Geography study object- laws and patterns of placement and interaction of components geographical environment and their combinations on different levels. Complexity of the research object and breadth subject area determined the differentiation of a single geography into a number of specialized (industry) scientific disciplines that form a system geographical sciences. Within its framework, natural (physical-geographical) and (socio-economic) geographical sciences are distinguished. Sometimes geographic cartography is distinguished separately as a separate geographical discipline.
Geography is one of ancient sciences. Many of its foundations were laid in the Hellenic era. This experience was summarized by the outstanding geographer Claudius Ptolemy in the 1st century AD. e. Rise of the Western geographical tradition falls on the Renaissance, which is marked by a rethinking of the achievements of the late Hellenistic era and significant achievements in cartography, which are usually associated with the name of Gerhard Mercator. The foundations of modern academic geography were laid by Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter in the 1st half of the 19th century.
History of Geography[ | ]
Geography of the Ancient EastIn the second millennium BC. e. In ancient Egypt, expeditions were organized to the center of Africa, along the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The settlement of peoples, wars and trade expanded people's knowledge of the surrounding spaces and developed navigation skills based on the Sun, Moon and stars. The dependence of agriculture and cattle breeding on river floods and other periodic natural phenomena determined the appearance of the calendar.
In the III-II millennium BC. e. representatives Harappan civilization(in the territory of modern Pakistan) the monsoons opened. The elements of geography contain sacred ancient Indian books. In the Vedas, an entire chapter is devoted to cosmology. In the Mahabharata you can find a list of oceans, mountains, and rivers. Already in the 9th-8th centuries BC. e. In ancient China, when choosing a place to build a fortress, maps of suitable sites were drawn up. In the 3rd century BC. e. works appear entirely devoted to geography, a compass and a device for measuring distance, and the “Regional Atlas” of China.
Ancient Mediterranean geography
Map of the world made by Ptolemy
We also received news of a round map, contemporary with Hecataeus, executed on copper and depicting the sea, land and rivers. From the evidence of Herodotus and Aristotle we can conclude that on the most ancient maps habitable earth it was also depicted as round and surrounded by the ocean; from the west, from the Pillars of Hercules, the middle of the ecumene was cut through by the inland (Mediterranean) sea, to which eastern outskirts the eastern inland sea was approaching, and both of these seas served to separate the southern semicircle of the Earth from the northern. Round flat maps were in use in Greece back in the time of Aristotle and later, when the sphericity of the Earth was already recognized by almost all philosophers.
Age of Expeditions
Alexander von Humboldt, 1806
IN XVII-XVIII centuries the search for new lands and routes was carried out on a state scale. Great importance acquired fixation, mapping and generalization of acquired knowledge. Search Southern mainland ended with the discovery of Australia (Janszon) and Oceania. Three round the world expeditions James Cook made the discovery of Hawaii and the Great Barrier Reef. Russian pioneers advanced into Siberia and the Far East.
Subject and methods of geography[ | ]
Satellite image of the Earth
Earth elevation map
Map as the basis of geographical research
“Every geographical research starts from a map and comes to a map; it begins with a map and ends with a map” (N. N. Baransky). Despite the introduction of new methods into geography, the cartographic method is one of the main ones when conducting research. This is due to the fact that a map is the most advanced way of transmitting spatial information. Modeling method in geography, geoinformation and remote methods rely on the cartographic method.
Geographical picture of the world and geographical culture
Under geographical culture The culture of geography is most often understood as a science. Culture geographical knowledge both geographers and the population. In his works “Geographical Culture” and “Geographical Picture of the World” V. P. Maksakovsky examines these interrelated concepts from the perspective modern geography. It includes in geographical culture following components: 1) geographical picture of the world, 2) geographical thinking, 3) methods of geography, 4) language of geography. There is a gap between popular and scientific geographical culture, since society is mainly faced with descriptive geography and has no idea about the language and methods of modern geography.
Personalities [ | ]
Scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of geography as a science [ ] :
Alexander von Humboldt, 1847
Carl Ritter
Travelers who made significant discoveries (excluding scientific travelers):
- Vasco da Gama
- Christopher Columbus
- Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern
- Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev
- Afanasy Nikitin
- Marco Polo
- Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky
- and others.
To learn to distinguish Austria from Australia, north from south, dune from dune, you should study geography well. The definition of the word and its meaning can be found in this article. In addition, you will learn what one of the most ancient sciences studies and what its main features are.
What is geography: definition and meaning of the term
Geography is the oldest existing scientific discipline. Its foundations were laid back in the Hellenistic era. Her areas of interest include seas and oceans, mountains and plains, as well as society. More precisely, the features of human interaction with the surrounding nature.
Defining the concept of “geography” is impossible without an interpretation of the word itself. It is of ancient Greek origin and is translated as “description of the earth.” The term consists of two Greek words: “geo” (earth) and “grapho” (write, describe).
In the third century BC (when geography was emerging as a science) this term quite consistent with the essence. Ancient Greek thinkers really were engaged in “description of the earth”, without going much into the intricacies of natural processes and phenomena. However, the current definition of geography cannot be reduced to such a narrow interpretation.
What does science do? modern stage? To answer this question, you need to understand what geography is. You will find the definition of this scientific discipline further in our article.
Early history of geographical science
So, as we have already figured out, the term “geography” was invented by the ancient Greeks. They also created the first detailed maps terrain. Actually, the foundations of this science were laid precisely in the Hellenic era. Later, the center of its development smoothly moved to Arab world. Islamic geographers not only explored and mapped a lot of new lands, but also made many important innovative discoveries.
Chinese civilization also greatly contributed to the development of geographical science. In particular, instrumentally. It was the Chinese who developed such a useful thing as a compass, which is actively used in the 21st century.
The most famous representatives early period in the history of geographical science:
- Eratosthenes ("father of geography").
- Claudius Ptolemy.
- Strabo.
- Muhammad al-Idrisi.
- Ibn Battuta.
Development of geography in the 16th-20th centuries
During the European Renaissance, the enormous empirical heritage accumulated by geographers of previous generations and cultures was systematized and rethought. The so-called period of the Great Geographical Discoveries set completely new tasks and goals for the “science of geographies,” and a fresh and genuine interest in the profession of geographer arose in society.
In the 18th century this science are beginning to be studied at universities as a separate discipline. In the first half XIX century Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter laid the foundation for modern academic geography as we know it today. Nowadays, thanks to satellite technology and the latest geographic information systems, geography comes into play completely new stage of its development.
Scientists who contributed significant contribution in the development of European geographical science:
- Gerhard Mercator.
- Alexander von Humboldt.
- Karl Ritter.
- Walter Christaller.
- Vasily Dokuchaev.
Definition of geography as a science
“A linear image of the entire known part of the Earth, with everything that is located on it - bays, major cities, peoples, significant rivers." This definition of geography was given by Claudius Ptolemy back in the second century. Thanks to this science, as the famous ancient Greek astronomer said, we get unique opportunity“see the whole Earth in one picture.”
At the beginning of the 19th century, the German geographer Karl Ritter proposed replacing “geographic description” with the term “geography”. By the way, it was he who first divided geography into two independent branches: physical and social (political). “The territory influences the inhabitants, and the inhabitants influence the territory” - Ritter expressed this fair thought back in 1804.
Another German scientist Hermann Wagner gave following definition geography: this is the science of the power of space, which manifests itself in local differences in its material filling. Wagner was quite close in his scientific views to Karl Ritter.
An interesting definition of geography was given by the famous Soviet soil scientist Arseny Yarilov. According to him, this is the science that should orient a person within the boundaries of the home assigned to him by nature.
There are many other interesting interpretations of this scientific discipline. To summarize all of the above, a modern definition should be given: geography is a science that studies the so-called geographical shell of the Earth, in all its natural and socio-economic diversity. We will talk about what this is in more detail in the next section.
Geographical envelope is...
The geographic shell refers to the shell of planet Earth, consisting of four structural layers:
- Troposphere.
- Earth's crust.
- Hydrospheres.
- Biospheres.
Moreover, all these “spheres” are in close interaction, intersecting and penetrating each other. The essence of the concept of the geographical shell of the Earth was first described back in 1910 by the Russian scientist P. I. Brounov.
Within the geographical envelope there is a constant and continuous process movement of matter and energy. Thus, water from rivers and lakes constantly enters the lower layers of the atmosphere, as well as into the earth’s crust (through cracks and pores). In turn, gases and solid particles from the troposphere enter water bodies.
The boundaries of the geographical envelope are not clearly defined. Most often, its lower line is drawn along the sole earth's crust, the upper one is at an altitude of 20-25 kilometers. Thus, the average thickness of the Earth's geographic shell is approximately 30 km. Compared to the parameters of our planet, this is minuscule. But it is precisely this thin “film” that is the main object of study for geographical science.
Structure of geographical science
Modern geography is a complex and very voluminous science, which includes dozens of special disciplines. As a rule, it is divided into two large blocks - physical and social (or socio-economic). The first one studies general patterns the development and existence of the geographical shell and its individual parts, and the second is engaged in the study of the processes of interaction between society and the natural environment.
Among the physical geographical disciplines the following stand out:
- Geodesy.
- Geomorphology.
- Hydrology.
- Oceanology.
- Landscape science.
- Soil science.
- Paleogeography.
- Climatology.
- Glaciology, etc.
Among the socio-geographical sciences, it is customary to distinguish the following disciplines:
- Demography.
- Economical geography.
- Geopolitics.
- Geography of culture.
- Medical geography.
- Geo-urbanistics.
- Political geography.
- Regional studies, etc.
Main problems and discussions of modern geography
Oddly enough, the question “what is geography?” remains one of the most complex and controversial among representatives of this science. What geography should study, what goals it should set for itself - these problems still cannot be solved by the minds of the current generation of geographers.
In addition to this, theoretical geography is trying today to solve a number of other current problems. The most basic ones include the following:
- The problem of loss of interest in geography in society.
- The problem of the “dying away” of such purely practical disciplines, such as reclamation, land management, soil science.
- Problem general classification geographical science.
- Definition of a series key concepts: “geographical envelope”, “landscape”, “geosystem”, etc.
IN Lately A new direction such as “constructive geography” is gaining popularity. First of all, due to the strategic nature of their research. This discipline can transform traditionally descriptive and theoretical geography into practical and useful one.
Finally
Geography is one of the most ancient sciences. It originated in the 3rd century BC. Today, geography is an independent scientific branch that deals with a deep and comprehensive study of the geographical shell of the Earth, starting from processes in the thickness of the earth’s crust and ending production activities person.
The most strong earthquake occurred in China in 1556, when 830 thousand people died at the same time. IN Western Europe The earthquake of 1755 in Portugal was very large. At the same time, the capital of Portugal, the city of Lisbon, was completely destroyed and 60 thousand people died. Earthquakes frequently occur in San Francisco, which is located on tectonic fault. And in our country there is quite a seismic hazardous areas. In 1988, an earthquake occurred in Armenia, during which over 20 thousand people died and more than 500 thousand were left homeless. And in 1995 major earthquake completely destroyed the city of Neftegorsk on Sakhalin.
The most common exogenous process is weathering – the process of transformation of rocks in the near-surface part of the earth's crust under the influence of temperature fluctuations, chemical exposure water, gases and organic substances.
The wind plays a huge role in weathering, blowing and dispersing loose rock particles. As a result, sands, loess, dunes, etc. are formed. Flowing waters, seas and oceans contribute to sedimentation, erosion, leading to the formation sedimentary rocks. The groundwater dissolve some rocks, resulting in the formation of holes on the surface of the earth, as well as caves and other underground cavities.
Historical geology
Historical geology includes stratigraphy, studying the sequence of deposition of rock layers in the Earth's sedimentary shell, and paleography, restoring the physical and geographical conditions of past years.
Consistent study of the strata of sedimentary rocks is considered as pages of the “stone chronicle” of the Earth. Moreover, the higher the geological layer lies, the younger it is considered. Special attention turns to the study of fossilized remains of plant and animal organisms that are preserved in layers of sedimentary rocks. As a result of paleontological research, it was found that each era in the development of the Earth corresponded to certain plants and animals. This served as the basis for establishing the relative age of rock strata and made it possible to divide the history of the last 600 million years of the Earth’s life into successive periods of time - periods, epochs and centuries. Thus, a stratigraphic scale was compiled that underlies a more detailed geochronological scale. This period was called Phanerozoic and is divided into three eras: Paleozoic(240 million years), Mesozoic(163 Ma) and Cenozoic(67 million years). Eras are in turn divided into smaller periods. Ancient period in the history of the Earth was named Precambrian, or cryptozoic. It makes up 5/6 of the total geological history Earth and is divided into archaea(ended 3.5 billion years ago) and Proterozoic(up to 600 million years ago).
Table 13.1.Geochronological scale of the Phanerozoic
Group (era) | System (period) | Beginning, million years ago | Duration, million years |
Cenozoic (67 million years) | Anthropogenic (Quaternary) Neogene Paleogene | ||
Mesozoic (163 million years) | Triassic | ||
Paleozoic (240 million years) | Perm Carboniferous Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian |
13.3. The formation of geography as a science
Geography– system of natural and social sciences, studying natural and industrial-territorial complexes and their components.
Such knowledge was the basis of human survival in ancient times. Therefore, the accumulation of empirical information about the environment began in primitive era. But the first attempts scientific explanation geographical phenomena - changes in land and sea, earthquakes and river floods, as well as a systematic description of a known part of the ecumene, belong to the ancient Greeks. The pinnacle of ancient geography was the works of Strabo and Ptolemy in the 1st–2nd centuries. Strabo belongs to the book "Geography", which contains the most complete materials on regional studies, containing topographical, ethnographic and political-historical data. IN Ptolemy's Manual of Geography contains a list of settlements indicating their geographical coordinates, and also suggested mapping methods.
In the Middle Ages, geographical ideas were formed from biblical dogmas and some conclusions of ancient science. Even geocentric ideas were rejected by most thinkers of the early Middle Ages. Thus, for a long time the most important geographical work was considered “Christian Topography” by Cosmas Indikoplov, written in the 6th century. It stated that the Earth is a flat rectangle washed by the ocean. The sun hid behind the mountain at night, four largest rivers, known then, originated in the region of Mount Ararat (Tigris, Euphrates, Ganges and Nile), and the center of the Earth was Jerusalem.
The revolution in geography began with the era Great geographical discoveries. This is the name given to the largest geographical discoveries made by European travelers from the middle of the 15th century to mid-17th century centuries Height commodity production in Europe, the lack of resources was accompanied by the search for new lands and new trade routes to the East, from where silk, spices, etc. were brought.
Portuguese navigators were especially active in discovering new lands, and already in the 15th century they explored the entire western and southern coast of Africa. Vasco da Gama opened a sea route around South Africa to India. Columbus discovered America, the coast of which was actively explored by both Portuguese and Spanish sailors. WITH early XVI V. Active development of the newly discovered lands began, called the New World, and by the middle of the century a general idea of it was obtained. In 1519–1522 Magellan did the first trip around the world, proving in practice the sphericity of the Earth.
At the same time, Russian explorers began to actively explore Siberia and the Far East, proved that Asia is not connected to America, and discovered Alaska.
In the 17th century Dutch researchers became involved in the process of discovering new lands. Barents walked around western shores Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen, and Yanzon And Tasman Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand were discovered.
As a result of these discoveries, the outlines of inhabited continents were established, most of earth's surface. Following the travelers were colonists and traders who developed these territories and included them in the orbit of world civilization, which began to take shape from that time.
As a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, man was able to look at the globe as a single whole. At the same time, the formation of a planetary view of the processes occurring on Earth began. Were identified priority areas V geographical studies, which determined further development geography up to the 20th century. The main goal scientists began to achieve a complete understanding of the Earth. To do this, it was necessary to fill in all the “blank spots” on geographical map. This task was completed by the middle of the 20th century. after the advent of aerial photography and satellite photographs. In addition, it was important to understand what all earthly shells how they are related to each other, how they determine natural phenomena. This approach made it possible to turn geography into a rigorous science. In establishing these views, the works of A. Humboldt, who was one of the first to understand that geography should study natural phenomena in their interrelationship. At the same time, he assigned the most important place cosmic influences, since He believed that they determine the dynamics of most of the earth’s processes.
Geography has gone through a number of stages in its development. Appearance of the book in 1845 A. Humboldt "Cosmos" marked the completion of the stage of accumulation of empirical information in geography and the emergence of physical geography - one of the fundamental natural sciences. At the same time, research in the field of economic geography, which systematized information about the population, economy, administrative and political structure, finance, trade, and military potential of various countries, which referred geography to the field of social science.
Second half of the 19th century. passes under the sign of differentiation and integration of sciences, which also affected geography, causing the emergence of a number of special geographical disciplines. This is how the anthropogeography of F. Ratzel, the biogeography and soil science of V. Dokuchaev appeared, and climatology, hydrology, geomorphology, glaciology, permafrost science, paleogeography, etc. were formed. Interest in complex physical-geographical and economic-geographical research also increased.
Therefore, in the 20th century. the need to revive a unified geography as integrated science, engaged in research of both natural and social phenomena and processes. This in turn led to the emergence of numerous border disciplines in this area of knowledge. Thus, today the second approach to defining geography is winning.
13.4. The structure of geographical knowledge
There are four levels of geographical knowledge*:
theoretical geography and history of geography, which form the theoretical core of this science;
“stem” sciences (physical geography, economic geography, cartography and regional studies);
branch sciences that emerged as a result of the differentiation of geography and have search functions;
borderline or interface sciences that arose as a result of the integration of geography with other sciences.
* This approach is proposed by one of the largest Russian geographers V.P. Maksakovsky. Cm.: Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical culture. – M., 1998.
Idea theoretical geography originated in the West in the 60s of the XX century. The main goal of this science was to identify the most general laws and constructions of spatio-temporal systems and structures studied by geographical sciences. Its emergence can be considered as a result of the development of the entire system of geographical sciences, as well as active use mathematical methods.
History of Geography studies the history of geographical knowledge, geographical discoveries, and the formation of geographical thought.
Physiography – the science of the geographical shell of the Earth, its composition, structure, features of formation and development, spatial differentiation. It includes: general Physiography, regional physical geography and branch physical-geographical sciences.
General physical geography – is a fundamental physical-geographical science that studies the patterns of structure, functioning, dynamics and evolution of the geographical shell of the Earth, common problems territorial differentiation (zoning, natural areas different ranks). She also studies complex natural and natural-anthropogenic systems - landscapes as parts of the geographical envelope of the Earth. It also includes paleogeography – science about the patterns of development of this shell, the history of interaction between nature and man, and the landscapes of the geological past.
Regional physical geography studies specific local territories, features of their nature, natural resources, processes of development and formation. The objects are territorial units of any rank - from countries to small areas.
Branch physical and geographical sciences also study the geographical envelope of the Earth, but take only one side or structural part this shell. There are eight such sciences:
geomorphology – studies the historically developing relief of the earth's surface, examines the external appearance of the land relief and seabed. She also considers the impact of endogenous and exogenous processes on the relief, the influence of humans on the relief;
climatology – the science of climate, its formation, geographic distribution, and changes over time. It collects data on atmospheric processes over a long period and summarizes the results of measurements of weather parameters. This makes it possible to judge the climate regime;
land hydrology – explores the patterns of processes and phenomena occurring in natural waters land, formation of water balance, structure of river flows, ice regime, chemical composition of waters, etc. The objects of its study are rivers, lakes, swamps;
oceanology -- science of natural processes in the World Ocean. It seeks to identify the general patterns of the nature of the ocean as a whole. There are specialists in physics, chemistry, geology, ocean biology;
glaciology – the science of natural ice on the Earth's surface, atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. She studies the regime and dynamics of ice development, its interaction with the environment, and the role of ice in the development of the Earth. Also the subject of attention are snow-glacial resources, glacier movement, snow avalanches, history of glaciation;
geocryology (permafrost science) – frozen soil science and rocks, processes of their formation, development and conditions of existence. The processes of freezing and thawing of frozen strata are also studied;
soil geography – studies the patterns of formation and spatial distribution of soils. Her areas of interest include soil formation factors, regional geography soils;
biogeography – studies the patterns of distribution of living organisms depending on factors environment, as well as the connections of organisms with the environment.
Socio-economic geography
Socio-economic geography presents public area geography. This is a complex of scientific disciplines that study the patterns of social production and human settlement. In other words, socio-economic geography studies the territorial organization of social life, the features of its manifestation in individual countries ah, regions and localities. Sometimes this science is also called social geography or human geography.
Socio-economic geography is also divided into general, regional and sectoral disciplines.
General socio-economic geography studies general issues theories and methodology of this science, patterns of territorial organization of social production, spatial processes and forms of organization of people's lives.
Regional socio-economic geography explores specific areas, countries and regions from the same angle.
Branch socio-economic geographical sciences study particular issues and problems, individual aspects of objects of socio-economic geography. There are six such sciences:
population geography – part of economic geography that studies the structure, distribution and territorial organization of the population, which is considered in the process of social reproduction and interaction with the natural environment. It establishes spatial patterns, the dynamics of these population traits. In turn, it is divided into the geography of the city, the village, migration, labor resources;
geography of industry– studies the territorial structure of industrial production, objective patterns And specific features development of industry in general and by groups of industries;
agricultural geography– studies the patterns and features of territorial differentiation of agricultural production, production types of agriculture, as well as agricultural lands;
geography of transport – the center of her attention territorial structure transport, patterns and specific features of its location, the degree of transport development of territories, transport networks and systems of transport flows;
geography natural resources – studies geography individual species natural resources and their combinations, ways of rational use of resources, their problems economic assessment, gives a forecast of the state of the resource base;
recreational geography– the science of recreational activities people, recreation areas, recreational resources, as well as tourism issues.
Cartography
This is the field of science, technology and production.
It is at the intersection of technical, natural and social sciences. For a long time It was believed that map making was main responsibility geography. Cartography became an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, which was facilitated by the successes mathematical sciences and progressive changes in knowledge of the world.
Cartography– is the science of displaying and studying natural and social phenomena through figurative and symbolic models (cartographic images). Cartography allows you to trace the location, properties and relationships of these phenomena.
To fulfill the tasks assigned to it, cartography created a theory of mapping, developed mathematical basis maps, their design and compilation. An important part cartography is the creation of a language for maps and rules for their use (reading).
Today there is huge variety types of maps that differ in object, method, scale. There are also different branches of mapping - scientific, scientific reference, educational, tourist, navigation, etc. The range of map topics is very wide - geological, soil, geobotanical, landscape, environmental, economic, political, etc.
Geographic map– This is a reduced generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane.
The phenomena shown are displayed in special map projections using special symbols. The map makes it possible to obtain correct data about the position, size and shape of the depicted earthly objects. The use of cartographic signs allows you to depict the earth's surface with a desired reduction (scale), show the terrain, the internal properties of the depicted objects (on a sea map you can show physical features waters and currents), the prevalence of phenomena, etc.
Fourthlevelgeographical knowledge
It includes the so-called interface scientific disciplines. They arise as a result of the integration of sciences, which focus on the same objects. At the intersection of geography and political science in late XIX– early 20th century arose political geography. The founder of this science is considered F. Ratzel, author "Political Geography"(1887). The subject of her research is the territorial arrangement of class and political forces in connection with socio-economic, political, ethnocultural and natural features development of regions and countries, as well as their areas.
This science studies the features of political and government system different countries, the processes of formation of the territory of the state, analyzes the structure of the population, the alignment of political forces, parties and movements. Radical changes on the political map of the world, new relationships of political forces on the world stage are considered, regional conflicts And global problems modernity. Last time increased interest call for research in the field of electoral geography, which deals with the analysis of election campaigns and elections themselves at the state and interstate levels.
At the intersection of geography and history in late XVIII V. originated historical geography. She studies the specific geography of the past and its changes at different historical stages. In the sphere of interests of this science is the development and change of the geographical environment over historical time; political map and political system past eras; basic demographic characteristics population of the past; social and economic characteristics of past societies, historical aspects development of material and spiritual culture.
At the intersection of geography with military science located military geography. Any success military operation largely depends on the correct consideration of the characteristics of the terrain in which this operation is carried out. Specialists in this field study military blocs and alliances, their internal and foreign policy, hotbeds of political tension that could escalate into military conflicts, the military-economic potential of individual countries, the study of potential theaters of military operations (compilation detailed maps). Military regional studies are also developing, studying from the listed positions various countries(potential allies and adversaries).
Ethnogeography arose at the intersection of ethnography and geography. She studies the features of the settlement of the peoples of the world to determine their ethnic boundaries, dynamics and population size. Closely related to ethnogeography geography of culture, formed at the intersection of cultural studies and geography, studying territorial differentiation culture and its individual components, elements of material and spiritual culture. After all, the specificity of the culture of each ethnic group is largely determined by the characteristics of natural, climatic conditions in which this ethnic group lives.
Recently, at the intersection between geography and medicine, a medical geography, which studies those factors and environmental conditions that affect public health. She also studies patterns in the spread of human diseases.
Back at the beginning of the 20th century. arose at the intersection of chemistry and earth sciences geochemistry – science of chemical composition Earth, distribution patterns chemical elements in various geospheres, the laws of their behavior, combinations and migrations. The object of study of geochemistry is the cycle of substances in nature, its components are hydrochemistry and geochemistry of landscapes.
Received great development geophysics– the science of internal structure, physical properties and processes occurring in geospheres.
At the intersection of geography, linguistics and history, arose toponymy – science of geographical names, their origin, development and current state, semantic meaning, writing and transmission from one language to another.
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“The history and significance of geographical discoveries” - The route of the great navigator’s journey. Which route polar explorer shown on the map. Robert Peary. The sphericity of the Earth. Great navigator. Portuguese navigator. Roald Amundsen. Maps of the globe. Englishman. Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen. Routes of four expeditions. History of geographical discoveries. Dutch navigator. First trip around the world. Australia is an independent continent.
“The City of Biysk” - Biysk Fortress - early June 1718. City life. The fortress is a city. My city. Solving problems involving addition and subtraction of natural numbers. Annexation of the upper reaches of the Ob River to Russia. Where did our hometown begin? Lesson objectives. Biysk fortress in facts and figures. Hometown. Length of the walls of the fort.
“St. Basil’s Cathedral” - Why St. Basil’s Cathedral? Where is the temple? Built by order of 25-year-old Ivan the Terrible. St. Basil's Cathedral. In memory of the capture of Kazan and the victory over the Kazan Khanate. Previously it was thought that the cathedral was built by Italians. There the temple, towering like a mountain, stands without shaking off its snowy load... A legend associated with the cathedral. What did Napoleon want to do with the cathedral and what saved the temple? In the old days, the Intercession Cathedral was red and white, and the domes were gold.
"Port of Piraeus" - Immigrant Tax. Contributions allied states. Goods imported to Greece. Sea. Coins in Ancient Greece. Port of Piraeus. Slave markets. Citizens. Name the main port of the Athenian state. Athens. Port of Piraeus today. Export. Trading partners of Ancient Greece. Trade duties. Concepts. Sources of enrichment of Athens. Impetus for development. In the harbors of the Athens port of Piraeus. Results of the wars with the Persians for Athens. Use of slave labor.
“Our Earth” - Geographers. The first cosmonauts. Reasons for the uniqueness of the Earth. Fill the table. Satellites. Astronomers. Writers and poets. Our Earth. Reasons for uniqueness. The originality and uniqueness of the Earth. Reportage. Planet.
“Lesson “Scale”” - Build a cane in the form of a segment. The scale may vary. Construct a rectangle. Segments. Scenery. Construct 2 segments. Textbook. Solution. Tasks from a beauty queen. Ladybug. Scale. Even number. Pinocchio stretched. The growth of an elephant. Verbal counting.
A) geoecology b) biogeography c) medical geography
A) geoecology b) biogeography c) medical geography
Test on the topic “Geography: ancient and modern science”
1. The name of the science “geography” is translated from Greek as
A) land description b) land observation c) land drawing
2. Which ancient scientist first used the term “geography”
A) Herodotus b) Eratosthenes c) Aristotle
3. The science of maps
A) geomorphology b) cartography c) regional studies
4. Everything geographical features and phenomena created by nature, studies:
A) physical geography b) social geography
5. The science of the effects of natural and economic conditions territories on human health
A) geoecology b) biogeography c) medical geography
6. Which of the following geographical sciences is general geographical?
A) geomorphology b) population geography c) regional geography
7. Which of the following geographical sciences studies animals and vegetable world planets
A) geoecology b) biogeography c) medical geography
8. Which of the following geographical sciences studies the waters of land?
A) hydrology b) geomorphology c) oceanology
9. Science that studies natural ice on Earth and in its atmosphere
A) hydrology b) glaciology c) oceanology
10. Which of the following geographical sciences predicts the consequences of human impact on nature?
A) geoecology b) biogeography c) medical geography