The Time of Troubles occupies a serious place in the history of Russia. This is a time of historical alternatives. There are many nuances in this topic that are generally important for understanding and rapid assimilation. In this article we will look at some of them. Where to get the rest - see at the end of the article.
Causes of the Time of Troubles
The first reason (and the main one) is the suppression of the dynasty of the descendants of Ivan Kalita, the ruling branch of the Rurikovichs. The last king of this dynasty - Fyodor Ioannovich, son - died in 1598, and from that same time the period of the Time of Troubles in the history of Russia began.
The second reason - more the reason for the intervention during this period - is that at the end of the Livonian War, the Moscow state did not conclude peace treaties, but only truces: Yam-Zapolskoye with Poland and Plyusskoye with Sweden. The difference between a truce and a peace treaty is that the former is only a break in the war, and not its end.
Course of events
As you can see, we are analyzing this event according to the scheme recommended by me and other colleagues, about which you can.
The Time of Troubles began directly with the death of Fyodor Ioannovich. Because this is a period of “kinglessness,” of kinglessness, when impostors and generally random people ruled. However, in 1598, the Zemsky Sobor was convened and Boris Godunov, a man who had long and persistently walked to power, came to power.
The reign of Boris Godunov lasted from 1598 to 1605. At this time the following events occurred:
- The terrible famine of 1601 - 1603, the consequence of which was the rebellion of Cotton Crookshanks, and the mass exodus of the population to the south. And also dissatisfaction with the authorities.
- Speech of False Dmitry the First: from the autumn of 1604 to June 1605.
The reign of False Dmitry the First lasted one year: from June 1605 to May 1606. During his reign The following processes continued:
False Dmitry the First (aka Grishka Otrepiev)
The boyars grew dissatisfied with his rule, since False Dmitry did not respect Russian customs, married a Catholic, and began to distribute Russian lands as fiefs to the Polish nobility. In May 1606, the impostor was overthrown by the boyars led by Vasily Shuisky.
The reign of Vasily Shuisky lasted from 1606 to 1610. Shuisky was not even elected at the Zemsky Sobor. His name was simply “shouted”, so he “enlisted” the support of the people. In addition, he gave the so-called cross-kissing oath that he would consult with the boyar duma in everything. During his reign the following events occurred:
- The peasant war led by Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov: from the spring of 1606 to the end of 1607. Ivan Bolotnikov acted as the governor of “Tsarevich Dmitry,” the Second False Dmitry.
- The campaign of False Dmitry II from the autumn of 1607 to 1609. During the campaign, the impostor was unable to take Moscow, so he sat down in Tushino. Dual power appeared in Russia. Neither side had the means to defeat the other side. Therefore, Vasily Shusky hired Swedish mercenaries.
- The defeat of the "Tushinsky Thief" by the troops of Swedish mercenaries led by Mikhail Vasilyevich Skopin-Shuisky.
- Intervention of Poland and Sweden in 1610. Poland and Sweden were at war at this time. Since Swedish troops, albeit mercenaries, were in Moscow, Poland had the opportunity to begin an open intervention, considering Muscovy an ally of Sweden.
- The overthrow of Vasily Shuisky by the boyars, as a result of which the so-called “seven boyars” appeared. The boyars de facto recognized the power of the Polish king Sigismund in Moscow.
Results of the Time of Troubles for the history of Russia
The first result The Troubles began with the election of a new reigning Romanov dynasty, which ruled from 1613 to 1917, which began with Mikhail and ended with Mikhail.
The second result the boyars began to die out. Throughout the 17th century, it lost its influence, and with it the old tribal principle.
Third result— devastation, economic, economic, social. Its consequences were overcome only by the beginning of the reign of Peter the Great.
Fourth result— instead of the boyars, the authorities relied on the nobility.
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The Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century was one of the most difficult and tragic periods in Russian history, which had a fateful influence on the fate of our state. The name itself - “Troubles”, “Time of Troubles” very accurately reflects the atmosphere of that time. The name, by the way, has a folk etymology. Causes:
1. A severe systemic crisis of the Moscow state, largely associated with the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Conflicting domestic and foreign policies led to the destruction of many economic structures. Weakened key institutions and led to loss of life.
2. Important western lands were lost (Yama, Ivan-Gorod, Karela)
3. Social conflicts within the Moscow state sharply intensified, which covered all societies (tsarist power and boyar aristocracy, boyars and nobles, feudal lords and peasantry, church and secular feudal lords, patrimonial aristocracy and service aristocracy, etc.)
4. Intervention of foreign states (Poland, Sweden, England, etc. regarding land issues, territory, etc.)
5. Dynastic crisis:
1584. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the throne was taken by his son Fedor.
1591. Under mysterious circumstances, the youngest son of the formidable, Dmitry, died in Uglich.
1598. Fyodor dies, the dynasty of the house of Kalita is ended.
Stages:
1. 1598-1605. The key figure is Boris Godunov. By decision of the Zemsky Sobor, he was elected to the royal throne in 1598. He was known as a cruel politician, was a guardsman, and had an extraordinary mind. With his active participation, the patriarchate was established in Moscow in 1598. He dramatically changed the nature of the state’s domestic and foreign policy (development of the southern outskirts, development of Siberia, return of western lands, truce with Poland). Consequently, there is a rise in the economy and an intensification of the political struggle. In 1601-1603, the harvest failed, famine and food riots began. During this period, the first False Dmitry appeared on the territory of Poland, received the support of the Polish gentry and entered Russian land in 1604. In April 1605, Godunov died unexpectedly. In June, False Dmitry I entered Moscow. 11 months later, in 1606, he was killed as a result of a conspiracy.
2. 1606-1610. This stage is associated with Vasily Shuisky, the first “boyar tsar”. He ascended the throne immediately after the death of False Dmitry 1 by decision of Red Square, giving a cross-kissing record about his good attitude towards the boyars. On the throne he faced many problems (Bolotnikov's uprising, LD2, Polish troops, the collapse of the SU, famine). Shuisky managed to solve only part of the problems. In 1610, Polish troops defeated Shuisky's troops and he was overthrown from the throne and the regime of the seven-boyars was established; the boyars wanted to invite the Polish prince Vladislav to the throne, guaranteeing the inviolability of the faith and the boyars, and also for him to change his faith. The church protested this, and there was no answer from Poland.
3. 1611-1613. Patriarch Hermogenes in 1611 initiated the creation of a zemstvo militia near Ryazan. In March it besieged Moscow and failed due to internal divisions. The second was created in the fall, in Novgorod. It was headed by K. Minin and D. Pozharsky. The money raised was not sufficient to support the militia, but not small. The militia called themselves free people, headed by the zemstvo council and temporary orders. On October 26, 1612, the militia managed to take the Moscow Kremlin. By decision of the boyar duma, it was dissolved.
Results:
1. The total number of deaths is equal to one third of the population.
2. Economic catastrophe, the financial system and transport communications have been destroyed, vast territories have been taken out of agricultural circulation.
3. Territorial losses (Chernigov land, Smolensk land, Novgorod-Seversk land, Baltic territories).
4. Weakening of domestic merchants and entrepreneurs and strengthening of foreign merchants.
5. The emergence of a new royal dynasty On February 7, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov. The first representatives of the dynasty (M. F. Romanov - 1613-1645, A. M. Romanov - 1645-1676, F. A. Romanov - 1676-1682). They had to solve 3 main problems - restoring the unity of the territories, restoring the state mechanism and economy.
Time of Troubles in Russia. Reasons, essence, stages, results.
Causes:
1 ) The establishment of a 5-year period for the search and return of fugitive peasants is another step on the path to serfdom.
2 ) Three lean years in a row (1601-1603), which led to famine, aggravating the internal situation in the country to the limit.
3 ) Dissatisfaction of everyone - from peasants to boyars and nobles - with the rule of Boris Godunov.
4 ) The mass of peasants and townspeople of the central and northwestern regions, devastated by war, the plague epidemic and the oprichnina.
5 ) The departure of peasants from villages and cities; economic decline.
6 ) Intensification of the class struggle.
7 ) Development of contradictions within the ruling class.
8 ) Deterioration of the international position of the state.
9 ) Crisis situation in the economic and political life of the country.
First stage (1598-1605)
At this stage there were the first signs of destabilization of the system, but controllability remained. This situation created the conditions for a controlled process of change through reform. The absence of a contender with firm rights to the throne after the death of Fyodor Ioannovich was extremely dangerous under autocratic, unlimited power. It was important to ensure continuity of power. In 1598. The Zemsky Sobor took place, its composition was wide: boyars, nobles, clerks, guests (merchants) and representatives of all “peasants”.
The Council spoke in favor of crowning Boris Godunov, who actually ruled the country. The Boyar Duma met separately from the Zemsky Sobor and called for allegiance to the Duma as the highest authority. Thus, an alternative arose: either elect a tsar and live as before, or swear allegiance to the Duma, which meant the possibility of changes in public life. The outcome of the struggle was decided by the street, speaking out for Boris Godunov, who agreed to the kingdom.
The situation of the majority of the people was disastrous. At the beginning of the 17th century, agriculture fell into decline, and natural disasters added to this. In 1601, a terrible famine broke out, which lasted three years (only in Moscow were they buried in mass graves). more than 120 thousand people). In difficult conditions, the authorities made some concessions: it was restored St. George's day, the distribution of bread to the hungry was organized. But these measures did not ease the tension. In 1603, the uprisings became widespread.
Second stage (1605-1610)
At this stage the country was plunged into the abyss of civil war, the state collapsed. Moscow has lost its significance as a political center. In addition to the old capital, new, “thieves’” ones appeared: Putivl, Starodub, Tushino. The intervention of Western countries began, attracted by the weakness of the Russian state. Sweden and Poland were rapidly moving inland. State power found itself in paralysis. In Moscow, False Dmitry I, Vasily Shuisky, and the Boyar Duma took turns, whose reign went down in history as the “Seven Boyars.” However, their power was ephemeral. False Dmitry II, who was in Tushino, controlled almost half the country.
At this stage the opportunity The Europeanization of Russia is associated with the name of False Dmitry I. In 1603, a man appeared within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, calling himself the name of the son of Ivan IV Dmitry, who had been considered killed for twelve years. In Russia it was announced that the fugitive monk of the Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev, was hiding under this name.
Election as king Mikhail Romanov testified that the majority in society supported the restoration of the Muscovite kingdom with all its features. The Troubles brought an important lesson: the majority was committed to the traditions of community, collectivism, strong centralized power and did not want to give them up. Russia began to slowly emerge from social catastrophe, restoring the social system destroyed during the Time of Troubles.
Consequences of the Troubles:
1 ) Temporary strengthening of the influence of the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor.
2 ) The positions of the nobility were strengthened
3 ) The coast of the Baltic Sea and the lands of Smolensk were lost.
4 ) Economic devastation, poverty of the people.
5 ) Russia's independence preserved
6 ) The Romanov dynasty began to rule.
While the rulers of the old dynasty, direct descendants of Rurik, were on the Moscow throne, the population for the most part obeyed their rulers. But when the dynasties ceased and the state turned out to be a nobody's, there was fermentation in the population, both in the lower classes and in the upper ones.
The upper stratum of the Moscow population, the boyars, economically weakened and morally humiliated by the policies of Ivan the Terrible, began a struggle for power.
There are three periods in the Time of Troubles. The first is dynastic, the second is social and the third is national.
The first includes the time of struggle for the Moscow throne between various contenders up to and including Tsar Vasily Shuisky.
First period
The first period of the Time of Troubles (1598-1605) began with a dynastic crisis caused by the murder of Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible of his eldest son Ivan, the rise to power of his brother Fyodor Ivanovich and the death of their younger half-brother Dmitry (according to many, he was stabbed to death by the minions of the de facto ruler of the country, Boris Godunov). After the death of Ivan the Terrible and his sons, the struggle for power intensified even more. As a result, Boris Godunov, the brother of Tsar Feodor’s wife, became the de facto ruler of the state. In 1598, the childless Tsar Fedor also died, and with his death the dynasty of the Rurik princes, which ruled Russia for 700 years, ended.
A new king had to be elected to rule the country, with whose arrival a new reigning house would be erected on the throne. This is the Romanov dynasty. However, before the Romanov dynasty gained power, it had to go through difficult trials, these were the years of the Time of Troubles. After the death of Tsar Fedor, the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov (1598-1605) as Tsar. In Rus', for the first time, a king appeared who received the throne not by inheritance.
Boris Godunov was a talented politician; he strove to unite the entire ruling class and did a lot to stabilize the situation in the country, but he was unable to stop the intrigues of the disgruntled boyars. Boris Godunov did not resort to mass terror, but dealt only with his real enemies. Under Godunov, the new cities of Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Ufa, and Voronezh arose.
The famine of 1601-1603, caused by prolonged crop failures, caused enormous damage to the country's economy. This undermined the Russian economy, people died of hunger, and cannibalism began in Moscow. Boris Godunov is trying to suppress a social explosion. He began distributing bread for free from state reserves and established fixed prices for bread. But these measures were not successful, because bread distributors began to speculate on it; moreover, the reserves could not be enough for all the hungry, and the restriction on the price of bread led to the fact that they simply stopped selling it. In Moscow, about 127 thousand people died during the famine; not everyone had time to bury them, and the bodies of the dead remained on the streets for a long time.
The people decide that hunger is the curse of God, and Boris is Satan. Gradually, rumors spread that Boris Godunov ordered the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry, then they remembered that the Tsar was a Tatar.
The famine also led to an outflow of the population from the central regions to the outskirts, where self-governing communities of the so-called free Cossacks began to emerge. Famine led to uprisings. In 1603, a major uprising of slaves began (the Cotton uprising), which covered a large territory and became the prologue to the peasant war.
External reasons were added to the internal ones: Poland and Lithuania, united in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, rushed to take advantage of Russia’s weakness. The aggravation of the internal political situation led, in turn, to a sharp decline in Godunov’s prestige not only among the masses, but also among the feudal lords.
In these difficult conditions, a young Galich nobleman, Grigory Otrepyev, appeared in Rus', declaring himself for Tsarevich Dmitry, who had long been considered dead in Uglich. He showed up in Poland, and this became a gift to King Sigismund III, who supported the impostor. The impostor's agents vigorously disseminated in Rus' the version of his miraculous salvation from the hands of assassins sent by Godunov, and proved the legality of his right to his father's throne. This news led to confusion and confusion in all layers of society, in each of which there were many dissatisfied with the rule of Tsar Boris. The Polish magnates who stood under the banner of False Dmitry provided some assistance in organizing the adventure. As a result, by the autumn of 1604, a sufficiently powerful army had been formed to march on Moscow. At the end of 1604, having converted to Catholicism, False Dmitry I entered Russia with his army. Many cities in southern Russia, Cossacks, and dissatisfied peasants went over to his side.
False Dmitry's forces grew rapidly, cities opened their gates to him, peasants and townspeople joined his troops. False Dmitry moved on the wave of the outbreak of the peasant war. After the death of Boris Godunov, the governors began to go over to the side of False Dmitry, and Moscow also went over, where he solemnly entered on June 20, 1605 and was crowned king on June 30, 1605.
It turned out to be easier to achieve access to the throne than to stay on it. The support of the people, it seemed, was supposed to strengthen his position on the throne. However, the situation in the country turned out to be so difficult that, with all his abilities and good intentions, the new king was unable to resolve the tangle of contradictions.
By refusing to fulfill his promises to the Polish king and the Catholic Church, he lost the support of external forces. The clergy and boyars were alarmed by his simplicity and elements of “Westernism” in his views and behavior. As a result, the impostor never found support in the political elite of Russian society.
In addition, in the spring of 1606, he announced a call for service and began to prepare for a campaign against the Crimea, which caused discontent among many service people. The position of the lower classes of society did not improve: serfdom and heavy taxes remained. Soon everyone was dissatisfied with the rule of False Dmitry: peasants, feudal lords and the Orthodox clergy.
The boyar conspiracy and the uprising of Muscovites on May 17, 1606, dissatisfied with the direction of his policy, swept him from the throne. False Dmitry and some of his associates were killed. Two days later, the tsar “shouted out” the boyar Vasily Shuisky, who gave the cross-kissing record to rule with the Boyar Duma, not to impose disgrace and not to execute without trial. Shuisky's accession to the throne served as a signal of general unrest.
Thus, during the Time of Troubles, 3 main periods are distinguished:
Dynastic;
Social;
National.
In this paragraph, we examined the first stage of the turmoil, which is characterized, first of all, by the “death” of the old dynasty of kings and the impossibility of choosing a new ruler based on the principle of patrimonial inheritance of the throne. In this regard, dissatisfaction with the ruler begins to grow among all segments of the population, supported by crises in many sectors of the state. Which leads to the change of one king to another, but this does not solve the main problems and then the turmoil continues to flare up with even greater force.
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"Troubles" - this is a severe political and socio-economic crisis that erupted in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. According to a number of historians, the Time of Troubles was the first civil war in the history of our country.
Chronological framework of the Time of Troubles: - beginning - the end of the Rurik dynasty in 1598, ending - the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar in 1613.
Causes of the Time of Troubles:
- internal political - a dynastic crisis associated with the end of the “legitimate” Rurik dynasty and the insufficient authority of the new Godunov dynasty. During this period, the hereditary autocratic monarchy was transformed into an elective monarchy.
- foreign policy - the desire of the Roman Catholic Church to subjugate Orthodoxy; intrigues of the Polish government, which wanted to weaken Russia. These forces supported the impostors politically and financially and provided military units. The Polish intervention gave the troubles a severe character and duration. There was a real threat of Russia losing its state independence and dividing its territory between Western countries.
- economic - the severe economic crisis associated with crop failures and famine of 1601–1603 led to a sharp increase in food prices and discontent among the broad masses of the population. The Godunov government, despite a number of measures taken, failed to cope with the situation.
- social - anti-serfdom sentiments among the peasants, the desire to return to the old order that existed before 1603; excessive development of the Cossacks with their anti-state aspirations. For the first time, the social lower classes take part in the struggle for supreme power.
- moral - the decline of moral principles in Russian society.
All these reasons acted together and led to destabilization of the situation in the country.
Stages of the Troubles:
1st stage (1598 – 1606) - the struggle for the Moscow throne.
In January 1598, after the death of Tsar Fedor, there were no legal heirs to the throne. The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov to the throne, but the position of the new tsar was fragile, the boyars weaved intrigues against him. Being the first elected monarch in Russian history, Godunov established himself not so much as an autocrat, but rather as a temporary populist, unsure of himself and afraid of open action. Godunov sought the favor of the nobility by giving away undeserved privileges and making loud promises, while at the same time persistently consolidating his position in power through secret surveillance and denunciation, as well as unpublicized repressions, that is, through the same lawlessness that was inherent in the oprichnina.
During the reign of Boris Godunov, peasants were gradually attached to the land and peasant exit was prohibited. One of the reasons for this was the desire to prevent the desolation of the center of the country due to expanding colonization and the outflow of population to the outskirts. On the other hand, the ban was a manifestation of class politics, which protected the interests of the landowners and did not take into account the interests of the peasants. In general, the introduction of serfdom increased social tension in the country.
The attitude of many contemporaries and later historians towards Godunov’s personality is negative. He was considered the “customer” of the murder in 1891 in Uglich of the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Tsarevich Dmitry, who was the heir to the throne. However, there is also a version in favor of Godunov’s non-involvement in this crime. In this case, the personality of Tsar Boris appears as one of the tragic and undeservedly compromised in Russian history.
Godunov’s government denied the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry and recognized his death as an accidental suicide, but a rumor spread in society that the Tsarevich had been saved and was alive.
Key dates:
1598 – 1605 - reign of Boris Godunov.
June 1605 - The Boyar Duma goes over to the side of False Dmitry I, the death of Boris's son Fyodor Godunov and his mother; ceremonial entry into Moscow of False Dmitry I.
May 17, 1606 - overthrow of False Dmitry I. The boyars needed him to overthrow Godunov in order to prepare the ground for the accession of one of the representatives of the boyar nobility. When the impostor had done his job, he was no longer needed and was killed. Prince Vasily Shuisky ascended the throne.
2nd stage (1606–1610) - destruction of state order.
Characterized by the existence of two alternative centers of power in the country: Vasily Shuisky in Moscow and False Dmitry II in Tushino, the beginning of an open Polish-Swedish intervention; complete anarchy in the country.
1606 – 1610 - the reign of Vasily Shuisky. Fulfilling the will of the boyars, Shuisky took the oath and pledged to rule by law, and not by royal whim. Regardless of the personal qualities of the new ruler, this was the first agreement between the tsar and society in Russia. However, new political ideas did not have time to gain the upper hand in the conditions of the rampant popular element. Shuisky ascended the throne as a result of behind-the-scenes intrigues, “without the will of the whole earth,” the popular consciousness refused to recognize him as king. The accession of Shuisky became a turning point in the history of the Troubles, since from that time on, from the Troubles in the upper strata of Moscow society, it took on the character of the People's Troubles.
Key dates:
July 1606 – September 1607 - uprising of I. Bolotnikov. He called for exterminating the boyars and taking possession of “their wives, and estates, and estates.”
June 1608 - False Dmitry II captures Tushino, a second center of power is formed with its Boyar Duma, army and patriarch.
July 17, 1610 - the overthrow of Vasily Shuisky, the beginning of the reign of the Seven Boyars, complete anarchy in the country. The Poles made open claims to the Moscow throne. In August 1610, one of the boyar groups “organized” an oath to the Polish prince Vladislav, who then considered himself a “legitimate Moscow sovereign” for another 24 years, although he did not fulfill the main condition of the boyars - he did not accept Orthodoxy.
3rd stage (1610–1613) – restoration of statehood in Russia. It is characterized by open foreign intervention, the emergence of a threat to the national independence of Russia, the anti-national policy of the Seven Boyars, the activities of the 1st and 2nd people's militia, the election of a new tsar at the Zemsky Sobor. By the end of 1611, the Moscow state looked completely destroyed. The government governing the country on behalf of the “sovereign, Tsar Vladislav Zhigimontovich of All Rus'” was paralyzed. The center of the country was dominated by the Poles, who captured Smolensk and Moscow. Novgorod ended up with the Swedes. Each Russian city acted independently. However, in the minds of people, the craving for order became more and more persistent. In individual lands, local zemstvo councils regularly met, where people jointly discussed their interests. It gradually became clear that solving problems was impossible only within a local framework, and an understanding of the need for an all-Russian movement matured. This was reflected in the people's militias gathered in Russian provincial cities. Despite the collapse of state ties, the awareness of national unity did not disappear - on the contrary, the Troubles gave it special strength. The church conducted continuous preaching in favor of the unity of all Orthodox Christians. In this regard, Patriarch Hermogenes played an outstanding role.
Key dates:
March - July 1611 - I people's militia, headed by Trubetskoy, Zarutsky, Lyapunov. It consisted mainly of Cossacks and nobles; They could not take Moscow.
Autumn 1611 - organization of the Second People's Militia (Minin and Pozharsky). Kozma Minin's call - not to seek personal benefits, but to give everything to a common cause - resonated with the majority of ordinary people, symbolizing the turn of society towards a moral and civic principle. The people, having suffered from the unrest, used their last money to gather a militia to restore calm in the country and took the fate of the state into their own hands. What happened was that historian S.M. Solovyov called it a “feat of purification” when “the people, not seeing any external help, delved into their inner, spiritual world in order to extract the means of salvation from there.” The Russian people, in the face of the catastrophe, gathered their strength and recreated the destroyed state, clearly showing that it was not a “royal fiefdom”, but a subject of common concern and common cause.
On February 21, 1613, state power in the country was restored: the Zemsky Sobor elected Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. This candidacy suited everyone, since the new king and his entourage were able to persistently and calmly carry out restoration work.
Consequences of the Troubles:
- political - a temporary weakening of the central government, the growth of the influence of the Zemsky Councils, but in the long term it was inevitable that the country would develop along the path of strengthening the central government, since the majority of the population was tired of anarchy and longed for a “firm order,” albeit to the detriment of their rights;
- economic - a severe crisis, devastation, loss of 1/3 of the national wealth and 1/4 of the population, the recovery period lasted until the 50s. XVII century.
- social - temporary suspension of enslavement, restoration of St. George's Day.
- international – a decline in Russia’s prestige, significant territorial losses. The coast of the Gulf of Finland and Karelia went to Sweden, and Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands went to Poland. The Polish prince Vladislav continued to lay claim to the Russian throne.
An important result of the Time of Troubles is that it ended not with the establishment of a new social system, but with the restoration of monarchical statehood. The path for the further development of Russia was chosen: autocracy as a form of political government, Orthodoxy as an ideology.
Concepts:
Military circle - a combined arms meeting of the Don Cossacks (for the Ukrainian - Sichovaya Rada). Resolved issues of war and peace, organization of military campaigns, division of military spoils, selection of atamans and other officials. It was the highest authority and the highest court. Originated in the 15th century. and existed until the 17th century. as a democratic institution of Cossack governance.
Wild field - the historical name of the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously developed in the 16th – 17th centuries. Cossacks, as well as fugitive peasants and slaves.
Duvan – among the Cossacks - war booty. Since the birth of the Cossacks, trips “for zipuns” have been one of the main sources of livelihood for Cossack communities. All captured goods and trophies were put into a common pot and transferred for storage to the military treasury. At the end of the campaign, the Cossacks gathered together to “duvan duvanit” - to make a division. The share of each depended on the distinction and degree of personal participation in the battles; holding elective military positions during the campaign was also taken into account. Part of the loot was donated to Orthodox monasteries and churches; Broken captured cannons were also sent there to be melted down for bells. There was an inviolable rule: “The duvan is not duvan without the ataman.”
Cossacks - a special social and historical community of people who carried out military service on the borders of Russia. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the Cossacks were free, they had their own autonomy and their own special political organization. The centers of the free Cossacks were the Dnieper, Don, Yaik (Ural) rivers with the adjacent steppe expanses. War played exceptional importance in the life of the Cossacks.
Impostors - those who appropriated someone else’s name or title. Appeared and had the greatest significance in Russian history of the 17th and 18th centuries. The reason for their appearance was the displeasure that prevailed at that time mainly among the lower, land-bound population. Displeasure, expressed in revolts, began on the outskirts and manifested itself only when an armed force appeared among the dissatisfied in the person of the Cossacks, calling them to action under the banner of the false king. The Cossacks, who were a collection of people dissatisfied with the existing system, who fled or were expelled from the state, did not want to voluntarily lose their freedom when the strengthened central government wanted to subjugate them. In the fight against the state, the Cossacks expose impostors and worry the peaceful, unarmed population of the country. Only those impostors have success who appeared among the Cossacks or relied on them.
"Seven Boyars" - boyar government (7 people) in Russia in 1610-1612. Transferred actual power to the Poles; liquidated by the Second Militia under the leadership of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky in October 1612.
"Tushinsky thief" – False Dmitry II (? - 1610) impostor of unknown origin. Since 1607, he pretended to be the allegedly saved Tsar Dmitry (False Dmitry I). In 1608-09 he created the Tushino camp near Moscow, from where he unsuccessfully tried to capture the capital. With the beginning of open Polish intervention, he fled to Kaluga, where he was killed.