with the military leaders until the battle began.
As a result of all this, due to lack of money, they became under different pretexts extort from rich people. Hence arose the suspicion of the sovereigns, who, at the slightest provocation, dishonored noble and worthy people. So many subjects died, almost all worthy people were destroyed.
After those [sultans], the impetuous and angry rather than reasonable Emperor Osman ascended the throne, believing that he would achieve everything, like the first sultans, through severity alone, which neither his father nor his grandfather had. Without listening to anyone, only flatterers, he began to insult his elders 11 , drown others for misdeeds and severely punish for already widespread crimes, introducing the old discipline in everything, especially in the army. After the war he wanted to change the entire army 12 . His severity led him to premature death, and those [warriors] to despair, because they saw that they were losing both their daily bread and their very life. Since this entire monarchy had hitherto rested on a weak foundation - on only the head of [the Sultan] and his entourage, then, having crumbled after the fall of the foundation, everything returned to normal. [Everything began to be ruled] by commoners who did not know the customs, without honor and nobility, dressed in satin, without noble [ancestors], without relatives, without respect and respect for anyone. So, eight months after the first [in the Ottoman Empire] murder of a monarch, hardly a shadow remained of the previous [order], not a single class was preserved in its nobility, did not preserve its qualities unsullied. Instead of virtues, all the vices prevailed, terrible drunkenness, open debauchery, luxury, incredible covetousness, hypocrisy, open betrayal 13 .
All this is incurable even in the house of the sovereigns themselves. The current monarch (Mustafa. - Per.) - he is simply a madman, who understands nothing and is incapable of anything, so that because of him, his mother, in whose hands all control is located, despairs. But since she acts secretly, supposedly on behalf of the Sultan, among such corrupt people, she does this under great fear, and not with the help of [state] wisdom or according to established rules, but only with the help of money; Meanwhile, the Sultan's madness manifests itself more and more openly. His closest heirs are four. One of them, Murad, is 12 years old, another is 8 or 9, the rest are even younger. Murad has a number of defects (which I know about from the chief court physician - an Arab), namely, he has some kind of convulsions, similar to insanity, although there are bright intervals. Besides, one of his hands is dry. His mother [Kösem Sultan], a woman still young and luxurious, is very wasteful. Of course, her reign will be the same or even worse. The second one seems to be better than this, but he has a bubble between his shoulder blades that has grown monstrously. In addition, his age is inappropriate. Among the current chief dignitaries who could properly provide guardianship or advice in Constantinople, there is no one, with the exception of two. One is the current vizier, the other is Khalil Pasha, a sea captain (kapudan pasha. - Per.). The current vizier (Mere Hussein Pasha. - Per.), of course more the right person, but [the Turks] will not stand with him for long, because they are afraid of him and his rule. Fear gripped them all, but they will not overthrow him, but will probably kill him. Khalil Pasha is a less prominent and less influential person. His character is softer, he avoids danger, does not want it (to become a sadrazam. - Per.), even wants to become a dervish. Of the other [viziers], no one else has either statesmanship or authority; they call each other brutes. In Asia, a certain Nafis Pasha 14 has some influence, but as if he is a very old and sick person. There is also a Budinsky [Pasha], but this one will not come, as they themselves say, because he has sufficiently strengthened his dominance there. When he was transferred to serve under the Sultan, the soldiers did not want to let him go and the one who came [to his place] was almost killed. I haven't heard of any of the others.
There is strife in the city [among the warriors]. First of all, among the Janissaries and Sipahii, over whom the Janissaries gain the upper hand in the capital, because there are more of them, and it is easier for the infantrymen [in the city]. And where there are more Sipahi, they threaten the Janissaries. Noble and honest people, men of the council, side with the Sipahi. The arrogant upstarts [join the Janissaries], although there is no less hatred between them. The fact is that the newcomers would like to get rid of the old warriors, of whom there are 15 thousand in excess of the norm, and they, in turn, would like to get rid of these new Janissaries. There is a palace party, to which belong the Ichoghlans, bostanjis, that is, gardeners, and many palace artisans, with whom the hajis, students of theological schools, of which there are many, are associated. They all stick to the same line. Among the Sipahiys there are also reasons for quarrels. They own unequal timars; the poorer ones would like to divide the possessions of the rich.
Further: they would like to divide the property of the clergy and the waqf among themselves, but this is a hard bone that cannot be chewed. Especially in Asia, where if a sipahi meets a janissary, and the janissaries sipahi, then one seeks to kill the other, each accusing the enemy of killing Osman. There is universal hatred against the Constantinople [warriors]. Although they are separated by the sea and long distances, [the Asian Sipahis] say: let these Constantinople people stay with their Sultan, but we don’t want to know him. From Egypt, Cairo, tribute has not been received and will not come; black (Berber. - Per.) The Arabs consider it a great insult to themselves that after Osman they were deprived of almost all positions and that they are despised. Certain Safoglou and Manoglu, leaders [of the rebels], are threatening war 15 . Babylon, the capital of his (Sultan’s) eastern possessions. Per.), busy with some Bekir Pasha, a traitor 16 . In Erzurum, having killed the Janissaries, Abaza Pasha strengthened himself 17 . Raids and robbery do not stop. This was also expected in European possessions, because [fermentation] had already begun there. If [the Port] wants to stop the unrest by force of arms, civil war will certainly begin.
The power of the Ottoman monarchy today
[Janissaries.] Power is greater in words than in deeds. Best wishes the proof was [the reign of] Osman, under which the sovereign was portrayed as having sufficient numbers of troops. It is absolutely indisputable that they (Turks. - Per.) They set as their goal to have 30 thousand Janissaries in all provinces, including recruits and gunners in this number. I believe that this [figure] can serve as a basis for [calculating] salaries and thefts from the treasury, but not the number of soldiers themselves. In reality, Osman, who would have happily taken all the inhabitants into the army, had no more than 10 thousand [janissaries] [in the Khotyn campaign]. In Asia, where there is no recruitment of troops, there are fewer of them than in Europe. There are especially many of them in the Hungarian border castles - to threaten their neighbor, the emperor. From there they, of course, will not be sent on any campaign, and they themselves, adhering to custom, will not go, just as they did not go with Osman. Here, near Constantinople, you can rarely see them, because there are no fortresses. In Constantinople itself, they say, 20 thousand. I just can’t accept this, because with everyone I mentioned earlier, it turns out no more than 10 thousand.
Berber janissaries called jezaire 18 , there are 12 thousand. But they are with them (Turkish Janissaries. - Per.) never went to war and now did not accept the Sultan’s order: in my presence [it became known] that they did not go.
What kind of Janissary warriors are these? I'll start with weapons. They have janissaries that give a very strong recoil; you can’t shoot them close to your face, you have to take them off your shoulder. The gunpowder is very bad, aimed shooting is very difficult. A single shot will not kill, although a salvo will cause a lot of damage. Young warriors practice little shooting. This is a real rabble - they have grown long beards and treat them as something sacred. The guys are young, spoiled. They are run by people without any experience. There are still a few old Janissaries, some of them are quite decrepit. Of the new [chiefs], not a single one can withstand the position of agi Janissaries for [several] weeks, let alone months; they have never before known what war is. The current Aga Janissary was Osman's barber, he is already being removed; in his place again there will be some gardener or palace creature.
Sipahis are the second military class. They are believed to be numerous, but, as I definitely found out, under the late Sultan Osman there were no more than 120 - 130 thousand of them, even including not only the Sipahiys, but also others who were their subordinates 19 . The detachments of sipahi, called buluks, are divided into European and Asian, led by seven commanders. Their main banner is red, it is held to the right of the Sultan. There, in the place of honor, are the best warriors. This banner has warriors, each with a flag on a spear - a sign of nobility and honesty. Another banner, yellow, is located to the left of the Sultan. It is in second place in importance. Other banners are less revered. Outwardly, however, [it is very impressive when] warriors under these seven banners ride out on wonderful, well-fed horses, wearing beautiful turbans and very expensive trousers, with feathers and wings, which decorate not only the warriors, but also the horses. They form the retinue of the sovereign and constitute the color of the equestrian army.
Types of weapons - almost all [those that] were used under Osman: jida - a kind of spear with a shaft made of Indian reed, they are also made of wood that is light in nature, very flexible, easy to fly. To strengthen them, the iron tip is hardened. There are very few copies, and they are used very ineptly; they are used only by Albanians and other residents of the outskirts of the state. I can definitely say that there were no more than 5 thousand spearmen with Osman. The bow is also rarely used and is poorly used. Hardly one in a thousand has a gun, usually our renegades. Spears are not suitable for attack, except for skirmishes before a battle, when you have to fight in all directions and on light (without armor) horses. [Heavy] weapons and armor are not used.
Warriors from Europe are better than Asians, more resilient than them. Among Asians, effeminacy and laziness were great even under the Romans. Sitting on camels and elephants, they most often fight in short silk shirts, with light weapons. When one day in October there was cold rain and wind near Khotyn, all these poor fellows hunched over from the cold. Apparently, the Ottoman tyrant was proud of the number of soldiers rather than the actual strength, in whose registers the number of people and horses was unusually large. Asians used to have more horses and camels, but now there are fewer of them. The war with us is so disgusting to everyone that the European [sipahs] are dissuaded [from participating in it] by poverty, which is so, the Asian ones - by the unfavorable time of year, they shout loudly that they don’t want to go to war in Europe, they don’t want to be frozen : Apparently, it’s good that those in shirts were frozen.
Without Asian animals it is impossible to wage a serious war in Europe. Those carts with which they burden themselves, carrying all the comforts and riches, demand large number camels and mules, and they are already there (in Asia. - Per.) not enough, because a lot of [livestock] were lost during the Khotyn War.
There is no more accurate criterion for the number of troops and welfare than the settlement of the territory of a state that is in desolation. In Asia there were at least 1,900 thousand families who paid tribute; now it is believed that there are a little more than 70 thousand of them. Europe ( European possessions empires. - Per.) all empty. Those who travel all the way to Buda tell how often they have to stop in a field, since there is no village to be found for many miles. The same [on the way] from Constantinople to the Danube, where the Sultan’s troops passed: Dobruja is all empty, ruined; On the road to Rushchuk there are no more than 70 cities, towns, villages, large and small, counting not only those where they passed, but also those that were visible to travelers. There is a saying that where the horse of the Turkish Sultan steps, grass does not grow there. Now, due to anarchy, everything has reached the point of extreme ruin. 20 .
Sipahi and Janissaries wander from village to village, as if this is their main occupation (this was especially evident in Poland), eat, drink, extort taxes from arable land, and demand to be allowed to live. They take the last money from women and [often] kill them, so that the entire Ottoman land can be called a den of robbers.
Added to this was an epidemic, which, by the special grace of God, harmed the Turks more than the Christians, and almost devastated Turkish villages. On the Black Sea coast, all this manifested itself to such an extent that Cossack raids were not needed: those who survived fled in fear [of the pestilence]. Here is accurate, unmistakable news: up to 300 thousand people came with Osman, and how many [of them] did he destroy! And so [the deserters] fled that Kapudan Pasha himself, who was standing at the crossing, said that the executioners did not have enough hands to hang the fugitives.
If you did not go [on a campaign] with such a sovereign, young and energetic, either of your own free will or under compulsion, then even less can you expect this at the present time. There are no horses in all their land, especially in Europe. Thanks to our “good” procedures, the majority of horses are delivered from Poland by Greeks, Armenians and Moldavians.
Ottoman naval forces. For several years now, they have not been able to equip more than 56 galleys on the White Sea. This year there will be even fewer, they hope to equip a little more than 40. I will not be mistaken if I say that on the Black Sea - with the greatest exaggeration - there will be no more than 20. [Turkish] galleys are bad, they are very poorly equipped. None of them, except for the galley of Kapudan Pasha, have even 100 soldiers, mostly 70 - 60, and even those were either forcibly recruited or they are serving their duties 21 . [The galley] is armed with no more than 50 - 60 guns. This is [the situation] on the White Sea, on the Black Sea it is even worse. Military affairs have not been taught for about 100 years. On the coast, the warriors are so “courageous” that they almost die [of fear] when they have to go against the Cossacks, who are plentiful on the Black Sea 22 . Those on the White Sea showed such “bravery” that their 50 galleys did not dare to fight the Florentine galleys and barely escaped from them.
This all happens because the fleet is full of all sorts of scum. Departing from long-standing customs, [the rulers] allowed to accept warriors of gypsies, Greeks and others, who served for money and good deeds. They are also unable to recruit workers. The fact is that the Greeks and other peoples living on the coast, whose duties include supplying [oarsmen], are trying to pay off, and their number has decreased due to the epidemic. Everything was and is being supported by Polish slaves, many of whom died last year, because our people cannot stand [ hard work]. It is impossible to get money for such burdensome expenses [as the construction of galleys], due to the general ruin. It is easy to see what the state of affairs is from the fact that they were now barely able to equip one galley 23 .
All coastal fortresses are poorly fortified. Either old warriors or cowards whose hearts are too fearful for battle in the field, but remain so in the fortress, seek to get a job in them. Due to the devastation that I have already described, the land is almost not cultivated, and little is sown in the vicinity of Constantinople. All food for him is delivered across the Black Sea and very little (only rice and vegetables from Egypt) through the White Sea, but this is not enough for everyone.
This became evident under Osman, when the Black Sea and the Danube were closed [to trade] due to the war. Florentine and Spanish galleys ruled the [Mediterranean] Sea. Bread was so expensive that people died of hunger; there was no supply of food by sea.
The Present World 1623
The treaty concluded now has all the data to last for a long time, since there is no doubt that [the Ottomans] have not known a more difficult war than with Poland. Food there (near Khotyn. - Per.) it had to be delivered on horseback, since due to the desolation [of the region] it was difficult to get it [on the spot]. It was necessary to feed not only people, but also horses, since the Turkish horse cannot survive without grain.
In their own land (in the Balkan provinces. - Per.) there is no possibility of transportation except along the Danube. Moving away from it, it is difficult to ensure the delivery of [food] over long distances. What can you take from this land if it is devastated?! Beyond the Danube (in the Ottoman provinces. - Per.) no private land holdings. State land, the Sultan's, [is] rented out in large plots for a lot of money.
Our air itself and the difficulties to which they were not accustomed were good science for them. Now we will be ignored. The incalculable expenses of this so distant [war], when there were no comforts, especially when the treasury is depleted, will lead to the fact that the rulers of those lands (Ottoman Empire. - Per.) will not want [war]. Among the pashas there are no valiant people who want to fight. They now prefer to secure the favor of the palace for greater prosperity and security. The warriors themselves (sipahi. - Per.) They became extremely poor because of the Khotyn War, because countless horses and camels died there. They got money to indulge in idleness, luxury and immeasurable drunkenness. Those in Constantinople are allowed to riot, not fight. The same soldiers who are stationed on the outskirts of the state will not want to die on the border because of these revelers. Therefore, it has already become the custom that the Turks [living] on the border receive the ambassadors of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with great courtesy and strive for peace.
Circumstances preventing the preservation of this peace treaty. The first is the Cossacks. Only the Lord God can keep them without an army and with such a small salary, but prudent people [do not undertake this]. If they (Cossacks. - Per.) will go to sea and make such attacks, this will force the Turks to prefer death in open battle to unknown death with their families. They (Turks. - Per.) They show great patience towards us in order to avoid the need to start a war against us again.
Surely, however, there will be something that was already being prepared in my presence (during the embassy of 1622 - 1623 - Per.): They will set the Tatars against us, who have already (there are witnesses to this) offered their services to them. (The Turks] did not advise them, thereby giving reason to hope that they would allow [the raid]. And those (Tatars. - Per.), Seeing our unrest, they hope to quickly fulfill their desires.
The second obstacle [to establishing a lasting peace] is that among the highest [Ottoman] dignitaries there are no such reasonable people who would be able to occupy the positions of viziers, and even more so [those who] would become friends of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The current sovereign is so unreasonable that he can simply be called a madman. With such conductors [ public policy] it is easy to harm us if our [defense] is unprepared.
The third obstacle, which cannot be eliminated by any arguments, is the most serious - the Tatars. They are divided into two [hordes]. One is the Belgorod [Tatars], they are just a stone's throw from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The other - under the rule of the Khan of Perekop - the Crimean Tatars. The Belgorodskys are commanded by Kantemir, whom the Turks certainly will not want to remove, since he supports them well against the Cossacks in the current peaceful conditions. In an atmosphere of such unrest [in the capital], even if they wanted to remove him for state reasons, they could not while he was strong. This Cantemir populated many empty lands with the Nogai Tatars, to whom he himself belongs, strengthened himself greatly and continues to strengthen. If at first there were 5 - 6 thousand of them, now there will be up to 20 [thousand]. He began to penetrate into Moldova and, if the Cossack raids continued, he would probably be allowed to resettle them as far as the Dniester. This Cantemir has now united with the [Crimean] Khan, they have the same nomads, the same plans, together they will repay us for the Cossack raids. But, assuming that the Cossacks will not give a reason, they will not allow such a gift as our lands (the possibility of robbery. - Per.), floated out of their hands. Perhaps Cantemir, the khan and the kalga themselves will not go, but leaders under other names will invade at the head of large detachments.
The effect of the decrees of the current Turkish Sultan is insignificant. In Constantinople itself it was impossible to prevent tobacco smoking on the streets and did not drink, the decrees turned into a laughing stock. They will be further neglected in the future. And people living far away [from the capital] not only do not adhere to them, but have completely forgotten them. Necessity itself, even if there were strict prohibitions, forces the Tatars to do this (to raids. - Per.). They [give] food, clothing, otherwise they would die. The very accessibility of these places (possessions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. - Per.), our lack of caution, the ease of selling [looted] goods to the Turks would have ruined even the most the best people, not only greedy robbers. The Turks will not really worry about this and restore justice; moreover, they will be happy. Hardly without this (without raids. - Per.) will be able to live and hold on, although they promise. Almost all work on land and sea, the entire economy rests on the subjects of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Even the wives and beautiful servants come from there. If more new slaves (whose number is decreasing for various reasons) do not come from the Tatars, where will the wealth come from? It is provided by the hands of captives (they have no peasants), their empty lands are filled with herds from Poland. They are already saying publicly that it is difficult for them without this (without raids. - Per.) hold out.
Reminding justice only in words and rather begging for it, like beggars, is increasingly becoming commonplace in the [politics] of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. If I, being the great ambassador of my sovereign, could not achieve it, then how can translators and messengers, who will be less respected there, be able to obtain it? After all, it’s not good for them (the Turks. - Per.) to punish and inflict evil on [people] of one’s own blood and on those from whom they receive wealth and all kinds of pleasure. And the fact that the Tatars [on Polish lands], as in their own possessions, they commit abominations, without even taking their sabers out of their sheaths, inspires the Turks (that’s why Osman decided to go to war), so that they will insult us and will not give satisfaction [to our claims], only getting off with words, they will do nothing , because [this state of affairs] is beneficial for them.
Everyone should know that although the Turks swear by the name of God, the creator of life, to whom everyone praises, they have two more gods that they worship most - violence and money. In other words, they do not keep their word; they must be forced to do so or [loyalty to the word] must be purchased.
I conclude by saying that if a Turkish war falls on any Christian country, it is not the main Turkish army that should be feared, but the Tatars. This is exactly what I predict. On the other hand, if it comes to the point that it has already been decided that Cantemir with 30 thousand Moldovans and Vlachs, 2 thousand people from Buda and Kanizsa under the leadership of Ibrahim Pasha, 6 thousand soldiers of the Pashas of Pec and Herzegovina would go to the aid of the army against the emperor, then one should especially be wary lest the Tatars decide to move through Polish territory. Even if they go a different route, they will certainly want to wage war in Silesia.
He who calls upon such a powerful enemy for help cannot command or direct him at will. Poland is one way or another open to him (Kantemir. - Per.). You should firmly stand your ground (in relation to the Tatars. - Per.): Now all doubts have been eliminated that they keep their word only as long as they are afraid of the troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, acting this way out of fear, and not as honest neighbors.
So, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth needs a [regular] army, and not a militia, which cannot even be called an army. With God's help, it would fight back the Budzhaks, emboldened by impunity. Then, if successful, if the Lord God provides for it, and also out of fear - now they neglect all caution - they would stop. And among others [Tatars], who do not value us at all, do not take into account the authority of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, this would cause fear; [stopping Tatar raids] could give [us] the opportunity to keep the Cossacks in obedience, which would strengthen our authority in the eyes of the Turks. We would certainly seek justice (compensation. - Per.) The Turks were not afraid of neighboring intrigues. [The Turks], seeing their weakness and upheaval, would know that the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, having changed its character, was ready to crush their power. Otherwise, I say and bring [to the attention of] both my sovereign and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, misfortunes and defeats will come.
I would also like for the Cossacks to be stopped, but not driven [from the Dnieper], so that they do not irritate the Turkish Sultan, because there is no benefit from this, but only this established peace - desired by everyone - is violated. However, let [the Cossacks] prepare [and wait] for the decision of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth when to strike them with all their mighty force. [And this should be done] when the time comes for new unrest among the Turks and when their ingrained self-will prevails, because of which they will certainly go against other nations. [The Cossacks need to] act not as usual (which only incites the Turks against us), but, taking the Lord God for help, destroy that weak armada on the Black Sea (which is possible, as I showed above), and then take Constantinople - the nest of Turkish power. From afar [Istanbul] seems powerful, up close but he is weak and would easily fall into their (Cossacks. - Per.) hands, and if the Lord God would give it, he would come to us 24 .
This is not the time and it is not in my competence to talk about this. I will only say: I clearly understand and see that I have not given it to any people; The Lord God of great opportunities for mastering the vital forces of this state, except for (the peoples of the] Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. And there is hope for their final (Turk. - Per.) destruction, if we ask the Most High God and if we do not exalt ourselves with pride, not with arrogance, but humbly, but with a courageous heart, we want to use suitable opportunities. The Lord God promised those lands to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and I would justify this in more detail, but now I’ll end with this wish.
A copy of someone else's materials
The Russo-Turkish War of 1676 - 81 was caused by the expansion of aggression of the Ottoman Empire in the 2nd half of the 17th century.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1676 - 81 was caused by the expansion of aggression of the Ottoman Empire in the 2nd half of the 17th century. After the capture of Podolia as a result of the Polish-Turkish war of 1672-76, the Turkish government sought to extend its rule over the entire Right Bank of Ukraine, relying on its vassal (from 1669) - the hetman Right Bank Ukraine P. D. Doroshenko. Doroshenko’s treacherous policy caused discontent among a significant part of the Ukrainian Cossacks, who in 1674 elected the hetman of Left Bank Ukraine I. Samoilovich as the sole hetman of Ukraine. In 1676 Doroshenko with 12 thousand. a detachment captured Chigirin, counting on the approach of the Turkish-Tatar army, but in the spring of 1676 Russian-Ukrainian troops under the command of Samoilovich and the Russian military leader G. G. Romodanovsky besieged Chigirin and forced Doroshenko to capitulate. Leaving a garrison in Chigirin, the Russian-Ukrainian troops retreated to the left bank of the Dnieper. The Turkish Sultan appointed Yu. B. Khmelnitsky, who was in his captivity, as hetman of Right Bank Ukraine and in July 1677 moved 120 thousand to Chigirin. Turkish-Tatar army of Ibrahim Pasha. Chigirin's Russian garrison was under siege for three weeks and even launched a number of successful forays. The united Russian-Ukrainian army led by Prince G. G. Romodanovsky and Hetman I. Samoilovich crossed to the right bank of the Dnieper on the night of August 26-27 and defeated Turkish army.
In July 1678, the Turkish-Tatar army (about 200 thousand people) of the great vizier Kara-Mustafa besieged Chigirin. The Russian army, having crossed the Dnieper, won a major battle on July 12. During fierce battles On August 1-3, the Russian army drove the Turkish army back across the Tyasmin River. However, due to the fact that Romodanovsky missed time for complete environment Turkish troops, the Turks captured the Lower Town, and on the night of August 12, the Russian garrison left the fortress. A new battle on August 19 ended in favor of the Russian army. On August 20, the retreat of Turkish troops began. The failures at Chigirin predetermined the collapse of the aggressive plans of the Ottoman Empire towards Ukraine.
In 1679-80, Russian troops repelled the raids of the Crimean Tatars, and on January 3 (13) the Bakhchisarai Peace Treaty of 1681 was concluded, a 20-year truce agreement between the Russian state, Turkey and Crimean Khanate. Its conditions: the border between Russia and Turkey runs along the Dnieper; the cities of Kyiv, Vasilkov, Trypillya, the towns of Dedovshchina and Radomyshl remain with Russia. Turkey recognizes the reunification of Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv with Russia, and the Zaporozhye Cossacks as its subjects. A neutral zone was created between the Bug and the Dnieper. Crimean Tatars received the right to roam and hunt in the steppes along the banks of the Dnieper and near other rivers, and the Cossacks and other Russian population- the right to fish in the Dnieper and its tributaries, salt extraction, hunting and free navigation along the Dnieper to the Black Sea.