I think many of us have heard the famous legend about the construction of the Tower of Babel, during which people angered God so much with their quarrels and squabbles that he divided their single language into a great multitude, so that, not being able to communicate with each other, people could not swear. . This is how we spread throughout the world, each nation with its own linguistic dialect, its own culture and traditions.
According to official data, there are now from 2,796 to more than 7,000 languages in the world. Such a big difference comes from the fact that scientists cannot decide what exactly is considered a language and what is a dialect or adverb. Translation agencies are often faced with the nuances of translation from rare languages.
In 2017, there are approximately 240 language groups, or families. The largest and most numerous of them is Indo-European, to which our Russian language belongs. A language family is a collection of languages united by the sound similarity of word roots and similar grammar. The basis of the Indo-European family is English and German, which form the backbone of the Germanic group. In general, this language family unites peoples occupying the bulk of Europe and Asia.
This also includes such common Romance languages as Spanish, French, Italian and others. The Russian language is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family, along with Ukrainian, Belarusian and others. The Indo-European group is not the most numerous in terms of the number of languages, but they are spoken by almost half of the world’s population, which gives it the opportunity to bear the title of “the most numerous”.
The next family of languages includes more than 250,000 people: Afro-Asian a family that includes Egyptian, Hebrew, Arabic and many other languages, including extinct ones. This group consists of more than 300 languages of Asia and Africa, and is divided into Egyptian, Semitic, Cushitic, Omotian, Chadian and Berber-Libyan branches. However, the Afro-Asiatic family of languages does not include about 500 dialects and dialects, which are often used in Africa only orally.
Next in terms of prevalence and complexity of study - Nilo-Saharan a family of languages spoken in Sudan, Chad, and Ethiopia. Since the languages of these lands have significant differences among themselves, their study is not only of great interest, but also great difficulties for linguists.
Over a million native speakers include Sino-Tibetan a group of languages, but Tibeto-Burmese The branch includes more than 300 languages, spoken by as many as 60 million people around the world! Some of the languages of this family still do not have their own written language and exist only in oral form. This makes them much more difficult to study and research.
The languages and dialects of the peoples of Russia belong to 14 language families, the main of which are Indo-European, Uralic, North Caucasian and Altai.
- About 87% of the population of Russia belongs to the Indo-European language family, and 85% of it is occupied by the Slavic group of languages (Russians, Belarusians, Poles, Ukrainians), followed by the Iranian group (Tajiks, Kurds, Ossetians), the Romance group (Gypsies, Moldovans) and Germanic group (Jews, Yiddish speakers, Germans).
- The Altai language family (approximately 6.8% of the Russian population) consists of the Turkic group (Altaians, Yakuts, Tuvinians, Shors, Chuvash, Balkars, Karachais), the Mongolian group (Kalmyks, Buryats), the Tungus-Manchu group (Evenks, Evens, Nanais) and the Paleo-Asian group of languages (Koryaks, Chukchis). Some of these languages are currently in danger of extinction, as their speakers are partly switching to Russian, partly to Chinese.
- The Uralic language family (2% of the population) is represented by the Finnish group of languages (Komi, Margeans, Karelians, Komi-Permyaks, Mordovians), Ugric (Khanty, Mansi) and Samoyed groups (Nenets, Selkups). More than 50% of the Uralic language family are Hungarians and about 20% are Finns. This includes linguistic groups of peoples living in areas of the Ural Range.
The Caucasian language family (2%) includes the Kartvelian group (Georgians), the Dagestan group (Lezgins, Dargins, Laks, Avars), the Adyghe-Abkhazian (Abkhazians, Adygeis, Kabardians, Circassians) and the Nakh groups (Ingush, Chechens). The study of the languages of the Caucasian family is associated with great difficulties for linguists, and therefore the languages of the local population are still very little studied.
Difficulties are caused not only by the grammar or rules for constructing the language of a given family, but also by pronunciation, which is often simply inaccessible to people who do not speak this type of language. Certain difficulties in terms of study are also created by the inaccessibility of some mountainous regions of the North Caucasus.
The listing of languages is accompanied by minimal geographical, historical and philological commentary.
I. INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
1. Indian group 1
(over 96 living languages in total)
1) Hindi and Urdu(sometimes united under the common name Hindustani 2) - two varieties of one modern Indian literary language: Urdu is the state language of Pakistan, written on the basis of the Arabic alphabet; Hindi (the official language of India) - based on the Old Indian Devanagari script.
2) Bengali.
3)
Punjabi.
4) Lahnda (lendi).
5) Sindhi.
6)
Rajasthani.
7) Gujarati.
8) Mrathi.
9)
Sinhalese.
10) Nepali(eastern Pahari, in Nepal)
11)
Bihari.
12) Oriya.(otherwise: audrey, utkali, in eastern India)
13) Assamese.
14) Gypsy, emerged as a result of resettlement and migrations in the V - X centuries. AD
15) Kashmiri and others Dardic languages
Dead:
16) Vedic- the language of the most ancient sacred books of the Indians - the Vedas, formed in the first half of the second millennium BC. e. (recorded later).
17) Sanskrit. The “classical” literary language of the Indians from the 3rd century. BC. to the 7th century AD (literally samskrta means "processed", as opposed to prakrta "not normalized" spoken language); There remains a rich literature in Sanskrit, religious and secular (epic, drama); The first Sanskrit grammar of the 4th century. BC. Panini was redesigned in the 13th century. AD Vopadeva.
18) Pali- Central Indian literary and cult language of the medieval era.
19) Prakrits- various colloquial Central Indian dialects, from which modern Indian languages originated; replicas of minor persons in Sanskrit drama are written in Prakrits.
1 About Indian languages, see: 3grapher G.A. Languages of India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Nepal. M., I960.
2 See, for example, the title of the book by A.P. Barannikov "Hindustani (Urdu and Hindi)". D., 1934.
2. Iranian group 1
(more than 10 languages; finds the greatest affinity with the Indian group, with which it unites into a common Indo-Iranian, or Aryan, group;
Arya is a tribal self-name in the most ancient monuments, from which Iran, and Alan is the self-name of the Scythians)
1) Persian(Farsi) - writing based on the Arabic alphabet; for Old Persian and Middle Persian, see below.
2) Dari(Farsi-Kabuli) is the literary language of Afghanistan, along with Pashto.
3) Pashto(Pashto, Afghan) - literary language, since the 30s. the official language of Afghanistan.
4) Balochi (Baluchi).
5) Tajik.
6)
Kurdish.
7) Ossetian; adverbs: Iron (eastern) Digor (western). Ossetians are descendants of the Alans-Scythians
8) Talyshsky.
10) Caspian(Gilan, Mazanderan) dialects.
11)
Pamir languages(Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, Capykol, Khuf, Oroshor, Yazgulyam, Ishkashim, Wakhan) are the unwritten languages of the Pamirs.
12) Yagnobsky.
Dead:
13) Old Persian- the language of cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenid era (Darius, Xerxes, etc.) VI - IV centuries. BC e.
14)
Avestan- another ancient Iranian language, which came down in the Middle Persian copies of the sacred book "Avesta", which contains religious texts of the cult of the Zoroastrians, followers of Zoroaster (in Greek: Zoroaster).
15)
Pahlavi- Middle Persian language III - IX centuries. n. e., preserved in the translation of the “Avesta” (this translation is called “Zend”, from which for a long time the Avestan language itself was incorrectly called Zend).
16) Median- a genus of northwestern Iranian dialects; no written monuments have survived.
17) Parthian- one of the Middle Persian languages of the 3rd century. BC e. - III century n. e., distributed in Parthia to the southeast of the Caspian Sea.
18)
Sogdian- the language of Sogdiana in the Zeravshan valley, first millennium AD. e.; ancestor of the Yaghnobi language.
19) Khorezmian- the language of Khorezm along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya; the first - the beginning of the second millennium AD.
20)
Scythian- the language of the Scythians (Alans), who lived in the steppes along the northern shore of the Black Sea and east to the borders of China in the first millennium BC. e. and the first millennium AD e.; preserved in proper names in Greek transmission; ancestor of the Ossetian language.
21) Bactrian(Kushan) - the language of ancient Bakt along the upper reaches of the Amu Darya, as well as the language of Kushan at the beginning of the first millennium AD.
22) Saki(Khotanese) - in Central Asia and Chinese Turkestan; from V - X centuries. AD texts written in the Indian Brahmi script remained.
Note. Most modern Iranian scholars divide the living and dead Iranian languages into the following groups:A. Western
1) Southwestern: ancient and middle Persian, modern Persian, Tajik, Tat and some others.
2) Northwestern: Median, Parthian, Baluchi (Baluchi), Kurdish, Talysh and other Caspian.
B. Eastern
1) Southeast: Saka (Khotanese), Pashto (Pashto), Pamir.
2) Northeast: Scythian, Sogdian, Khorezmian, Ossetian, Yaghnobi.
1 About Iranian languages, see: Oransky I.M. Iranian languages. M, 1963. - Tatsky - Tats are divided into Muslim Tats and “Mountain Jews”
3. Slavic group
A. Eastern subgroup
1) Russian; adverbs: northern (Veliko) Russian - “oozing” and southern (Veliko) Russian - “accharging”; The Russian literary language developed on the basis of the transitional dialects of Moscow and its environs, where from the south and southeast the Tula, Kursk, Oryol and Ryazan dialects spread features that were alien to the northern dialects, which were the dialectal basis of the Moscow dialect, and displaced some of the features of the latter, as well as by mastering elements of the Church Slavonic literary language; in addition, into the Russian literary language in the 16th-18th centuries. various foreign language elements were included; writing based on the Russian alphabet, processed from the Slavic - “Cyrillic” under Peter the Great; the most ancient monuments of the 11th century. (they also apply to the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages); the state language of the Russian Federation, an interethnic language for communication between the peoples of the Russian Federation and adjacent territories of the former USSR, one of the world languages.
2) Ukrainian or Ukrainian A Insky; before the revolution of 1917 - Little Russian or Little Russian; three main dialects: northern, southeastern, southwestern; The literary language began to take shape in the 14th century; the modern literary language has existed since the end of the 18th century. on the basis of the Dnieper dialects of the south-eastern dialect; writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet in its post-Petrine variety.
3) Belorussian; writing since the 14th century. based on the Cyrillic alphabet Dialects northeastern and southwestern; the literary language is based on Central Belarusian dialects.
B. Southern subgroup
4) Bulgarian- formed in the process of contact of Slavic dialects with the language of the Kama Bulgars, from which it received its name; writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the 10th century. AD
5) Macedonian.
6)
Serbo-Croatian; The Serbs have a letter based on the Cyrillic alphabet, the Croats have a letter based on Latin; the most ancient monuments from the 12th century.
7) Slovenian;- writing based on the Latin alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the X - XI centuries.
Dead:
8) Old Church Slavonic(or Old Church Slavic) - the common literary language of the Slavs of the medieval period, which arose on the basis of Thessalonica dialects of the Old Bulgarian language in connection with the introduction of writing for the Slavs (two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic) and the translation of church books to promote Christianity among the Slavs in the 9th-10th centuries . n. e.. Among the Western Slavs it was supplanted by Latin due to Western influence and the transition to Catholicism; in the form of Church Slavonic - an integral element of the Russian literary language.
IN. Western subgroup
9) Czech; writing based on the Latin alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the 13th century.
10) Slovak; Polish; writing based on the Latin alphabet; ancient monuments from the 14th century,
12)
Kashubian; lost its independence and became a dialect of the Polish language.
13) Lusatian(abroad: Sorabian, Vendian); two variants: Upper Sorbian (or eastern) and Lower Sorbian (or western); writing based on the Latin alphabet.
Dead:
14) Polabsky- became extinct in the 18th century, was distributed along both banks of the river. Labs (Elbe) in Germany.
15) Pomeranian dialects- became extinct in the medieval period due to forced Germanization; were distributed along the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in Pomerania (Pomerania).
4. Baltic group
1) Lithuanian; writing based on the Latin alphabet; monuments from the 14th century Latvian; writing based on the Latin alphabet; monuments from the 14th century
3) Latgalian 1 .
Dead:
4) Prussian- became extinct in the 17th century. in connection with forced Germanization; territory of former East Prussia; monuments of the XIV-XVII centuries.
5) Yatvingian, Curonian and other languages on the territory of Lithuania and Latvia, extinct by the 17th-18th centuries.
1 There is an opinion that this is only a dialect of the Latvian language.
5. German group
A. North Germanic (Scandinavian) subgroup1) Danish; writing based on the Latin alphabet; served as a literary language for Norway until the end of the 19th century.
2) Swedish; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
3) Norwegian; writing based on the Latin alphabet, originally Danish, since the literary language of the Norwegians until the end of the 19th century. was Danish. In modern Norway there are two forms of the literary language: Riksmål (otherwise: Bokmål) - bookish, closer to Danish, Ilansmål (otherwise: Nynorsk), closer to the Norwegian dialects.
4) Icelandic; writing based on the Latin alphabet; written monuments from the 13th century. ("sagas").
5) Faroese.
B. West German subgroup
6) English; literary English developed in the 16th century. AD based on the London dialect; V-XI centuries - Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), XI-XVI centuries. - Middle English and from the 16th century. - New English; writing based on the Latin alphabet (unchanged); written monuments from the 7th century; language of international significance.
7)
Dutch (Dutch) with Flemish; writing on a Latin basis; In the Republic of South Africa live the Boers, immigrants from Holland, who speak a variety of the Dutch language, the Boer language (otherwise: Afrikaans).
8) Frisian; monuments from the 14th century
9) German; two dialects: Low German (northern, Niederdeutsch or Plattdeutsch) and High German (southern, Hochdeutsch); the literary language was formed on the basis of southern German dialects, but with many northern features (especially in pronunciation), but still does not represent unity; in the VIII-XI centuries. - Old High German, in the XII-XV centuries. -Middle High German, from the 16th century. - New High German, developed in the Saxon offices and translations of Luther and his associates; writing based on the Latin alphabet in two varieties: Gothic and Antiqua; one of the largest languages in the world.
10)
Yiddish(or Yiddish, New Hebrew) - various High German dialects mixed with elements of Hebrew, Slavic and other languages.
IN. East German subgroup
Dead:
11)
Gothic, existed in two dialects. Visigothic - served the medieval Gothic state in Spain and Northern Italy; had a writing system based on the Gothic alphabet, compiled by Bishop Wulfila in the 4th century. n. e. for the translation of the Gospel, which is the most ancient monument of the Germanic languages. Ostrogothic is the language of the eastern Goths, who lived in the early Middle Ages on the Black Sea coast and in the southern Dnieper region; existed until the 16th century. in Crimea, thanks to which a small dictionary compiled by the Dutch traveler Busbeck has been preserved.
12) Burgundian, Vandal, Gepid, Herulian- languages of ancient Germanic tribes in East Germany.
6. Roman group
(before the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of Romance 1 languages - Italic)
1) French; the literary language had developed by the 16th century. based on the dialect of Ile-de-France centered in Paris; French dialects developed at the beginning of the Middle Ages as a result of crossing the folk (vulgar) Latin of the conquerors of the Romans and the language of the conquered native Gauls - Gallic; writing based on the Latin alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the 9th century. AD; Middle French period from the 9th to the 15th centuries, New French - from the 16th century. The French language acquired international significance before other European languages.
2) Provençal (Occitan); minority language of south-eastern France (Provence); as a literary one existed in the Middle Ages (lyrics of the troubadours) and survived until the end of the 19th century.
3) Italian; the literary language developed on the basis of Tuscan dialects, and in particular the dialect of Florence, which arose due to the crossing of vulgar Latin with the languages of the mixed population of medieval Italy; written in the Latin alphabet, historically the first national language in Europe 3.
4) Sardinian(or Sardinian). Spanish; developed in Europe as a result of crossing folk (vulgar) Latin with the languages of the native population of the Roman province of Iberia; writing based on the Latin alphabet (the same applies to Catalan and Portuguese).
6) Galician.
7) Catalan.
8)
Portuguese.
9) Romanian; developed as a result of crossing folk (vulgar) Latin and the languages of the natives of the Roman province of Dacia; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
10) Moldavian(a variety of Romanian); writing based on the Russian alphabet.
11)
Macedonian-Romanian(Aromunian).
12) Romansh- language of a national minority; Since 1938 it has been recognized as one of the four official languages of Switzerland.
13) Creole languages- crossed Romance languages with local languages (Haitian, Mauritian, Seychelles, Senegalese, Papiamento, etc.).
Dead (Italian):
14) Latin- literary state language of Rome in the republican and imperial era (III century BC - first centuries of the Middle Ages); the language of rich literary monuments, epic, lyrical and dramatic, historical prose, legal documents and oratory; the most ancient monuments from the 6th century. BC.; Varro's first description of the Latin language. I century BC.; classical grammar of Donatus - 4th century. AD; the literary language of the Western European Middle Ages and the language of the Catholic Church; along with ancient Greek, it is a source of international terminology.
15) Medieval Vulgar Latin- folk Latin dialects of the early Middle Ages, which, when crossed with the native languages of the Roman provinces of Gaul, Iberia, Dacia, etc., gave rise to the Romance languages: French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, etc.
16) Oscian, Umbrian, Sabelian and other Italian dialects were preserved in fragmentary written monuments of the last centuries BC.
1 The name “Romanesque” comes from the word Roma, as Rome was called by the Latins and currently by the Italians.
2 See chap. VII, § 89 - on the formation of national languages.
3 See ibid.
7. Celtic group
A. Goidelic subgroup1) Irish; written monuments from the 4th century. n. e. (Ogham writing) and from the 7th century. (Latin based); is still literary today.
2) Scottish (Gaelic).
Dead:
3) Manx- the language of the Isle of Man (in the Irish Sea).
B. Brythonic subgroup
4) Breton; Bretons (formerly Britons) moved after the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons from the British Isles to the continent of Europe.
5) Welsh (Welsh).
Dead:
6) Cornish; in Cornwall, a peninsula in southwestern England.
B. Gallic subgroup
7) Gallic; extinct since the formation of the French language; was widespread in Gaul, Northern Italy, the Balkans and even Asia Minor.
8. Greek group
1) Modern Greek, from the 12th centuryDead:
2) Ancient Greek, X century BC. - V century AD;
Ionic-Attic dialects from the 7th-6th centuries. BC.;
Achaean (Arcado-Cypriot) dialects from the 5th century. BC.;
northeastern (Boeotian, Thessalian, Lesbian, Aeolian) dialects from the 7th century. BC.
and Western (Dorian, Epirus, Cretan) dialects; - the most ancient monuments from the 9th century. BC. (Homer's poems, epigraphy); from the 4th century BC. a common literary language, Koine, based on the Attic dialect, centered in Athens; the language of rich literary monuments, epic, lyrical and dramatic, philosophical and historical prose; from III-II centuries. BC. works of Alexandrian grammarians; along with Latin, it is a source of international terminology.
3) Middle Greek, or Byzantine,- the state literary language of Byzantium from the first centuries AD. until the 15th century; the language of monuments - historical, religious and artistic.
9. Albanian group
Albanian, written monuments based on the Latin alphabet from the 15th century.10. Armenian group
Armenian; literary from the 5th century AD; contains some elements dating back to Caucasian languages; The ancient Armenian language - Grabar - is very different from the modern living Ashkharabar.11. Hittite-Luwian (Anatolian) group
Dead:1) Hittite (Hittite-Nessite, known from cuneiform monuments of the 18th-13th centuries. BC.; language of the Hittite state in Asia Minor.
2) Luwian in Asia Minor (XIV-XIII centuries BC).
3) Palayskiy in Asia Minor (XIV-XIII centuries BC).
4) Carian
5) Lydian- Anatolian languages of ancient times.
6) Lycian
12. Tocharian group
Dead:1) Tocharian A (Turfan, Karashar)- in Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang).
2) Tocharian B (Kuchansky)- in the same place; in Kucha until the 7th century. AD Known from manuscripts around the 5th-8th centuries. n. e. based on the Indian Brahmi script discovered during excavations in the 20th century.
Note 1. For a number of reasons, the following groups of Indo-European languages are closer together: Indo-Iranian (Aryan), Slavic - Baltic and Italo-Celtic.
Note 2. Indo-Iranian and Slavic-Baltic languages can be combined into the section of satem languages, as opposed to others belonging to kentom languages; this division is carried out according to the fate of the Indo-European *g and */с midpalatals, which in the first gave anterior lingual fricatives (catam, simtas, съто - “one hundred”), and in the second remained posterior lingual plosives; in Germanic, due to the movement of consonants - fricatives (hekaton, kentom (later centum), hundert, etc. - “one hundred”).
Note 3. The question of whether Venetian, Messapian, obviously, the Illyrian group (in Italy), Phrygian, Thracian (in the Balkans) belongs to the Indo-European languages can generally be considered resolved; the languages Pelasgian (Peloponnese before the Greeks), Etruscan (in Italy before the Romans), Ligurian (in Gaul) have not yet been clarified in their relationship to the Indo-European languages.
II. CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES 1
A. Western group: Abkhaz-Adyghe languages
1. Abkhazian subgroupAbkhazian; dialects: Bzybsky- northern and Abzhui(or Kadbrsky) - southern; writing until 1954 was based on the Georgian alphabet, now it is based on the Russian alphabet.
Abaza; writing based on the Russian alphabet.
2. Circassian subgroup
Adyghe.
Kabardian (Kabardino-Circassian).
Ubykh(The Ubykhs emigrated to Turkey under tsarism).
B. Eastern group: Nakh-Dagestan languages
1. Nakh subgroupChechen; have a written language based on Russian.
Ingush
Batsbiysky (Tsova-Tushinsky).
2. Dagestan subgroup
Avarsky.
Darginsky.
Laksky.
Lezginsky.
Tabasaran.
These five languages are written on Russian basis. The remaining languages are unwritten:
Andean.
Karatinsky.
Tindinsky.
Chamalinsky.
Bagvalinsky.
Akhvakhsky.
Botlikhsky.
Godoberinsky.
Tsezsky.
Betinsky.
Khvarshinsky.
Gunzibsky.
Ginukhsky.
Tsakhursky.
Rutulsky.
Agulsky.
Archinsky.
Buduheky.
Kryzsky.
Udinsky.
Khinalugsky.
3. Southern group: Kartvelian (Iberian) languages
1)
Megrelian.
2) Lazsky (Chansky).
3) Georgian: writing in the Georgian alphabet from the 5th century. AD, rich literary monuments of the Middle Ages; dialects: Khevsur, Kartli, Imeretian, Gurian, Kakheti, Adjarian, etc.
4) Svansky.
Note. All languages that have a written language (except Georgian and Ubykh) are based on the Russian alphabet, and in the previous period, for several years, on the Latin alphabet.1 The question of whether these groups represent one family of languages has not yet been resolved by science; rather, one might think that there are no family ties between them; the term "Caucasian languages" refers to their geographical distribution.
III. OUTSIDE THE GROUP - BASQUE LANGUAGE
IV. URAL LANGUAGES
1. FINNO-UGRIAN (UGRO-FINNISH) LANGUAGES
A. Ugric branch
1) Hungarian, writing on a Latin basis.2) Mansi (Vogul); writing on a Russian basis (since the 30s of the XX century).
3) Khanty (Ostyak); writing on a Russian basis (since the 30s of the XX century).
B. Baltic-Finnish branch
1) Finnish (Suomi); writing based on the Latin alphabet.2) Estonian; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
3) Izhora.
4) Karelian.
5) Vepsian.
6) Vodsky.
7) Livsky.
8) Sami (Sami, Lapp).
B. Perm branch
1) Komi-Zyriansky.2) Komi-Permyak.
3) Udmurt.
G. Volga branch
1) Mari (Mari, Cheremissky), dialects: Nagornoe on the right bank of the Volga and Meadow - on the left.2) Mordovian: two independent languages: Erzya and Moksha.
Note. Finnish and Estonian languages are written using the Latin alphabet; among the Mari and Mordovians - has long been based on the Russian alphabet; in Komi-Zyryan, Udmurt and Komi-Permyak - on a Russian basis (since the 30s of the 20th century).
2. SAMODYAN LANGUAGES
1) Nenets (Yurako-Samoyed).2) Nganasan (Tavgian).
3) Enets (Yenisei-Samoyed).
4) Selkup (Ostyak - Samoyed).
Note. Modern science considers the Samoyed languages to be related to the Finno-Ugric languages, which were previously considered as an isolated family and with which the Samoyeds form a larger association - the Uralic languages.
V. ALTAI LANGUAGES 1
1. TURKIC LANGUAGES 2
1) Turkish(earlier Ottoman); writing since 1929 based on the Latin alphabet; until then, for several centuries - based on the Arabic alphabet.2) Azerbaijani.
3) Turkmen.
4) Gagauzian.
5) Crimean Tatar.
6) Karachay-Balkarian.
7) Kumyk- used as a common language for the Caucasian peoples of Dagestan.
8) Nogaisky.
9) Karaite.
10) Tatar, with three dialects - middle, western (Mishar) and eastern (Siberian).
11) Bashkir.
12) Altai (Oirot).
13) Shorsky with the Kondoma and Mrass dialects 3.
14) Khakassian(with dialects Sogai, Beltir, Kachin, Koibal, Kyzyl, Shor).
15) Tuvinsky.
16) Yakut.
17) Dolgansky.
18) Kazakh.
19) Kyrgyz.
20) Uzbek.
21) Karakalpak.
22) Uyghur (New Uyghur).
23) Chuvash, a descendant of the language of the Kama Bulgars, written from the very beginning based on the Russian alphabet.
Dead:
24) Orkhon- according to the Orkhon-Yenisei runic inscriptions, the language (or languages) of the powerful state of the 7th-8th centuries. n. e. in Northern Mongolia on the river. Orkhon. The name is conditional.
25)
Pechenezhsky- the language of the steppe nomads of the 9th-11th centuries. AD
26)
Polovtsian (Cuman)- according to the Polovtsian-Latin dictionary compiled by Italians, the language of the steppe nomads of the 11th-14th centuries.
27)
Old Uyghur- the language of a huge state in Central Asia in the 9th-11th centuries. n. e. with writing based on a modified Aramaic alphabet.
28) Chagatai- literary language of the 15th-16th centuries. AD in Central Asia; Arabic graphics.
29) Bulgarian- the language of the Bulgarian kingdom at the mouth of the Kama; The Bulgar language formed the basis of the Chuvash language, part of the Bulgars moved to the Balkan Peninsula and, mixing with the Slavs, became a component (superstrate) of the Bulgarian language.
30) Khazar- the language of a large state of the 7th-10th centuries. AD, in the region of the lower reaches of the Volga and Don, close to the Bulgarian.
Note 1. All living Turkic languages, except Turkish, have been written since 1938-1939. based on the Russian alphabet, until then for several years - based on Latin, and many even earlier - based on Arabic (Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Tatar and all Central Asian, and foreign Uyghurs to this day). In sovereign Azerbaijan, the question of switching to the Latin alphabet has been raised again.
Note 2. The question of the grouping of Turkic-Tatar languages has not yet been finally resolved by science; according to F.E. Korshu (see: Korsh F.E. Classification of Turkish tribes by languages, 1910.) - three groups: Northern, Southeastern and Southwestern; according to V.A. Bogoroditsky (see: Bogoroditsky V.A. Introduction to Tatar linguistics in connection with other Turkic languages, 1934.) - eight groups: North-Eastern, Abakan, Altai, West Siberian, Volga-Ural, Central Asian, South-Western ( Turkish) and Chuvash; according to W. Schmidt (See: Schmidt W. Die Sprachfamilien und Sprachenkreise der Erde, 1932.) - three groups: Southern, Western, Eastern, while W. Schmidt classifies Yakut as Mongolian. Other classifications were also proposed - V.V. Radlova, A.N. Samoilovich, G.I. Ramstedt, S.E. Malova, M. Ryasyanen and others. In 1952 N.A. Baskakov proposed a new scheme for the classification of Turkic languages, which the author thinks of as “periodization of the history of the development of peoples and Turkic languages” (see: “Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Department of Literature and Language,” vol. XI, issue 2), where ancient divisions intersect with new and historical with geographical (see also: Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages. M., 1962; 2nd ed. - M., 1969).1 A number of scientists are of the opinion about the possible distant relationship of three language families - Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu, forming the Altai macrofamily. However, in accepted usage, the term “Altaic languages” denotes a conditional association rather than a proven genetic grouping (V.V.).
2 Due to the fact that in Turkology there is no single point of view on the grouping of Turkic languages, we give them a list; At the end, various points of view on their grouping are given.
3 Currently, the Altai and Shor languages use the same literary language based on Altai.
2. MONGOLIAN LANGUAGES
1) Mongolian; the writing was based on the Mongolian alphabet, derived from the ancient Uyghurs; since 1945 - based on the Russian alphabet.2) Buryat; since the 30s XX century writing based on the Russian alphabet.
3) Kalmyk.
Note. There are also a number of smaller languages (Dagur, Dong-Xian, Mongolian, etc.), mainly in China (about 1.5 million), Manchuria and Afghanistan; No. 2 and 3 have been around since the 30s. XX century writing based on the Russian alphabet, and until then, for several years - based on the Latin alphabet.
3. TUNGU-MANCHUR LANGUAGES
A. Siberian group
1) Evenki (Tungus), with Negidal and Solonsky.2) Evensky (Lamutsky).
B. Manchu group
1) Manchurian, is dying out, had rich monuments of medieval writing in the Manchu alphabet.2) Jurchen- a dead language, known from monuments of the 12th-16th centuries. (hieroglyphic writing modeled on Chinese)
B. Amur group
1) Nanaisky (Goldian), with Ulch.2) Udeysky (Udege), with Orochi.
Note. No. 1 and 2 have been since 1938-1939. writing based on the Russian alphabet, and until then, for several years - based on the Latin alphabet.
4. SEPARATE LANGUAGES OF THE FAR EAST, NOT PART OF ANY GROUPS
(presumably close to Altai)
1) Japanese; writing based on Chinese characters in the 8th century. AD; new phonetic-syllabic writing - katakana and hiragana.
2)
Ryukyu, obviously related to Japanese.
3) Korean; the first monuments based on Chinese hieroglyphs from the 4th century. AD, modified in the 7th century. AD; from the 15th century - Korean folk script "onmun" - alphabetic syllabic graphics system.
4) Ainsky, mainly on the Japanese Islands, also on Sakhalin Island; has now fallen out of use and been replaced by Japanese.
VI. AFRASIAN (SEMITO-HAMITIC) LANGUAGES
1. Semitic branch
1) Arab; international cult language of Islam; There are, in addition to classical Arabic, regional varieties (Sudanese, Egyptian, Syrian, etc.); writing in the Arabic alphabet (on the island of Malta - based on the Latin alphabet).2) Amharic, official language of Ethiopia.
3) Tigre, Tigrai, Gurage, Harari and other languages of Ethiopia.
4) Assyrian (Isorian), the language of isolated ethnic groups in the countries of the Middle East and some others.
Dead:
5) Akkadian (Assyrian - Babylonian); known from cuneiform monuments of the ancient East.
6) Ugaritic.
7)
Hebrew- the language of the most ancient parts of the Bible, the cult language of the Jewish church; existed as a colloquial language before the beginning of our era; from the 19th century on its basis, Hebrew was developed, now the official language of the state of Israel (along with Arabic); writing based on the Hebrew alphabet.
8) Aramaic- the language of the later books of the Bible and the common language of the Near East in the era of the 3rd century. BC. - IV century AD
9) Phoenician- language of Phenicia, Carthage (Punic); dead BC; writing in the Phoenician alphabet, from which subsequent types of alphabetic writing originated.
10) Geez- former literary language of Abyssinia IV-XV centuries. AD; is now an iconic language in Ethiopia.
2. Egyptian branch
Dead:1) Ancient Egyptian- the language of ancient Egypt, known from hieroglyphic monuments and documents of demotic writing (from the end of the 4th millennium BC to the 5th century AD).
2) Coptic- a descendant of the ancient Egyptian language in the medieval period from the 3rd to the 17th centuries. AD; the cult language of the Orthodox Church in Egypt; Coptic writing, alphabet based on the Greek alphabet.
3. Berber-Libyan branch
(North Africa and West Central Africa)
1) Ghadames, Siua.
2) Tuareg(tamahak, ghat, taneslemt, etc.).
3) 3enaga.
4) Kabyle.
5) Tashelhit.
6) Zenetian(reef, shauya, etc.).
7) Tamazight.
Dead:
8) Western Numidian.
9) Eastern Numidian (Libyan).
10) Guanche, existed before the 18th century. languages (dialects?) of the aborigines of the Canary Islands.
4. Kushitic branch
(Northeast and East Africa)
1) Bedauye (beja).
2) Agavian(aungi, bilin, etc.).
3) Somalia.
4) Sidamo.
5) Afar, Saho.
6)
Oromo (Galla).
7) Irakw, Ngomwia and etc.
5. Chadian branch
(Central Africa and West-Central Sub-Saharan Africa)
1) Hausa(belongs to the Western Chadic group) the largest language of the branch.
2) Other Western Chadians: gwandara, ngizim, boleva, karekare, angas, sura and etc.
3) Central Chadian: tera, margi, mandara, kotoko and etc.
4) Eastern Chadian: mubi, sokoro and etc.
VII. NIGERO-CONGO LANGUAGES
(territory of sub-Saharan Africa)
1. Mande languages
1) Bamana (bambara).2) Soninka.
3) Coco (susu).
4) Maninka.
5) Kpelle, Loma, Mende, etc.
2. Atlantic languages
1) Fula (fulfulde).2) Wolof.
3) Serer.
4) Diola. Cognac.
5) Gola, dark, bull and etc.
3. Idjoid languages
Presented in isolated language Ijaw(Nigeria).4. Kru languages
1) Seme.2) Bethe.
3) Godie.
4) Crewe.
5) Grebo.
6) Wobe and etc.
5. Kwa languages
1) Akan.2) Baule.
3) Adele.
4) Adangme.
5) Ewe.
6) Background and etc.
6. Dogon language
7. Gur languages
1) Bariba.2) Senari.
3) Suppire.
4) Gurenne.
5) Gourmet.
b) Kasem, cabre, kirma and etc.
8. Adamauan-Ubangian languages
1) Longuda.2) Tula.
3) Chamba.
4) Mumuye.
5) Mboom.
b) Gbaya.
7) Ngbaka.
8) Sere, mundu, zande and etc.
9. Benue-Congo languages
The largest family in the Niger-Congo macrofamily, it covers the territory from Nigeria to the east coast of Africa, including South Africa. It is divided into 4 branches and many groups, among which the largest is the Bantu languages, which in turn are divided into 16 zones (according to M. Ghasri).
1) Nupe.
2) Yoruba.
3) Ygbo.
4) Edo.
5) Jukun.
6) Efik, ibibio.
7) Kambari, birom.
8) Tiv.
9) Bamileke.
10) Com, lamnso, tikar.
11) Bantu(Duala, Ewondo, Teke, Bobangi, Lingala, Kikuyu, Nyamwezi, Togo, Swahili, Congo, Luganda, Kinyarwanda, Chokwe, Luba, Nyakyusa, Nyanja, Yao, Mbundu, Herero, Shona, Sotho, Zulu, etc.).
10. Kordofanian languages
1) Kanga, miri, tumtum.2) Katla.
3) Rere.
4) Morning
5) Tegem.
6) Tegali, tagbi and etc.
VIII. NILO-SAHARAN LANGUAGES
(Central Africa, zone of geographical Sudan)
1) Songhai.
2) Saharan: kanuri, tuba, zaghava.
3)
Fur.
4) Mimi, mabang.
5) Eastern Sudanese: wilds, mahas, bale, suri, nera, ronge, tama and etc.
6) Nilotic: Shilluk, Luo, Alur, Acholi, Nuer Bari, Teso, Nandi, Pakot and etc.
7) Central Sudanese: kresh, sinyar, capa, bagirmi, moru, madi, logbara, mangbetu.
8)
Kunama.
9) Bertha.
10) Kuama, Como, etc.
IX. KHOISAN LANGUAGES
(in South Africa, Namibia, Angola)
1) Bushman languages(Kung, Auni, Hadza, etc.).
2) Hottentot languages(Nama, Koran, San-Dave, etc.).
X. Sino-TIBETAN LANGUAGES
A. Chinese branch
1) Chinese- the first most spoken language in the world. Folk Chinese speech is divided into a number of dialect groups, which differ greatly, primarily phonetically; Chinese dialects are usually defined geographically. A literary language based on the northern (Mandarin) dialect, which is also a dialect of the capital of China - Beijing. For thousands of years, the literary language of China was Wenyan, which was formed in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. and existed as a developing, but inaudibly incomprehensible bookish language until the 20th century, along with the literary language of Baihua, which is closer to the colloquial language. The latter became the basis of the modern unified literary Chinese language - Putonghua (based on Northern Baihua). The Chinese language is rich in written monuments from the 15th century. BC, but their hieroglyphic nature makes it difficult to study the history of the Chinese language. Since 1913, along with hieroglyphic writing, a special syllabic-phonetic letter “zhu-an izimu” was used on a national graphic basis for pronunciation identification of the reading of hieroglyphs by dialect. Later, over 100 different projects for the reform of Chinese writing were developed, of which the project of phonetic writing on a Latin graphic basis has the greatest promise.2) Dungan; The Dungans of the People's Republic of China have Arabic writing, the Dungans of Central Asia and Kazakhstan initially have Chinese (hieroglyphic), and later Arabic; from 1927 - on a Latin basis, and from 1950 - on a Russian basis.
B. Tibeto-Burman branch
1) Tibetan.2) Burmese.
XI. THAI LANGUAGES
1) Thai- the official language of Thailand (until 1939, the Siamese language of the state of Siam).2) Laotian.
3) Zhuangsky.
4) Kadai (Li, Lakua, Lati, Gelao)- a group within the Thai or an independent link between the Thai and Austronesian.
Note. Some scholars consider the Thai languages to be related to Austronesian; in previous classifications they were included in the Sino-Tibetan family.
XII. MIAO-YAO LANGUAGES
1) Miao, with dialects Hmong, Hmu and etc.2) Yao, with dialects mien, kimmun and etc.
3) Well.
Note. These little-studied languages of Central and Southern China were previously included in the Sino-Tibetan family without sufficient grounds.
XIII. DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES
(languages of the ancient population of the Indian subcontinent, presumably related to the Uralic languages)
1) Tamil.
2) Telugu.
3) Malayalam.
4)
Kannada.
For all four there is a script based on (or type of) the Indian Brahmi script.
5) Tulu.
6) Gondi.
7)
Brahui and etc.
XIV. OUTSIDE THE FAMILY - BURUSHASDI LANGUAGE (VERSHIKIAN)
(mountainous regions of North-West India)
XV. AUSTROASIATIC LANGUAGES
1) Languages munda: santal i, mundari, ho, birkhor, juang, sora, etc.2) Khmer.
3) Palaung (rumai) and etc.
4) Nicobarsky.
5) Vietnamese.
6) Khasi.
7) Malacca group(semang, semai, sakayi, etc.).
8) Naali.
XVI. AUSTRONESIAN (MALAYAN-POLYNESIAN) LANGUAGES
A. Indonesian branch
1.Western group1) Indonesian, got its name from the 30s. XX century, currently the official language of Indonesia.
2) Bataksky.
3) Cham(Cham, Jarai, etc.).
2. Javanese group
1) Javanese.
2) Sundanese.
3) Madura.
4) Balinese.
3. Dayak or Kalimantan group
Dayak and etc.
4. South Sulawesi group
1) Saddansky.
2)
Buginese.
3) Makassar and etc.
5. Filipino group
1) Tagalog(Tagalog).
2)
Ilocano.
3) Bikolsky and etc.
6. Madagascar group
Malagasy (formerly Malagasy).
Dead:
Kavi- Old Javanese literary language; monuments from the 9th century n. e.; By origin, the Javanese language of the Indonesian branch was formed under the influence of the languages of India (Sanskrit).
B. Polynesian branch
1) Tonga and Niue.2) Maori, Hawaiian, Tahiti and etc.
3)Sam6a, uvea and etc.
B. Micronesian branch
1) Nauru.2) Marshallese.
3) Ponape.
4) Truk and etc.
Note. The classification of the Austronesian macrofamily is given in an extremely simplified form. In fact, it covers a huge number of languages with an extremely complex multi-stage division, regarding which there is no consensus (V.V.)
XVII. AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES
Many minor indigenous languages of central and northern Australia, the best known arant. Apparently they form a separate family Tasmanian languages on o. Tasmania.XVIII. PAPUA LANGUAGES
Languages of the central part of the island. New Guinea and some smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean. A very complex and not definitively established classification.XIX. PALEOASIAN LANGUAGES 1
A. Chukotka-Kamchatka languages
1) Chukotka(Luorawetlanian).2) Koryak(Nymylansky).
3) Itelmensky(Kamchadal).
4) Alyutorsky.
5) Kereksky.
B. Eskimo-Aleut languages
1) Eskimo(Yuitian).2) Aleutian(Unanganese).
B. Yenisei languages
1) Ketsky. This language shows similarities with the Nakh-Dagestan and Tibetan-Chinese languages. Its bearers were not natives of the Yenisei, but came from the south and were assimilated by the surrounding people.2) Kottsky, Arinsky, Pumpokolsky and other extinct languages.
G. Nivkh (Gilyak) language
D. Yukagir-Chuvan languages
Extinct languages (dialects?): Yukaghir(previously - Odulsky), Chuvansky, Omoksky. Two dialects have been preserved: Tundra and Kolyma (Sakha-Yakutia, Magadan, region).1 Paleo-Asian languages - the name is conditional: Chukchi-Kamchatka represent a community of related languages; other languages are included in Paleo-Asian languages rather on a geographical basis.
XX. INDIAN (AMERINDIAN) LANGUAGES
A. Language families of North America
1) Algonquian(Menominee, Delaware, Yurok, Mi'kmaq, Fox, Cree, Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Illinois, Cheyenne, Blackfoot, Arapaho, etc., as well as the extinct ones - Massachusetts, Mohican, etc.).2) Iroquois(Cherokee, Tuscarora, Seneca, Oneida, Huron, etc.).
3) Sioux(Crow, Hidatsa, Dakota, etc., along with several extinct ones - Ofo, Biloxi, Tutelo, Catawba).
4) Gulf(Natchez, Tunica, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muskogee, etc.).
5) Na-den(Haida, Tlingit, Eyak; Athapaskan: Nava-ho, Tanana, Tolowa, Hupa, Mattole, etc.).
6) Mosanskie, including Wakash (Kwakiutl, Nootka) and Salish (Chehalis, Skomish, Kalispell, Bella Coola).
7) Penutian(Tsimshian, Chinook, Takelma, Klamath, Miubk, Zuni, etc., as well as many extinct ones).
8) Jocaltec(Karok, Shasta, Yana, Chimariko, Pomo, Salinai, etc.).
B. Language families of Central America
1) Uto-Aztecan(Nahuatl, Shoshone, Hopi, Luiseño, Papago, Cora, etc.). This family is sometimes combined with the Iowa-Tano languages (Kiowa, Piro, Tewa, etc.) within the Tano-Aztecan phylum.2) Maya-Quiche(Mam, Qeqchi, Quiche, Yucatec Maya, Ixil, Tzeltal, Tojolabal, Chol, Huastec, etc.). Before the arrival of Europeans, the Mayans reached a high level of culture and had their own hieroglyphic writing, partially deciphered.
3) Otomanga(Pame, Otomi, Popoloc, Mixtec, Trik, Zapotec, etc.).
4) Miskito - Matagalpa (Miskito, Sumo, Matagalpa, etc.). These languages are sometimes included in the Chibchan languages.
5) Chibchansky (karake, frame, getar, guaimi, chibcha, etc.). Chibchan languages are also common in South America.
B. Language families of South America
1) Tupi-Guarani(Tupi, Guarani, Yuruna, Tuparia, etc.).2) Kechumara(Quechua is the language of the ancient Inca state in Peru, currently in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador; Aymara).
3) Arawak(chamikuro, chipaya, itene, huanyam, guana, etc.).
4) Araucanian(Mapuche, Pikunche, Pehueich, etc.) -
5) Pano-takana(Chacobo, Kashibo, Pano, Takana, Chama, etc.).
6) Same(canela, suya, xavante, kaingang, botocuda, etc.).
7) Caribbean(wayana, pemon, chaima, yaruma, etc.).
8) Language alakaluf and other isolated languages.
Lesson topic: Peoples of Russia. Linguistic classification of peoples. Language families of the group. Ethnic and religious composition of Russia
Goals:
1. To introduce the peculiarities of the national and religious composition of the population of Russia, with the distribution of peoples throughout the country.
2. Foster citizenship and patriotism, respect for the culture and history of your country and the peoples inhabiting it.
3.Practice the ability to generalize and systematize knowledge.
UUD: Personal - readiness for self-education and self-education,education of a tolerant personality, sensitive and responsible, open to the perception of other cultures, capable of appreciating and respecting human dignity and individuality.
Communication - ability to work in pairs and groups.
Cognitive ability to work with a textbook, atlas maps, analyze statistical material, work with additional sources of information.Regulatory - carry out cognitive reflection in solving educational problems.
Equipment:
Wall maps: “Political and administrative map of Russia”, “Peoples of Russia”, dictionaries, atlases of Russia, presentation, record sheet (for students).
1. Organizational moment.
Target: inclusion of students in activities at a personally significant level. “I want because I can.”
1-2 minutes;
Please look at the slide. What do you see? Winter, cold, frosty, somehow chilly. And look at the houses in the distance, the windows are glowing. The house is probably cozy and warm. And so I want everyone to feel warm, cozy and comfortable in our lesson today.
Motto
Homework check: What topic have we been studying in the last few lessons?
You have tests on your desks. Try to answer the test questions within 1 minute. The test is very easy, it will set you up for work in class.
Slide. No. 1. Testing
Population of Russia (millions) a) 280 b) 354 c) 142
2.Rank of Russia by number of inhabitants a) 3 b) 9 c) 7
3. Natural increase a) deaths b) births c) difference
4. Reproduction a) decline b) renewal c) growth
5. Demographic crisis: a) a sharp decrease in population, b) a sharp increase in population, c) birth rate.
II. Updating knowledge.
Target: repetition of the studied material necessary for the “discovery of new knowledge” and identification of difficulties in the individual activities of each student.
1. 1-2 minutes;
2. The emergence of a problematic situation.
Dear guys! We will again be able to immerse ourselves in the dizzying diversity of our Russia. If some kind wizard could fashion a ball out of Russia and launch it into space, Russia would begin to revolve around the Sun, not lacking air and water, nor metals and fuel, nor technology and knowledge. You and I know that Russia has no equal in the beauty and diversity of landscapes and natural resources.
But what do you think is the most important wealth of our state?
(this is the people, this is the Russian people inhabiting the vast expanses of our Motherland).
III. Setting a learning task.
Target: discussion of difficulties (“Why did difficulties arise?”, “What do we not know yet?”); articulating the purpose of the lesson in the form of a question to be answered or in the form of a lesson topic.
4-5 min;
Please read the words written on slide number 2:
ETHNOS TOLERANCE ASSIMILATION
How many of you can explain the meaning of these words? (Children express their opinions)
If you find it difficult to explain the meaning of these words, where can you find this information?
(The teacher has 3 explanatory dictionaries on the table. 3 students are looking for the interpretation of words)
What are these concepts related to?
How many of you guessed what topic we will study today? Where can I find and find out the topic of the lesson? (In the contents of the textbook). Name the topic of the lesson. (Slide No. 3)
What do you think are the objectives of today's lesson?
(let’s find out: what is the ethnic and religious composition of the Russian population, how it has changed.
Guys, you have already studied a lot of material on the topic “Population of Russia”. Write down in the first column what is most important for you to remember and learn, and in the second column, write down the questions that you can get answers to in today’s lesson. (Children write down the data in the table). And you will fill out the third column during the lesson if you have found the answer to the question.
So what do you want to know? (read out). We will return to this table at the end of the lesson and determine whether you were able to answer all the questions posed.
I know
I want to know
Found out
IV. “Discovery of new knowledge” (constructing a project for getting out of a difficulty). Stage of learning new knowledge and methods of action
Target: solving educational problems (oral problems) and discussing a project for its solution.
7-8 min;
1. Write down the topic of the lesson: “Ethnic, national composition of the population of Russia.” (on slide number 3)
2.You and I will work according to the following plan: (on slide number 4)
Ethnic composition of the population of Russia.
Religious composition of the population.
Features of the national composition of the population of the Stavropol Territory.
3.Work in pairs
Read paragraph 1 of paragraph 13. Consult with your desk neighbor and answer the questions: Which peoples of Russia are the largest in number? Which region of the country has the most complex ethnic composition? (The most complex ethnic composition is characteristic of the North Caucasus)
Why do you think so?
Do you know what nationalities live on the territory of our village of Solnechnodolsk? List them.
Name which nationalities can be classified as small nations.
4. Working with the atlas
Open the atlas - on page 8-9 “Peoples of Russia”. All peoples are united into linguistic groups, and groups into families.
Read what language families are represented in Russia. Let's take a closer look at them. Attention to slide number 5.
Language family-
Language group-
The peoples belonging to this family are
The most numerous peoples are
The fewest -
Area of residence -
Name the largest language family. (Indo-European)
What language groups and what peoples are part of the Indo-European family?
5. Group work
And now, according to the same plan (on everyone’s desk ) using a table and map, characterize other language families yourself. Group 1 - Altai family, Group 2 - Ural-Yukaghir family, Group 3 - North Caucasian (answers)
V. Physical exercise – Relaxation. (S. Rotaru " I, You, He, she together whole a country!)
V. Primary consolidation. Stage of consolidation of knowledge and methods of action
Target: pronunciation of new knowledge, recording in the form of a reference signal.
4-5 minutes;
We got acquainted with different peoples, now we will once again highlight the most numerous families, making up the cluster “Ethnic composition of the population of Russia”.
TO 
laster
(Slide No. 6)
Look at the Russian flag. White-blue-red. Why Peter 1 chose these colors, there are different versions. I want to offer another symbolic version. Red - had a ritual meaning among the Slavic peoples, blue - the color of the sky, sacred to the Turkic peoples, white - the color of snow - traditional for the Ural peoples, and the longevity of the flag is akin to the Caucasian people.
Slavs, Turks, representatives of the Ural-Yukaghir family and the North Caucasian family, as we just found out, make up the majority, 95% of the population of Russia, the white-blue-red flag of our Motherland can be called a kind of ethnographic map.
VI.Independent work with self-test according to the standard. Self-analysis and self-control
Stage of application of knowledge and methods of action
Target: Everyone must draw a conclusion for themselves about what they already know how to do.
4-5 minutes;
What is the national composition of the population of our Stavropol Territory? (on a separate sheet)
Name the most numerous peoples and the smallest ones
Russians
2 231,8
Armenians
149,2
Ukrainians
45,9
Dargins
40,2
Greeks
34,1
Nogais
20,7
Gypsies
19,1
Karachais
15,1
Azerbaijanis
15,1
Turkmens
13,9
Chechens
13,2
Tatars
13,0
Belarusians
11,3
Georgians
8,8
Germans
8,0
Ossetians
7,8
Turks
7,5
Avars
7,2
Koreans
7,1
Our Stavropol region, like our whole Russia, is multinational.
To live in a multinational country, you need to cultivate TOLERANCE and RESPECT. “The only true motto for the sustainable coexistence of peoples in a multi-ethnic state is “In peace, but apart”” L.N. Gumilyov. In the world, but maintaining its originality. The equality of people of different nationalities and religions living in our state is enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
Article 19 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation
The state guarantees equality of rights and freedoms of humans and citizens, regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, property and official status, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, membership in public associations, as well as other circumstances. Any form of restriction of the rights of citizens on the basis of social, racial, national, linguistic or religious affiliation is prohibited.
A huge number of peoples inhabit Russia. How do peoples differ from each other? Each nation is unique, has its own culture, traditions, even characteristic features. Every nation is unique and talented. We are all different, and at the same time, representatives of different nationalities have a lot in common.
(A trained student reads V. Stepanov’s poem “Different peoples live in Russia”)
Different people live in Russia
Peoples since ancient times.
Some people like the taiga,
For others, the expanse of the steppe.
Every nation
Your own language and outfit.
One wears a Circassian coat,
The other one put on a robe.
One is a fisherman from birth,
The other is a reindeer herder,
One kumiss is cooking,
Another is preparing honey.
Autumn is one of the sweeter ones,
For others, spring is dearer.
And Motherland Russia,
Student 2: Both in peacetime and during the Great Patriotic War, the 70th anniversary of Victory Day of which we will celebrate in May 2015, all the peoples of Russia try to live in harmony, friendship and cohesion. One of the decisive factors in the world-historical victory of the Soviet Union in the Great Patriotic War over Nazi Germany was the unity and cohesion of the peoples of our multinational and multi-religious country. During the harsh years of the war, all the peoples of our country rallied around the heroic Russian people, who bore the brunt of the war on their shoulders. Preserving the honor of our multinational country and doing everything to ensure security is the duty of every Russian, regardless of nationality.
VII.Incorporation of new knowledge into the knowledge system and repetition.
7-8 minutes;
What else do you think we haven't covered or learned about today's topic? (Religious composition)
Now I invite you to watch the video fragment “Religious Composition of Russia” and answer the question: “What world religions are practiced on the territory of Russia and the Stavropol Territory”?
VIII.Reflection of activity (lesson summary).
Goal: students’ awareness of their learning activity (learning activity), self-assessment of the results of their own and the entire class’s activities.
1. Let's return to the table that we filled out at the beginning of the lesson. What questions did you manage to get answers to?
What else needs to be done?
Where can you apply new knowledge?
2. Game “Believe it or not”
1. Russia is a multinational state.
2. The national composition was formed under the influence of historical, economic and political factors.
3. Few different nationalities live on the territory of the Stavropol Territory
4. Relations should be built on respect for language, traditions, culture, and customs of peoples.
5. The peoples living on the territory of the Stavropol Territory profess only one religion.
At home:§13, compose the senquain “People”
Languages and peoples. Today, the peoples of the world speak more than 3,000 languages. There are about 4000 forgotten languages, some of them are still alive in the memory of mankind (Sanskrit, Latin). By the nature of the language, many researchers judge the degree of kinship between peoples. Language is most often used as an ethnic differentiating feature. The linguistic classification of peoples is the most recognized in world science. At the same time, language is not an indispensable feature that distinguishes one people from another. The same Spanish language is spoken by several different Latin American peoples. The same can be said about the Norwegians and Danes, who have a common literary language. At the same time, residents of Northern and Southern China speak different languages, but consider themselves to be the same ethnic group.
Each of the major literary languages of Europe (French, Italian, English, German) dominates a territory that is linguistically much less homogeneous than the territory of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples (L. Gumilyov, 1990). The Saxons and Tyroleans hardly understand each other, and the Milanese and Sicilians do not understand each other at all. The English of Northumberland speak a language close to Norwegian, as they are descendants of the Vikings who settled in England. The Swiss speak German, French, Italian and Romansh.
The French speak four languages: French, Celtic (Bretons), Basque (Gascons) and Provençal. Linguistic differences between them can be traced from the beginning of the Romanization of Gaul.
Taking into account their intra-ethnic differences, the French, Germans, Italians, and British should be compared not with Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, but with all Eastern Europeans. At the same time, such systems of ethnic groups as the Chinese or Indians correspond not to the French, Germans or Ukrainians, but to Europeans as a whole (L. Gumilyov, 1990).
All languages of the peoples of the world belong to certain language families, each of which unites languages similar in linguistic structure and origin. The process of formation of language families is associated with the isolation of different peoples from each other in the process of human settlement across the globe. At the same time, peoples that were initially genetically distant from each other can enter into one language family. Thus, the Mongols, having conquered many nations, adopted foreign languages, and the blacks resettled by slave traders in America speak English.
Human races and language families. According to biological characteristics, people are divided into races. The French scientist Cuvier identified three human races at the beginning of the 19th century - black, yellow and white.
The idea that human races emerged from different centers was established in the Old Testament: “Can an Ethiopian change his skin and a leopard his spots.” On this basis, the theory of the “Nordic, or Indo-European chosen man” was created among English-speaking Protestants. Such a person was put on a pedestal by the French Comte de Gobineau in a book with the provocative title “Treatise on the Inequality of Human Races.” The word “Indo-European” was transformed over time into “Indo-Germanic”, and the ancestral home of the primitive “Indo-Germans” began to be sought in the area of the North European Plain, which at that time was part of the Kingdom of Prussia. In the 20th century ideas about racial and national elitism turned into the bloodiest wars in human history.
By the middle of the 20th century. Many classifications of human races have developed - from two (Negroid and Mongoloid) to thirty-five. Most scientists write about four human races with the following centers of origin: the Greater Sunda Islands - the homeland of the Australoids, East Asia - the Mongoloids, Southern and Central Europe - the Caucasoids, and Africa - the Negroids.
All these races, their languages and centers of origin are correlated by some researchers with different original hominids. The ancestors of the Australoids are Javan Pithecanthropus, the Mongoloids are Sinanthropus, the Negroids are African Neanderthals, and the Caucasoids are European Neanderthals. The genetic connection of certain ancient forms with the corresponding modern races can be traced using morphological comparisons of craniums. Mongoloids, for example, are similar to Sinanthropus with a flattened face, Caucasians are similar to European Neanderthals with strongly protruding nasal bones, and the broad nose makes Negroids similar to African Neanderthals (V. Alekseev, 1985). In the Paleolithic, people were the same black, white, yellow as they are today, with the same differentiation of skulls and skeletons. This means that intercivilizational differences go back to ancient times, to the beginning of the human race. These should also include interlingual differences.
The oldest finds of representatives of the Negroid race were discovered not in Africa, but in Southern France, in the Grimaldi Cave near Nice, and in Abkhazia, in the Kholodny Grotto. An admixture of Negroid blood is found not only among Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, residents of the south of France and the Caucasus, but also among residents of the north-west - in Ireland (L. Gumilyov, 1997).
Classical Negroids belong to the Niger-Kordofanian language family, which began to populate Central Africa from North Africa and Western Asia quite late - somewhere at the beginning of our era.
Before the arrival of the Negroids (Fulani, Bantu, Zulus) in Africa, the territory south of the Sahara was inhabited by the Kapoids, representatives of a recently identified race, which included the Hottentots and Bushmen, belonging to the Khoisan language family. Unlike blacks, capoids are not black, but brown: they have Mongoloid facial features, they speak not while exhaling, but while inhaling, and are sharply different from both blacks and Europeans and Mongoloids. They are considered a remnant of some ancient race of the southern hemisphere, which was displaced from the main areas of its settlement by Negroids (L. Gumilyov, 1997). Then many Negroids were transported to America by slave traders
Another ancient race of the southern hemisphere is the Australoid (Australian family). Australoids live in Australia and Melanesia. With black skin, they have huge beards, wavy hair, and broad shoulders, and exceptional reaction speed. Their closest relatives lived in southern India and belong to the Dravidian language family (Tamil, Telugu).
Representatives of the Caucasoid (white race), belonging mainly to the Indo-European language family, inhabited not only, as now, Europe, Western Asia and the North of India, but also almost the entire Caucasus, a significant part of Central and Central Asia and Northern Tibet.
The largest ethnolinguistic groups of the Indo-European language family in Europe are Romance (French, Italians, Spaniards, Romanians), Germanic (Germans, English), Slavic (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Serbs). They inhabit North Asia (Russians), North America (Americans), South Africa (immigrants from England and Holland), Australia and New Zealand (immigrants from England), and a significant part of South America (Spanish and Portuguese-speaking Latin Americans).
The largest representative of the Indo-European family is the Indo-Aryan group of peoples of India and Pakistan (Hindustani, Bengalis, Marathas, Punjabis, Biharis, Gujjars). This also includes the peoples of the Iranian group (Persians, Tajiks, Kurds, Baluchis, Ossetians), the Baltic group (Latvians and Lithuanians), Armenians, Greeks, Albanians..
The most numerous race is the Mongoloids. They are divided into subraces belonging to different language families.
Siberian, Central Asian, Central Asian, Volga and Transcaucasian Mongoloids form the Altai language family. It unites the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu ethnolinguistic groups, each of which in turn is divided into ethnolinguistic subgroups. Thus, the Turkic Mongoloids are divided into the Bulgar subgroup (Chuvash), southwestern (Azerbaijanis, Turkmens), northwestern (Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs), southeastern (Uzbeks, Uighurs), northeastern (Yakuts) subgroups.
The most widely spoken language in the world, Chinese (over 1 billion people), belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. It is used in writing by North Chinese and South Chinese Mongoloids (Chinese or Han), who differ significantly from each other anthropologically and in colloquial speech. The Tibetan Mongoloids also belong to the same language family. The Mongoloids of Southeast Asia are classified into the Parataic and Austroasiatic language families. The peoples of the Chukchi-Kamchatka and Eskimo-Aleut language families are also close to the Mongoloids.
There are also subraces, with which groups of certain languages are usually correlated, that is, the system of human races is arranged hierarchically.
Representatives of the listed races include 3/4 of the world's population. The remaining peoples belong to small races or microraces with their own language families.
At the contact of the main human races, mixed or transitional racial forms are encountered, often forming their own language families. 
Thus, the mixing of Negroids with Caucasians gave rise to mixed-transitional forms of peoples of the Afroasiatic, or Semitic-Hamitic family (Arabs, Jews, Sudanese, Ethiopians). Peoples speaking languages of the Ural language family (Nenets, Khanty, Komi, Mordovians, Estonians, Hungarians) form transitional forms between Mongoloids and Caucasians. Very complex racial mixtures formed into the North Caucasian (Abkhazians, Adygeans, Kabardians, Circassians, Chechens, Ingush peoples of Dagestan) and Kartvelian (Georgians, Mingrelians, Svans) language families.
Similar racial mixing occurred in America, only it was much more intense than in the Old World, and, in general, did not affect language differences.
Most of the world's languages are grouped into families. A language family is a genetic linguistic association.
But there are isolated languages, i.e. those that do not belong to any known language family.
There are also unclassified languages, of which there are more than 100.
Language family
There are about 420 language families in total. Sometimes families are united into macro-families. But at present, only theories about the existence of the Nostratic and Afrasian macrofamilies have received reliable substantiation.
Nostratic languages- a hypothetical macrofamily of languages, uniting several language families and languages of Europe, Asia and Africa, including Altaic, Kartvelian, Dravidian, Indo-European, Uralic, and sometimes also Afroasiatic and Eskimo-Aleutian languages. All Nostratic languages go back to a single Nostratic parent language.
Afroasiatic languages- a macrofamily of languages distributed in northern Africa from the Atlantic coast and the Canary Islands to the Red Sea coast, as well as in Western Asia and on the island of Malta. There are groups of speakers of Afroasiatic languages (mainly various dialects of Arabic) in many countries outside the main area. The total number of speakers is about 253 million people.
The existence of other macrofamilies remains only a scientific hypothesis that requires confirmation.
Family– this is a group of definitely, but quite distantly related languages that have at least 15% matches in the base list.
The language family can be figuratively represented as a tree with branches. Branches are groups of closely related languages. They do not have to be of the same level of depth, only their relative order within the same family is important. Let us consider this question using the example of the Indo-European family of languages.
Indo-European family
This is the most widespread language family in the world. It is represented on all inhabited continents of the Earth. The number of speakers exceeds 2.5 billion. The Indo-European family of languages is considered part of the macrofamily of Nostratic languages.
The term “Indo-European languages” was introduced by the English scientist Thomas Young in 1813.
Thomas Young
The languages of the Indo-European family descend from a single Proto-Indo-European language, whose speakers lived about 5-6 thousand years ago.
But it is impossible to name exactly where the Proto-Indo-European language originated; there are only hypotheses: regions such as Eastern Europe, Western Asia, and steppe territories at the junction of Europe and Asia are named. With a high probability, the archaeological culture of the ancient Indo-Europeans can be considered the so-called “Yamnaya culture”, the bearers of which in the 3rd millennium BC. e. lived in the east of modern Ukraine and the south of Russia. This is a hypothesis, but it is supported by genetic studies indicating that the source of at least part of the Indo-European languages in Western and Central Europe was a wave of migration of speakers of the Yamnaya culture from the territory of the Black Sea and Volga steppes approximately 4,500 years ago.
The Indo-European family includes the following branches and groups: Albanian, Armenian, as well as Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Italic, Romance, Illyrian, Greek, Anatolian (Hittite-Luvian), Iranian, Dardic, Indo-Aryan, Nuristan and Tocharian languages groups (Italic, Illyrian, Anatolian and Tocharian groups are represented only by dead languages).
If we consider the place of the Russian language in the taxonomy of the Indo-European language family by level, it will look something like this:
Indo-European family
↓
Branch: Balto-Slavic
↓
Group: Slavic
↓
Subgroup: East Slavic
↓
Language: Russian
Slavic
Isolated languages (isolates)
There are more than 100 of them. In fact, each isolated language forms a separate family, consisting only of that language. For example, Basque (northern regions of Spain and adjacent southern regions of France); Burushaski (this language is spoken by the Burish people living in the mountainous regions of Hunza (Kanjut) and Nagar in northern Kashmir); Sumerian (the language of the ancient Sumerians, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia in the 4th-3rd millennia BC); Nivkh (the language of the Nivkhs, widespread in the northern part of Sakhalin Island and in the basin of the Amguni River, a tributary of the Amur); Elamite (Elam is a historical region and ancient state (III millennium - mid-VI century BC) in the southwest of modern Iran); Hadza (in Tanzania) languages are isolated. Only those languages are called isolated for which there is sufficient data and inclusion in the language family has not been proven for them, even after intensive attempts to do so.