Periodization of the primitive era table. The primitive era of humanity: characteristics of the main periods

Modern science suggests that all the diversity of current space objects was formed about 20 billion years ago. The Sun, one of the many stars in our Galaxy, arose 10 billion years ago. According to scientists, our Earth, an ordinary planet in the solar system, is 4.6 billion years old. It is currently generally accepted that man began to separate from the animal world about 3 million years ago.

There are several options for the periodization of humanity at the stage of the primitive communal system. Most often they use an archaeological scheme based on differences in the material and technique of making tools. In accordance with it, three periods are distinguished in the ancient era:

stone Age(from the emergence of man to the 4th-3rd millennium BC);
bronze age(IV-III millennium - until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC);
iron age(from the 1st millennium BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is divided into Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and transitional to bronze Copperstone Age (Chalcolithic).

Each period is distinguished by: 1) the degree of development of tools, 2) the materials from which they were made, 3) the quality of housing, 4) the appropriate organization of farming.

The primitive era of humanity is characterized by:

low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement;
collective appropriation of natural resources and production results;
equitable distribution;
socio-economic equality;
the absence of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

The appearance of the first australopithecines marked the emergence of material culture directly related to the production of tools, which became a means for archaeologists to determine the main stages of the development of ancient humanity.

The rich and generous nature of that time did not help to accelerate this process; Only with the advent of the harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with the intensification of the labor activity of primitive man in his difficult struggle for existence, new skills appeared, tools were improved, and new social forms were developed.

The path of humanity in the conditions of the primitive communal system passed through a number of stages: 1) mastery of fire; 2) collective hunting of large animals; 3) adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier; 4) invention of the bow; 5) transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering, fishing) to a producing economy (cattle breeding and agriculture); 6) discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron); 7) creation of a complex tribal organization of society.

The pace of development of human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a productive economy. But another feature has emerged - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with an unfavorable, harsh geographical environment continued to develop slowly, while areas with a mild climate, reserves of ores and minerals moved faster towards civilization.

A giant glacier (about 100 thousand years ago) contributed to the appearance on the planet of a special flora and fauna in the most difficult climatic conditions. In accordance with this, the history of human society is divided into three different periods: 1) pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate; 2) glacial and 3) post-glacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of person: in the pre-glacial period - archaeoanthropus (pithecanthropus, synanthropus, etc.), in glacial - paleoanthropes (Neanderthal man), at the end of the Ice Age, in the Late Paleolithic, - neoanthropes, modern people.

Human Origins

Among different peoples in different regions of the Earth, the appearance of certain tools and forms of social life did not occur simultaneously. There was a process of human formation (anthropogenesis, from the Greek "anthropos" - man, "genesis" - origin) and the formation of human society (sociogenesis, from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "genesis" - origin).

Scientists have identified the following problems of anthropogenesis: 1) the origin of man as a species, the place and chronology of this phenomenon, the definition of the line between man as an actively thinking creature of living nature and his closest ancestors; 2) the connection between anthropogenesis and the development of material production; 3) raceogenesis - the study of the causes and processes of racial-genetic differences.

The origin of man has always been considered from two mutually exclusive positions: as the result of a supernatural, divine, cosmic (alien in the modern version) beginning and as a result of the evolutionary development of living nature, as a kind of pinnacle of this process.

In Soviet science, the evolutionary view of anthropogenesis dominated. Back in the 17th century. Materialist scientists, based on the idea of the unity of the entire animal world, considered man as a part of nature and expressed the idea of his origin from ancient apes. This view did not appear by chance, since significant scientific material had been accumulated that proved the biological similarity of the structure of the human body with the body of animals. Based on the achievements of natural science, Charles Darwin in his work “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), showing the evolutionary unity, regularity and sequence of development of the animal world, proved that man descended from ancient apes.

The most ancient ancestors of modern man resembled apes, who, unlike animals, were able to produce tools. In the scientific literature, this type of ape-man is called homo habilis - a skilled man. The further evolution of Habilis led to the appearance 1.5-1.6 million years ago of the so-called Pithecanthropus (from the Greek “pithekos” - monkey, “anthropos” - man), or archanthropes (from the Greek “achaios” - ancient). Archanthropes were already people. 300-200 thousand years ago, archanthropes were replaced by a more developed type of person - paleoanthropes, or Neanderthals (according to the place of their first discovery in the Neanderthal area in Germany).

The process of separation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows:

Australopithecus Homo;
Homo erectus (early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus);
a person of modern physical appearance (late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people).

As a result of the accumulation of new anthropological and archaeological materials, modern science suggests that the process of formation of modern people took place in an area covering Southeast Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. From this zone, the modern type of man, as the most developed, settled throughout the entire territory of the earth. As a result of settlement, extensive cultural and historical communities emerged. Scientists believe that these communities corresponded to the linguistic families from which came the peoples who currently inhabit our country. The following cultural and historical communities are distinguished:

Indo-European;
Ugro-Finnish;
Turkic;
Iberian-Caucasian.

The largest language family is Indo-European. It took shape on the territory of modern Iran and Asia Minor, and spread to Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia Minor and Central Asia and the region of the Hindustan Peninsula. Subsequently, the Indo-European cultural community was divided into several branches:

Slavic: eastern, western and southern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Croats, etc.);
Western European: British, Germans, French, etc.;
eastern: Indians, Tajiks, Iranians, Armenians, etc.

A complex problem is raceogenesis. All modern humanity is divided into several large racial trunks - Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid and Australoid, each of which, in turn, includes several large racial divisions and a large number of small racial groups. The composition of the races basically coincided with the boundaries of the continents: the Caucasoid race was formed mainly in Europe, the Negroid race in Africa, and the Mongoloid race in Asia. Each large race has its own characteristics that characterize it: facial structure, hair pigmentation, eye color, etc. Acquired signs changed over time in a certain direction, disappeared or intensified. Within the large races - Mongoloid, Negroid and Caucasoid - separate large branches arose. Thus, within the Mongoloid race there are South Asian, Siberian and American branches, the Negroid is divided into two, and within the Caucasoid race there are northern and southern branches.

Historically, the development of mankind has proceeded in a constant dialectical unity of different principles - evolutionary and the phenomenon of a qualitative leap, biological and social. Substitution of one for the other is completely excluded. At the same time, we must not forget that the development of mankind took place in constant and close interaction with nature. And the more perfect a person became, the more actively he influenced it and adapted it to his needs. However, in archaeological eras, unlike industrial ones, this adaptation was always rational; man thought of himself only as a part of his natural environment.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system

Around the 4th-5th millennium BC. The decomposition of primitive society began. The main factors that contributed to this process: 1) the Neolithic revolution; 2) intensification of agriculture; 3) development of specialized cattle breeding; 4) the emergence of metallurgy; 5) the formation of a specialized craft; 6) development of trade.

With the development of plow farming, agricultural labor passed from women's hands to men's, and a man - a farmer and warrior - became the head of the family. Accumulation in different families was created unequally, and each family, accumulating property, tried to keep it in the family. The product gradually ceases to be divided among community members, and property begins to pass from father to children, the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid.

From the account of kinship on the maternal side they move to the account of kinship on the father's side - patriarchy takes shape. Accordingly, the form of family relationships changes; a patriarchal family based on private property arises.

The subordinate position of women is reflected, in particular, in the fact that mandatory monogamy is established only for women, while polygamy (polygamy) is allowed for men.

The growth of labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars - all this led to the emergence of property stratification among the tribes. Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The top of the family aristocracy was formed, which was actually in charge of all affairs. Noble members of the community sat on the tribal council and were in charge of the cult of the gods. Of particular importance was the identification of military leaders and priests. Along with property and social differentiation within the clan community, differentiation also occurs within the tribe between individual clans. On the one hand, strong and rich clans stand out, and on the other, weak and impoverished ones.

Signs of the collapse of the tribal system:

the emergence of property inequality;
allocation of nobility;
concentration of wealth and power in the hands of tribal leaders;
frequent armed clashes;
turning prisoners into slaves;
transformation of the clan from a consanguineous collective into a territorial community.

In different regions of the world, the destruction of primitive communal relations did not occur simultaneously; the models of transition to a higher formation were also varied: some peoples formed early class states, others formed slave states, many peoples bypassed the slave system and went straight to feudalism, and some to colonial capitalism ( peoples of America, Australia).

Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland

The periods of primitive society on the territory of our Fatherland correspond to the main periodization (accepted in archaeology).

Sites of primitive people have been discovered in Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, Crimea, the Caucasus, Siberia and the Far East. For example, on the territory of the former USSR, the remains of above-ground dwellings dating back to the Early Paleolithic were discovered near the village of Molodovo on the Dniester. They were an oval arrangement of specially selected large mammoth bones. Traces of 15 fires located in different parts of the dwelling were also found here. About 1,500 Upper Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered in Russia. When choosing places for settlements, people of the Late Ice Age cared primarily about the convenience of hunting, so settlements were usually located at the edge of river valleys, often in groups. Such a group of Paleolithic settlements is known on the Don in the Voronezh region near the villages of Kostenki and Borshevo, on the Desna - near Novgorod-Seversky, in the area of the Dnieper rapids. Siberian ancient Paleolithic monuments are also located in groups. Unlike the earlier period, Late Paleolithic dwellings are more advanced. Large, connected dwellings and settlements consisting of individual small huts confirm the conclusion about the coexistence of communities and communal farming. Within communities, individual dwellings and centers of large dwellings could belong to individual paired families.

In the developed Neolithic on the European territory of Russia, significant changes were observed in the distribution of cultures, many new archaeological cultures were formed, which was associated with the development of the economy as a whole, with changes in the ethnic composition of the Neolithic population, and the movement of Neolithic tribes. This process was greatly influenced by the tribes of pit-comb ceramics, with which the origin of many forest Neolithic cultures in the Volga and Oka basin is associated: Upper Volga, Valdai, Ryazan, Belev.

The tribes of the so-called Belev culture (named after the settlement of the city of Belev) occupied, for example, the region of the upper reaches of the Oka. It is characterized by the widespread use of massive and long knife-like plates in the manufacture of tools. Narrow and long leaf-shaped daggers and arrowheads were made from them. At the same time, in this culture, Paleolithic-looking incisors and side scrapers existed for a long time. The surface of the vessels was covered with a pattern in the form of rhombic or oval depressions.

Neolithic cultures in the Amur region, Primorye and northeast Asia were discovered relatively recently. Their discovery and research is mainly associated with the works of academicians A.P. Okladnikov and A.P. Derevianko.

In the Amur basin, four Neolithic cultures are known: Novopetrovsk, Gromatukha, Osinovo-Ozersk and Lower Amur. At the end of the Neolithic, a division of labor occurred among the tribes of the Far East: some began to engage in agriculture, others in fishing, hunting and gathering, which determined the features of their development in the future. In general, on the territory of our country in the history of primitive society, several stages are distinguished in terms of the degree of development of productive forces, social organization, as well as forms of economy and movement from a lower stage to a higher one - from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

An important stage in the history of primitive man was the first economic revolution (Neolithic), when there was a transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one. As the social division of labor deepened and its productivity grew in primitive society, exchange intensified, a surplus product arose, which became the basis for the emergence of private property and property inequality. The primitive society on the territory of Russia was replaced by a feudal society.

The culture of primitive society

According to researcher A.I. Chernokozov, primitive culture is a complex phenomenon that amazes the imagination of a research scientist, but not with its primitiveness, but with a unique and majestic, even on a cosmic scale, leap to a higher state.

First of all, the following facts help to holistically comprehend anthroposociogenesis:

the extinction in a phenomenally short natural-historical period of 30 species and 20 genera of highly developed primates, the most modern creatures within the biological form that flourished in the Tertiary period. Researchers are amazed by the huge morphological diversity of these creatures: from Gigantopithecus - a creature weighing about 500 kilograms - to a humanoid creature the size of a cat;
the use of the first stone tools in conflicts with their own kind (almost all australopithecus skulls bear traces of blows from stone tools). There are anthropologists' conclusions about unusually frequent cases of violent death. And in this sense, it would be more correct to talk not about stone tools, but about stone weapons.

In the study of the culture of primitive man, archaeological and ethnographic methods are used.

Archaeological finds are mainly tools corresponding to certain historical eras. During the Paleolithic period - points, scrapers, awls and piercings. In a later period, along with long ones, hunters made shorter dart spears that could be thrown over a long distance.

One of the most significant achievements of the Upper Paleolithic period was the discovery of several ways to make fire. The first method was the striking of a spark by sharp impacts of flint on the ore mineral pyrite. The second method was to make fire by rubbing wood against wood, but the reliability of data on the widespread use of this method still raises doubts among scientists.

The formation of a mature form of a social organism is associated with the formation of the maternal family. With the help of establishing certain traditions, they learned to regulate relations between the sexes, methods and forms of raising children. The structure of collectivist consciousness was formed. Certain types of mythological consciousness arose, which included the first forms: religious, moral, technological, labor.

Unfortunately, researchers have still not been able to find works of art that date back to an earlier historical period than the Late Paleolithic. The most common sculptural images during this period were female figurines.

Each tribe had its own gods, its own revered mythological creatures. This belief is originally rooted in the veneration of nature spirits. In addition, each tribe has its own sacred ancestors, who are most often identified with certain animals. This belief system was called totemism.

Another belief characteristic of myth is fetishism. Fetishism is the deification of a special object, which is perceived as a carrier of demonic powers and which is mystically connected with the fate of a given tribe. An object that is treated in this way is a fetish.

In the conditions of primitive society, magical art develops. Magic could not influence the objective properties of things, but it fully controlled the psyche of primitive man. Magic words and rituals influenced a person - and not on his mind, which was still too weak and undeveloped, but on his unconscious. Magic could not physically cause rain or ensure a harvest, but it inspired people with unity, optimism and success in a difficult and dangerous task.

In general, primitive culture reveals the essence of man, his organic connection with nature, and prospects for further development.

General characteristics and options for periodization of ancient history

Human Origins

Decomposition of the primitive communal system

Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland

The culture of primitive society

General characteristics and options for periodization of ancient history.

Modern science suggests that the entire variety of current space objects was formed about 20 billion years ago. The Sun, one of the many stars in our Galaxy, arose 10 billion years ago. According to scientists, our Earth - an ordinary planet in the solar system - is 4.6 billion years old. It is currently generally accepted that man began to separate from the animal world about 3 million years ago.

Stone Age (from the emergence of man to the 4th-3rd millennium BC); -

Bronze Age (IV-III millennium - until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC); -

Iron Age (from the 1st millennium BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is divided into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and the transitional to bronze Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic).

Each period is distinguished by: 1) the degree of development of tools, 2) the materials from which they were made, 3) the quality of housing, 4) the appropriate organization of farming.

The primitive era of mankind is characterized by: -

low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement; -

collective appropriation of natural resources and production results; -

equitable distribution; -

socio-economic equality; -

the absence of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

The rich and generous nature of that time did not help to accelerate this process; only with the advent of the harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with the intensification of the labor activity of primitive man in his difficult

In the struggle for existence, new skills appear, tools are improved, and new social forms are developed.

A giant glacier (about 100 thousand years ago) contributed to the appearance on the planet of a special flora and fauna in the most difficult climatic conditions. In accordance with this, the history of human society is divided into three different periods: 1) pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate; 2) glacial and 3) post-glacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of person: in the pre-glacial period - archaeoanthropes (pithecanthropus, synanthropus, etc.), in the glacial period - paleoanthropes

(Neanderthal man), at the end of the Ice Age, in the late Paleolithic, - neoanthropes, modern people.

Human Origins. Among different peoples in different regions of the Earth, the appearance of certain tools and forms of social life did not occur simultaneously. There was a process of human formation (anthropogenesis, from the Greek "anthropos" - man, "genesis" - origin) and the formation of human society (sociogenesis, from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "genesis" - origin).

rial, which proved the biological similarity of the structure of the human body with the body of animals. Based on the achievements of natural science, Charles Darwin in his work “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), showing the evolutionary unity, regularity and sequence of development of the animal world, proved that man descended from ancient apes.

The most ancient ancestors of modern man resembled apes, who, unlike animals, were able to produce tools. In the scientific literature, this type of ape-man is called homo habilis - a skilled man. The further evolution of the habilis led to the appearance 1.5-1.6 million years ago of the so-called Pithecanthropes (from the Greek "pithekos" - monkey, "anthropos" - man), or archanthropes (from the Greek "achaios" - ancient). Archanthropes were already people. 300-200 thousand years ago, archanthropes were replaced by a more developed type of person - paleoanthropes, or Neanderthals (according to the place of their first discovery in the Neanderthal area in Germany).

The process of separation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows:-

australopithecine man -

Homo erectus (early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus); -

a person of modern physical appearance (late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people).

Indo-European; -

Ugro-Finnish; -

Turkic; -

Iberian-Caucasian.

Slavic: eastern, western and southern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Croats, etc.); 2)

Western European: British, Germans, French, etc.; 3)

eastern: Indians, Tajiks, Iranians, Armenians, etc.

A complex problem is raceogenesis. All modern humanity is divided into several large racial trunks - Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid and Australoid, each of which, in turn, includes several large racial divisions and a large number of small racial groups. The composition of the races basically coincided with the boundaries of the continents: the Caucasoid race was formed mainly in Europe, the Negroid race in Africa, and the Mongoloid race in Asia. Each large race has its own characteristics that characterize it: facial structure, hair pigmentation, eye color, etc. Acquired characteristics changed over time in a certain direction, disappeared or intensified. Within the large races - Mongoloid, Negroid and Caucasoid - separate large branches arose. Thus, within the Mongoloid race there are South Asian, Siberian and American branches, the Negroid is divided into two, and within the Caucasoid race there are northern and southern branches.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system. Around the IV-V millennium BC. e. The decomposition of primitive society began. The main factors that contributed to this process: 1) the Neolithic revolution; 2) intensification of agriculture; 3) development of specialized cattle breeding; 4) the emergence of metallurgy; 5) the formation of a specialized craft; 6) development of trade.

With the development of plow farming, agricultural labor passed from women's hands to men's, and a man - a farmer and warrior - became the head of the family.

Accumulation in different families was created unequally, and each family, accumulating property, tried to keep it in the family. The product gradually ceases to be divided among community members, and property begins to pass from father to children, the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid.

The subordinate position of women is reflected, in particular, in the fact that mandatory monogamy is established only for women, while polygamy (polygamy) is allowed for men.

The growth of labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars - all this led to the emergence of property stratification among the tribes.

Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The top of the family aristocracy was formed, which was actually in charge of all affairs. Noble members of the community sat on the tribal council and were in charge of the cult of the gods. Of particular importance was the identification of military leaders and priests. Along with property and social differentiation within the clan community, differentiation also occurs within the tribe between individual clans. On the one hand, strong and rich clans stand out, and on the other, weak and impoverished ones.

Signs of the collapse of the tribal system: -

the emergence of property inequality; -

allocation of nobility; -

concentration of wealth and power in the hands of tribal leaders; -

frequent armed clashes; -

turning prisoners into slaves; -

transformation of the clan from a consanguineous collective into a territorial community.

Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland. The periods of primitive society on the territory of our Fatherland correspond to the main periodization (accepted in archaeology).

In the developed Neolithic on the European territory of Russia, significant changes were observed in the distribution of cultures, many new archaeo-

logical cultures, which is associated with the development of the economy as a whole, with changes in the ethnic composition of the Neolithic population, and the movement of Neolithic tribes. This process was greatly influenced by the tribes of pit-comb ceramics, with which the origin of many forest Neolithic cultures in the Volga and Oka basin is associated: Upper Volga, Valdai, Ryazan, Belev.

Neolithic cultures in the Amur region, Primorye and northeast Asia were discovered relatively recently. Their discovery and research is associated mainly with the work of academicians A.P. Okladnikov and A.P. Derevyanko.

The culture of primitive society. According to researcher A.I. Chernokozov, primitive culture is a complex phenomenon that strikes the imagination of a research scientist, but not with its primitiveness, but with a unique and majestic, even on a cosmic scale, leap to a higher state.

First of all, the following facts help to holistically comprehend anthroposociogenesis:

1) the extinction over a phenomenally short natural-historical period of 30 species and 20 genera of highly developed primates, the most modern creatures within the biological form that flourished in the Tertiary period. Researchers are amazed by the huge morphological diversity of these creatures: from Gigantopithecus - a creature weighing about 500 kilograms - to a humanoid creature the size of a cat;

2) the use of the first stone tools in conflicts with their own kind (almost all australopithecus skulls bear traces of blows from stone tools). There are anthropologists' conclusions about unusually frequent cases of violent death. And in this sense, it would be more correct to talk not about stone tools, but about stone weapons.

In the study of the culture of primitive man, archaeological and ethnographic methods are used.

In general, primitive culture reveals the essence of man, his organic connection with nature, and prospects for further development.

The basic social unit of the prehistoric era of mankind is archaeological culture. All terms and periodizations of this era, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age, are retrospective and largely arbitrary, and their precise definition is a matter of debate.

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Subtitles

Terminology

A synonym for "prehistoric period" is the term " prehistory”, which is used less often in Russian-language literature than similar terms in foreign literature (English prehistory, German Urgeschichte).

To designate the final stage of the prehistoric era of a culture, when it itself has not yet created its own written language, but is already mentioned in the written monuments of other peoples, the term “protohistory” (English protohistory, German Frühgeschichte) is often used in foreign literature. To replace the term primitive communal system, characterizing the social structure before the emergence of power, some historians use the terms “savagery”, “anarchy”, “primitive communism”, “pre-civilization period” and others. The term “protohistory” has not taken root in Russian literature.

Non-classical historians deny the very existence of communities and primitive communal system, relationship, identity of power [ ] .

From the following stages of social development primitive communal system was distinguished by the absence of private property, classes and the state. Modern studies of primitive society, according to neo-historians who deny the traditional periodization of the development of human society, refute the existence of such a social structure and the existence of communities, communal property under the primitive communal system, and further, as a natural result of the non-existence of the primitive communal system - the non-existence of communal agricultural land ownership right up to the end XVIII century in most countries of the world, including Russia, at least since the Neolithic.

Periods of development of primitive society

At different times, different periodizations of the development of human society have been proposed. Thus, A. Ferguson and then Morgan used a periodization of history that included three stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization, and the first two stages were divided by Morgan into three stages (lower, middle and highest) each. At the stage of savagery, human activity was dominated by hunting, fishing and gathering, there was no private property, and equality existed. At the stage of barbarism, agriculture and cattle breeding appear, private property and social hierarchy arise. The third stage - civilization - is associated with the emergence of the state, class society, cities, writing, etc.

Morgan considered the earliest stage of development of human society to be the lowest stage of savagery, which began with the formation of articulate speech; the middle stage of savagery, according to his classification, begins with the use of fire and the appearance of fish food in the diet, and the highest stage of savagery - with the invention of the onion. The lowest stage of barbarism, according to his classification, begins with the advent of pottery, the middle stage of barbarism with the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, and the highest stage of barbarism with the beginning of the use of iron.

The most developed periodization is archaeological, which is based on a comparison of human-made tools, their materials, forms of dwellings, burials, etc. According to this principle, the history of mankind is mainly divided into the early ancient Stone Age, the middle ancient Stone Age, and the late ancient Stone Age. age, middle stone age, new stone age, late new stone age (not among all nations), copper age (not among all nations), bronze age and iron age.

In the 40s of the 20th century, Soviet scientists P. P. Efimenko, M. O. Kosven, A. I. Pershits and others proposed systems for the periodization of primitive society, the criterion of which was the evolution of forms of ownership, the degree of division of labor, family relationships, etc. d. In generalized form, such periodization can be represented as follows:

the era of the primitive herd;
era of tribal system;
the era of the decomposition of the communal-tribal system (the emergence of cattle breeding, plow farming and metal processing, the emergence of elements of exploitation and private property - the late Mesolithic and Neolithic according to the modern classification).

All periodization systems are imperfect in their own way. There are many examples when stone tools of Paleolithic or Mesolithic form were used by the peoples of the Far East in the 16th-17th centuries, while they had a tribal society and developed forms of religion and family. It is currently believed that the universal periodization of the primitive system ends with the Mesolithic, when cultural development accelerated sharply and proceeded at different rates among different peoples. Below is the currently generally accepted archaeological periodization of the main stages of the development of primitive society. Moreover, cultures that existed simultaneously may be at different stages of development, and therefore, for example, Neolithic cultures may be adjacent to Chalcolithic or Bronze Age cultures.

era	Period in Europe	Periodization	Characteristic	Human species
Old Stone Age or Paleolithic	2.4 million - 10,000 BC e.	Early (Lower) Paleolithic 2.4 million - 600,000 BC e. Middle Paleolithic 600,000-35,000 BC e. Late (Upper) Paleolithic 35,000-10,000 BC e.	The time of hunters and gatherers. The beginning of flint tools, which gradually became more complex and specialized.	Hominids, species: Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens präsapiens, Homo heidelbergensis, in the Middle Paleolithic Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens.
Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic	10,000-5000 BC e.		Begins at the end of the Pleistocene in Europe. Hunters and gatherers developed a highly developed culture of making tools from stone and bone, as well as long-range weapons such as arrows and bows.	Homo sapiens sapiens
New Stone Age or Neolithic	5000-2000 BC e.	Middle Neolithic Late Neolithic	The emergence of the Neolithic is associated with the Neolithic revolution. At the same time, the oldest finds of ceramics about 12,000 years old appear in the Far East, although the European Neolithic period begins in the Middle East with the pre-ceramic Neolithic. New methods of farming are emerging, instead of gathering and hunting farming (“appropriating”) - “producing” (farming, cattle breeding), which later spread to Europe. The Late Neolithic often passes into the next stage, the Copper Age, Chalcolithic or Chalcolithic, without a break in cultural continuity. The latter is characterized by the second production revolution, the most important feature of which is the appearance of metal tools.	Homo sapiens sapiens
Bronze Age	3500-800 BC e.	Early history	The spread of metallurgy makes it possible to obtain and process metals: (gold, copper, bronze). The first written sources in Western Asia and the Aegean.	Homo sapiens sapiens
Iron Age	juice. 800 BC e.	Early history OK. 800-500 BC e. Antiquity OK. 500 BC e. - 500 N. e. Middle Ages OK. 500-1500 N. e. New story juice. 1500 N. e.	With the advent of iron tools, the main occupation of primitive people became agriculture (slashing), the main crops being wheat, peas, field beans, millet, etc. The development of agriculture contributed to an increase in the economic importance of animal husbandry, and the appearance of iron tools contributed to the development of household crafts. All this led to a sharp increase in labor productivity, the accumulation of stocks of material assets, and the emergence of property inequality. And this led to the disintegration of the primitive communal system. The result was the decomposition of the clan community and the emergence of a neighboring (territorial) community. During this period, the role of the armed part of the population, protecting the population from external attacks, increased significantly in people's lives.	Homo sapiens sapiens

Stone Age

The Stone Age is the oldest period in human history, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay spread (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture).

Periodization of the Stone Age:

Paleolithic:
- Lower Paleolithic - the period of the appearance of the most ancient species of people and widespread Homo erectus .
- The Middle Paleolithic is the period when erecti were replaced by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern humans. Neanderthals dominated Europe throughout the Middle Paleolithic.
- The Upper Paleolithic is the period of dominance of the modern species of people throughout the globe during the era of the last glaciation.
Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on the extent to which the region has been affected by the loss of megafauna as a result of glacier melting. The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and general human culture. There is no ceramics.
Neolithic - the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still made of stone, but their production is being brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper Age

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic (Greek. χαλκός "copper" + Greek λίθος “stone”) or Chalcolithic (Latin aeneus “copper” + Greek. λίθος "stone")) - a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, the Chalcolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but is sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone ones still predominated.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with the improvement of the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, later phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but they differ among different cultures. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost synchronous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC e., known as the Bronze Collapse, while in western Europe the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age dragged on for several more centuries and ended with the emergence of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

Early Bronze Age
Middle Bronze Age
Late Bronze Age

Iron Age

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Bronze Age civilizations go beyond the history of primitive society; other peoples' civilization takes shape during the Iron Age.

The term “Iron Age” is usually applied to the “barbarian” cultures of Europe that existed simultaneously with the great civilizations of antiquity (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Parthia). The “barbarians” were distinguished from ancient cultures by the absence or rare use of writing, and therefore information about them has reached us either from archaeological data or from mentions in ancient sources. On the territory of Europe during the Iron Age, M. B. Shchukin identified six “barbarian worlds”:

Celts (La Tène culture);
Proto-Germans (mainly Jastorf culture + southern Scandinavia);
mostly Proto-Baltic cultures of the forest zone (possibly including Proto-Slavs);
proto-Finno-Ugric and proto-Sami cultures of the northern forest zone (mainly along rivers and lakes);
steppe Iranian-speaking cultures (Scythians, Sarmatians, etc.);
pastoral-agricultural cultures of the Thracians, Dacians and Getae.

History of the development of public relations

The first tools of human labor were a chipped stone and a stick. People earned their livelihood by hunting, which they did together, and gathering. Communities of people were small, they led a nomadic lifestyle, moving around in search of food. But some communities of people who lived in the most favorable conditions began to move towards partial settlement.

The most important stage in human development was the emergence of language. Instead of the signal language of animals, which facilitates their coordination during the hunt, people were able to express in language the abstract concepts of “stone in general”, “beast in general”. This use of language led to the opportunity to teach offspring with words, and not just by example, to plan actions before the hunt, and not during it, etc.

Any spoils were divided among the entire group of people. Tools, household utensils, and jewelry were in the use of individual people, but the owner of the thing was obliged to share it, and in addition, anyone could take someone else’s thing and use it without asking (remnants of this are still found among some peoples).

A person’s natural breadwinner was his mother - at first she fed him with her milk, then generally took upon herself the responsibility of providing him with food and everything necessary for life. This food had to be hunted by men - the mother's brothers who belonged to her clan. Thus, cells began to form, consisting of several brothers, several sisters and the children of the latter (see also the article Guest marriage). They lived in communal dwellings.

Experts now generally believe that during the Paleolithic and Neolithic times - 50-20 thousand years ago - the social status of women and men was equal, although previously it was believed that at first matriarchy dominated, which, as noted above, in conditions of promiscuity and polyandry was necessary to trace family ties.

With the invention of the bow, hunting improved; the dog was tamed and became man's assistant in the hunt.

Gradually, hunting led to the domestication of animals - primitive animal husbandry appeared. Agriculture grew from gathering: seeds of wild plants, collected by people and not completely used, could sprout near dwellings. It is believed that agriculture first originated in Western Asia. This transition was called the Neolithic revolution (X-III millennium BC). The result of the fact that livelihoods became more secure was a significant increase in the total population: at the turn of the 5th-4th millennia BC. e. About 80 million people already lived on Earth. Later, people mastered the smelting of metals (first copper, then iron), which made it possible to create more advanced metal tools.

The change in the economy from a purely appropriating to a producing one also led to a change in society. Among agricultural tribes, the type of settlement became a village in which one community lived, which turned from a tribal community into a neighboring one. Large communal houses became a thing of the past, and one patriarchal family now lived in each house. Land ownership was collective - within the collective, individuals or families owned plots of land that could be cultivated, but could not be transferred to someone else for use. In some communities, land plots were redistributed annually, in others, redistribution occurred once every few years, in others, perhaps, plots were distributed for lifelong land use. Tools, housing, household utensils, clothing, jewelry, and household equipment were privately owned, but vestiges of communal use have survived to this day.

1) Archaeological periodization.

2) Periodization of L.G. Morgana.

3) Dating and chronology of the history of primitive society.

Human Origins.

Anthropogenesis.
The most ancient ancestors of man.

Periodization of the history of primitive society.

Attempts to summarize the available information and facts have been made since ancient times: Lucretius Carus“On the Nature of Things” proposed using “changes in tool material” as a criterion, i.e. replacement of stone tools with copper, and copper with iron.

J. Condorose (XVIII century) introduced the division of the history of primitive society into economic stages: hunting and fishing, cattle breeding, agriculture. A. Fergusson (XVIII century) He put forward the “degree of cultural development” as a criterion for periodization: savagery, barbarism, civilization. Later Swedish scientist S. Nilsson I slightly corrected and supplemented this periodization, highlighting 4 stages: savagery, nomadism(Greek nomados – nomadic, nomadism), agriculture and civilization.

Theories that one way or another explain the history of primitive society appeared in XIX century An explanation for this fact can be the discovery and purposeful and systematic study of relict societies. IN 1861 J. Bachofen developed the idea of matriarchy. He saw the reason for the development of primitive society in a change in religious ideas.

Diffusionism– the origin of man, stone processing techniques, plant cultivation, etc. originated in one place, from which they spread throughout the planet. Functionalism– justification of the progressive, forward movement by practical necessity and benefit. (?)

In the same XIX century the classification of primitive monuments of material culture began, which ultimately led to the creation of a scientifically based archaeological periodization, which confirmed the hypothesis of L. Kara. Danish scientist K. Thomsen introduced the concept of three centuries: stone, copper and iron. French scientist G. Mortillier created the periodization of the Paleolithic (ancient Stone Age), and the Swedish archaeologist O. Montelius– Neolithic (New Stone Age), Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Europe.

Table "Archaeological periodization"

STONE AGE	PALEOLITHIC (ancient stone age)	early (ancient, lower)	cultures: pre-Cheulian (Olduvai, pebble), Acheulean (Chelles), Acheulean (Saint-Achelle, a suburb of Amiens), Mousterian (Le Moustier cave)
	PALEOLITHIC (ancient stone age)	late (upper)	Aurignacian (Aurignac cave), Solutrean (Solutre site), Magdalenian (Le Madeleine cave)
	MESOLITHIC (Middle Stone Age)		Azilian (Mas d'Azil cave), Tardenoise (Fer-en-Tardenois)
	NEOLITHIC (new stone age)		Badariyskaya (village Badari), Tripolye (village Tripolye)
BRONZE AGE
IRON AGE

But the sequence of cultural change is applicable only to a limited territory (sites on the territory of France), for the periodization, for example, the Paleolithic of South Africa, India can only be partially used, the Paleolithic of America, Australia, China, Japan, Southeast Asia does not fit into this scheme at all . Archaeological periodization is limited, since its main principle is only the nature of the material used and other components are not taken into account.

IN 1877 L. Morgan in the book “Ancient Society” he proposed theory about the universality of clan organization and a single path of development of primitive society, the progress of which he explained by successes in the development of the production of means of subsistence. The criterion for periodization is the level of development of productive forces. Morgan repeated A. Ferguson's periodization, but identified 3 stages in each of these eras, taking into account specific signs of economic development and material culture (lower, middle, higher).

Table “Periodization of the primitive history of L.G. Morgana"

Wildness. Appropriating sectors of the economy (gathering, hunting, fishing)		The beginning is the appearance of ancient man, the emergence of articulate speech.
		The emergence of fishing, the emergence of fire.
		Invention of the bow and arrow.
Barbarism. Manufacturing sectors of the economy (agriculture, cattle breeding).		Since the discovery of pottery and the spread of ceramics...
		Introduction of cattle breeding and irrigated agriculture.
		Since the advent of iron.
Civilization.		Invention of hieroglyphic and alphabetic writing.

The Marxist theory of the development of primitive society is outlined in the work F. Engels"The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State." Engels generalized L. Morgan's periodization and introduced the division into time of appropriating and producing economies.

Most Russian scientists highlight forms of associations and social relations as a criterion for periodization.

Table “Forms of social organization and periodization of the history of primitive society”

Ancient community (Primitive human herd)	Ancient community	The era of anthroposociogenesis
Early primitive (early tribal) community of hunters, gatherers and fishers	Primitive clan community	Primitive clan community
Late primitive (late tribal, developed) community of farmers and pastoralists	Primitive clan community	Primitive clan community
Primitive neighborly (proto-peasant), collapse of the clan community	Primitive neighborhood community	The era of class formation

American scientists highlight egalitarian(equal rights, egalitarian), who are not familiar with property and social stratification, ranked, with social stratification, stratified, already affected by property stratification and hierarchical societies, which are characterized by both property and social stratification. Today, many foreign scientists divide the history of primitive society into: prehistory(Paleolithic era), protohistory(from the Mesolithic era to the initial stage of the Metal Age) and the actual story, starting with the emergence of the state and writing.

To this day there is neither a single periodization nor a single theory about the development of primitive society.

Dating and chronology of the history of primitive society.

The history of primitive society cannot be chronicled absolutely, i.e. there is an indication of a millennium, century, year, day, therefore the chronology is absolutely relative (within millions, millennia, hundreds of years, sometimes accuracy up to several years). Relative chronology establishes the sequence of events by comparing cultures and archaeological types with changes in the natural environment (based on data from archaeology, paleontology, geology, paleoclimatology).

But there are techniques for determining absolute chronology.

Radiocarbon method. Organic residues are analyzed. As a result of the influence of cosmic rays on nitrogen atoms, a radioactive isotope of carbon is continuously formed in the earth’s atmosphere - carbon, which is absorbed from the atmosphere by plants, and through them by animals. After the death of a plant or animal, carbon begins to decay, and since the rate of its decay is constant, by determining the half-life (the period during which half of the original amount of C 14 decays), dating can be carried out.

Potassium-argon method. Suitable for archaeological and anthropological sites. The essence of the method is to analyze the ratio of potassium and argon, since potassium, when decaying, turns into argon. The limitation of this method is that it is only suitable for minerals and rocks containing potassium.

Dendrochronological, the age of finds is determined by tree rings.

The archaeomagnetic method involves dating baked clay products with an accuracy of plus or minus 25 years.

Studying the history of primitive society requires the use of data from archaeology, ethnography, linguistics, paleozoology, and paleobotany; their integrated use and synthesis make it possible to reconstruct history.

Archaeological sources include tools, household items, jewelry, and remains of buildings. Anthropological - bone remains of the ancestors of modern humans. They are researched and studied by anthropology, which studies the physical type of a person, its dynamics in time and its variations in space, and tries to reveal the causes of these changes.

Ethnographic sources represent observations and recorded descriptions of the life of relict societies

Human Origins.

Anthropogenesis.

Of great importance for studying the issue is the synchronization of archaeological eras with the geological periods of the Earth's history. (As an appendix, the table “Eras and periods of the Earth”).

One of the “revolutionary” theories about the place of man in nature and history belongs to Charles Darwin. Since the publication of his book “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” in 1871, evidence of the origin of man from animals, in particular from monkeys, has not been questioned or outraged. But at the same time, it is equally natural to note that none of the current monkeys can be considered as the direct ancestral form of humans.

T. Huxley V 1863. showed that the anatomical uniqueness of a person fits within the framework of the generic criterion and should be raised to the level hominid family With originally fromhomo within it, to which modern man belongs.

Thus, the chain looks like this: the order of primates - the family Anthropoids - the family of hominids - the genus Homo - the species of modern humans - Homo sapiens. Fossil forms of man are grouped into a second species - the species of fossil or primitive man - Homo primigenius or erektus.

Biological community of hominids. Morphological characteristics.

Upright walking ( bipedia or orthograde).

A hand adapted for fine manipulation with an opposable thumb.

Highly developed relatively large brain.

All these features constitute the so-called "hominid triad", but they arose chronologically unevenly.

A form that climbs trees and sometimes descends to the ground, tends to have an upright body position, and occasionally moves on its hind limbs, with a brain volume of 450-500 cm3, similar in size and strength to chimpanzees, which did not have extremely pronounced specializations, stands at the origins of anthropogenesis and forms the initial form for the formation of the hominid family. The transition from this form to Australopithecus refers to end of the Pliocene or yourself the beginning of the Pleistocene, about 2-3 million years ago. The beginning of anthropogenesis (Greek anthropos – man, genesis – emergence) – the process of the emergence of man is dated 2.5-3 million years.

Causes of anthropogenesis.

Transition to upright posture.

Brain development.

Social factor, namely labor activity.

The question of the ancestral home of man seems very complex. Some scientists place the ancestral home where the greatest number of remains have been found. There are at least two points of view on the issue of the ancestral home:

Asian ancestral home (remains of Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus, finds in India).

African ancestral home (explained by the similarity of humans specifically with African apes). i

The most ancient ancestors of man.

Many scientists believe that the ancestry of primitive man comes from those discovered in Egypt parapithecus(Greek para – near, about, pitekos – monkey) and his closest descendant propliopithecus(Greek pro - before), from which two branches were formed. One of them led to pliopithecus And Sivapithecus. Modern hibons evolved from Pliopithecus, and orangutans from Sivapithecus.

Another branch, more progressive, led to the emergence Dryopithecus ("tree monkey")– highly developed ancient monkeys, whose remains were found in XIX century in deposits dating to the end of the Tertiary period. Dryopithecus is characterized by a slight decrease in the size of the fangs, the gap between them and the incisors, features that separate them from primates and bring them closer to humans. Dryopithecus were not homogeneous in composition; the development of only some of them followed the path of humanization. Dryopithecus was the common ancestor of humans and the African apes - gorillas and chimpanzees.

Monkeys who did not take the path of humanization adapted to life in the trees, their biological development went along the line of increasing body size ( gigantropus, meganthropus, modern gorillas).

From the progressive branch of Dryopithecus came Ramapithecus, an ancient anthropoid ape, the remains of whose jaw were found on north of india also in tertiary layers Sivalin Hills. Ramapithecus is more closely related to humans than Dryopithecus. The main difference in the structure of the jaw was that, in comparison with other teeth, the fangs did not protrude forward.

IN 1924 in the territory South Africa remains found Australopithecus(during the period from 1935 to 1951, about 30 individuals of this monkey were found). Pelvis and thigh bones his close to human; Australopithecines typically move on two legs in a vertical or almost vertical position. Reason for moving to upright walking (bipedal locomotion) explained by general living conditions (treeless and semi-desert areas in western and central South Africa) and the struggle for existence.

Distinctive feature upper limbs- opposable thumb, but somewhat larger in size than that of a modern person.

Scull– more vertical than other anthropoids, the position of the head is already visible. This fact is explained by the fact that “on a significant part of the back of the Australopithecus head there were no longer strong neck muscles that were supposed to hold the head suspended when it was in a horizontal position. This positioning of the head of Australopithecus should have contributed to a more accelerated development of the brain and skull of human ancestors in the future.” ii Teeth and eye sockets human in shape, fangs and jaws less developed than those of Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus (probably due to the fact that for protection he used improvised means to a greater extent than his own teeth). Brain volume 600-700 cm3.

The liberation of the forelimbs provided opportunities for a new development of tool activity - the expanding and systematic use of objects, primarily sticks and stones.

In the “kitchen hearths” of australopithecines, fragments of turtle shells, lizard bones, and freshwater crab shells were found. Therefore, it can be assumed that in addition to collecting plant food, bird eggs, etc., Australopithecus caught small animals, lizards and crabs, and sometimes attacked relatively large animals using stones and sticks. Baboon skulls found next to the remains of australopithecines have damage in the form of cracks (50 out of 58 skulls).

Eating meat greatly contributed to accelerated progressive development, having the greatest impact on the development of the brain, supplying the necessary substances in much larger quantities than before, and in a more concentrated and easily digestible form.

Human ancestors were probably similar to australopithecines in physical appearance and lifestyle and apparently inhabited a vast territory in Africa and southern Asia.

Australopithecines include: zinjanthrop, age about 1.5 Ma(East Africa, early Quaternary layers of the Oldovai Mountains), discovered in 1959 (upright, large brain, dental structure close to human); prezinjanthropus or Homohablis(“skillful person”).

Characteristics of Prezinjanthropus:

upright walking;

brain volume 670-680 cm3;

structure of limbs and teeth close to modern humans.

In the same layers, crude chopping pebble tools were discovered, the age of which 1.75-1.85 million years. This fact is the reason for disputes between scientists - whether to classify Homo habilis as people (basis - making tools) or as Australopithecus (basis - similarity in morphological structure). But the discovered tools are unlikely to be among the most ancient; there are finds whose age is 2.1 and 2.6 million years, in addition, the existence of osteodontokeratic(bone) tool making industry, Olduvai culture (pebble) - the oldest stage of the Paleolithic industry.

IN 1891-1894 on island of java Dutchman E. Dubois discovered the remains of the most ancient primitive man Pithecanthropus (“upright ape-man”). The skull clearly shows a combination of ape and human features, so scientists have suggested that it represents a transitional form from ape to man.

Monkey characteristics - primitive structure and peculiar shape skulls with a pronounced interception in the front of the forehead, near the eye sockets, low height of the skull, massive wide supraorbital ridge, traces of a longitudinal ridge on the crown, sloping forehead, large thickness of the cranial bones. Brain volume- 850-950 cm3 Castings of the internal cavity of the skull allowed us to conclude that Pithecanthropus did not have sufficiently developed centers of attention and memory, and the ability to think was in its infancy.

No tools were discovered in Java, but the level of physical structure of Pithecanthropus is such that it allows them to be made and used. Assumptions are made about a global catastrophe, when a flow of lava, and more likely water, carried away both the ape-man and animals from their habitat.

Excavations in Zhoukoudian Cave V northern China V 1920s provided significant material for archaeologists and anthropologists (the remains of about 40 “people,” including children). Peking Monkeyman (Sinanthropus). The remains are in a “complete set”, therefore they have been studied in detail.

There is no doubt about upright posture. Average height, strong build. More developed upper limbs, actually real human hands, and the advantage of the right hand is clearly visible. The cranial vault is higher than that of Pithecanthropus, but the brow ridge is preserved, the chin protuberance is missing, the structure of the teeth characteristic of monkeys. Brain has undergone progressive changes, volume is about 1050 cm3. (one of the skulls is 1225 cm3), asymmetrical structure, one half is better developed than the other (arm). In addition, swelling in the posterior part of the temporal lobe and other areas, which may indicate the presence of articulate speech. “Judging by the nature of the lower jaw, Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus did not yet have the ability to frequently change the articulation of speech. Their vocal apparatus was still too primitive and undeveloped for this. Unable to pronounce any complex and clearly defined combinations of sounds... Sinanthropus was explained by sound speech, although not completely articulate... Poorly differentiated sounds, supplemented by facial expressions and body movements.” iii

More diverse tools. Use of fire. Ground dwellings.

Similar in level of development to Sinanthropus heidelberg man, but his remains are more than fragmentary (only the lower jaw).

Since 1856, discoveries of remains related to the species have continued Homoprimigenius or Neanderthal. Strong, stocky, with powerful muscles and a massive skeleton. The height is small, men are up to 155-165 cm. The body is relatively short, the curves of the spine are weakly expressed, and the gait is stooped. Hands rough and massive, paw-shaped. Scull low, sloping, “running away” forehead, strongly protruding brow ridges, merging into a continuous supraorbital ridge. Upper jaw protrudes strongly forward, the incisors are large, spatulate. The chin protrusion is absent.

Brain volume 1300-1600 cm3 But the structure of the brain is primitive. The frontal lobes have enlarged, the parietal lobes are expanding (centers of higher mental activity, but probably the ability for logical thinking is limited, strong excitability; judging by the structure of the brain, the most ancient people, up to and including the Neanderthals, could not yet control their behavior, in particular, restrain impulses of rage), increases the cranial vault and the slope of the forehead decreases, the back of the head is rounded.

More diverse and productive activities. Artificial fire production. Burials (high mortality, all studied Neanderthals who lived to 31 years old were men).

Neanderthals were not homogeneous (Palestinian finds, European “Chappelles”) and, apparently, their evolution followed different paths. But everywhere (in Europe, Western and Central Asia, Eastern, Southern and Northern Africa, Southeast Asia) Neanderthals preceded Cro-Magnons.

Palestinian Neanderthals. Proof of the transition from Neanderthal to modern man, skeletons of Mousterian times discovered in a Palestinian cave Es-Shoul, on the mountain Carmel. They combine Neanderthal features and features characteristic of modern humans. New features are in the structure of the skull. The height of their skull is close to the normal height for a modern person. The forehead is less sloping. The main difference between Palestinian Neanderthals is a clearly defined chin protuberance, in addition to the structure of the foot and spine. iv

The territory where the formation of modern humans took place covered the Mediterranean, Western and Central Asia, territories in the Caucasus and Crimea. Some groups of Neanderthals, who lived in less favorable conditions for mutual contact, took less part in the process of becoming modern humans or even became extinct (Neanderthals of Java and South Africa).

In the process of formation of a modern type of person, there is also raceogenesis- the process of formation of human races (the influence of natural living conditions and the disunity of human groups).

iAlekseev V.P. The formation of humanity. - M.: Politizdat, 1984.

ii World History. In 10 volumes - T. 1. - M., 1955. - P.19.

iiiIbid. - P. 37.

ivSee: World History. In 24 volumes - T. 1. - Minsk: Modern writer, 1999. - P.68.

Variants of periodization of ancient history

The transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one

Decomposition of the primitive communal system

1.1. Variants of periodization of ancient history

The first stage in the development of mankind primitive communal system takes a huge period of time from the moment of the separation of man from the animal kingdom (about 35 million years ago) until the formation of class societies in various regions of the planet (approximately in the 4th millennium BC). Its periodization is based on differences in the material and technique of making tools (archaeological periodization). In accordance with it, three periods are distinguished in the ancient era:

stone Age(from the emergence of man to the 3rd millennium BC),

bronze age(from the end of the 4th to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC),

iron age(from 1 thousand BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is divided into Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and transitional to bronze Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic).

A number of scientists divide the history of primitive society into five stages, each of which is distinguished by the degree of development of tools, the materials from which they were made, the quality of housing, and the appropriate organization of farming 1 .

First stage is defined as the prehistory of economy and material culture: from the emergence of humanity to approximately 1 million years ago. This is a time when people's adaptation to the environment was not much different from the livelihood of animals. Many scientists believe that the ancestral home of humans is East Africa. It is here that during excavations they find the bones of the first people who lived more than 2 million years ago.

Second phase– a primitive appropriating economy approximately I million years ago – XI thousand BC, i.e. covers a significant part of the Stone Age - Early and Middle Paleolithic.

Third stage– developed appropriating economy. It is difficult to determine its chronological framework, since in a number of places this period ended in the 20th millennium BC. (subtropics of Europe and Africa), in others (tropics) - continues to this day. Covers the Late Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and in some areas the entire Neolithic.

Fourth stage – the emergence of a productive economy. In the most economically developed areas of the earth - IX-VIII thousand BC. (late Mesolithic – early Neolithic).

Fifth stage- the era of the productive economy. For some areas of dry and humid subtropics - VIII-V millennium BC.

In addition to the production of tools, the material culture of ancient humanity was closely connected with the creation of dwellings.

The most interesting archaeological finds of ancient dwellings date back to the Early Paleolithic. The remains of 21 seasonal camps have been discovered on the territory of France. In one of them, an oval fence made of stones was discovered, which can be interpreted as the foundation of a light dwelling. Inside the dwelling there were hearths and places where tools were made. In the cave of Le Lazare (France), the remains of a shelter were discovered, the reconstruction of which suggests the presence of supports, a roof made of skins, internal partitions and two fireplaces in a large room. The beds are made from animal skins (fox, wolf, lynx) and seaweed. These finds date back to about 150 thousand years.

On the territory of the USSR, the remains of above-ground dwellings dating back to the Early Paleolithic were discovered near the village of Molodovo on the Dniester. They were an oval arrangement of specially selected large mammoth bones. Traces of 15 fires located in different parts of the dwelling were also found here.

The primitive era of humanity is characterized by a low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement, collective appropriation of natural resources and production results (primarily exploited territory), equal distribution, socio-economic equality, absence of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

An analysis of the development of primitive human society shows that this development was extremely uneven. The process of separation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows:

Australopithecus Homo;

homo erectus(early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus);

person of modern physical appearance(late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people).

In fact, the appearance of the first australopithecus marked the emergence of material culture directly related to the production of tools. It was the latter that became a means for archaeologists to determine the main stages of the development of ancient humanity.

The rich and generous nature of the period did not help to accelerate this process; Only with the advent of the harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with the intensification of the labor activity of primitive man in his difficult struggle for existence, new skills rapidly appeared, tools were improved, and new social forms were developed. Mastery of fire, collective hunting of large animals, adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier, invention of the bow, transition from appropriating to producing economy (cattle breeding and agriculture), discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron) and the creation of a complex tribal organization of society - these are the most important stages , which mark the path of humanity in the conditions of the primitive communal system.

The pace of development of human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a productive economy. But another feature has emerged - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with an unfavorable, harsh geographical environment continued to develop slowly, while areas with a mild climate, ore reserves, etc., moved faster towards civilization.

A colossal glacier (about 100 thousand years ago), which covered half of the planet and created a harsh climate that affected the flora and fauna, inevitably divides the history of primitive mankind into three different periods: pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate, glacial and post-glacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of person: in the pre-glacial period - archaanthropes(pithecanthropus, synanthropus, etc.), during the glacial period - paleoanthrols(Neanderthal man), at the end of the Ice Age, in the Late Paleolithic - neoanthropes, modern people.

Paleolithic . There are early, middle and late stages of the Paleolithic. IN early paleolithic, in turn, highlight the primary, Chelles 1 And Acheulean era.

The oldest cultural monuments were discovered in the caves of Le Lazare (dating back to about 150 thousand years ago), Lyalko, Nio, Fonde de Gaume (France), Altamira (Spain). A large number of objects of Chelles culture (tools) were found in Africa, especially in the Upper Nile Valley, in Ternifin (Algeria), etc. The most ancient remains of human culture in the USSR (Caucasus, Ukraine) belong to the border of the Chelles and Acheulean eras. By the Acheulean era, people settled more widely, penetrating into Central Asia and the Volga region.

On the eve of the great glaciation, people already knew how to hunt the largest animals: elephants, rhinoceroses, deer, bison. In the Acheulean era, a settled pattern of hunters appeared, living for a long time in one place. Complex hunting has long been a complement to simple gathering.

During this period, humanity was already sufficiently organized and equipped. Perhaps the most significant was the mastery of fire about 300-200 thousand years ago. It is not for nothing that many southern peoples (in those places where people settled at that time) preserved legends about a hero who stole the heavenly fire. The myth of Prometheus, who brought fire and lightning to people, reflects the largest technical victory of our very distant ancestors.

Some researchers also attribute the Mousterian era to the Early Paleolithic, while others distinguish it as a special stage of the Middle Paleolithic. Mousterian Neanderthals lived both in caves and in dwellings specially made from mammoth bones - tents. At this time, man had already learned to make fire himself by friction, and not just maintain a fire lit by lightning. The basis of the economy was hunting for mammoths, bison, and deer. The hunters were armed with spears, flint points and clubs. The first artificial burials of the dead date back to this era, which indicates the emergence of very complex ideological ideas.

It is believed that the emergence of the clan organization of society can be attributed to the same time. Only the streamlining of gender relations and the emergence of exogamy 2 can explain the fact that the physical appearance of the Neanderthal began to improve and thousands of years later, by the end of the Ice Age, he turned into a neoanthrope, or Cro-Magnon - people of the modern type.

Upper (Late) Paleolithic known to us better than previous eras. Nature was still harsh, the ice age was still ongoing. But man was already armed enough to fight for existence. The economy became complex: it was based on hunting large animals, but the beginnings of fishing appeared, and the collection of edible fruits, grains, and roots was a serious help.

Human stone products were divided into two groups: weapons and tools (spearheads, knives, scrapers for dressing hides, flint tools for processing bone and wood). Various throwing weapons (darts, jagged harpoons, special spear throwers) have become widespread, making it possible to hit an animal at a distance.

According to archaeologists, the main unit of the social structure of the Upper Paleolithic was a small clan community of about a hundred people, twenty of whom were adult hunters who ran the household of the clan. Small round dwellings, the remains of which were discovered, may have been adapted for a paired family.

Finds of burials with beautiful weapons made of mammoth tusks and a large number of decorations indicate the emergence of a cult of leaders, clan or tribal elders.

In the Upper Paleolithic, man settled widely not only in Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia, but also in Siberia. According to scientists, America was settled from Siberia at the end of the Paleolithic.

The art of the Upper Paleolithic testifies to the high development of human intelligence of this era. In the caves of France and Spain, colorful images dating back to this time have been preserved. Such a cave was also discovered by Russian scientists in the Urals (Kalova Cave) with images of a mammoth, rhinoceros, and horse. Images made by Ice Age artists using paints on cave walls and carvings on bones provide insight into the animals they hunted. This was probably associated with various magical rituals, spells and dances of hunters in front of painted animals, which was supposed to ensure a successful hunt.

Elements of such magical actions have been preserved even in modern Christianity: a prayer for rain with the sprinkling of fields with water is an ancient magical act that dates back to primitive times.

Of particular note is the cult of the bear, which dates back to the Mousterian era and allows us to talk about the origin of totemism. At Paleolithic sites, bone figurines of women are often found near fireplaces or dwellings. The women are presented as very portly and mature. Obviously, the main idea of such figurines is fertility, vitality, continuation of the human race, personified in a woman - the mistress of the home and hearth.

The abundance of female images found in the Upper Paleolithic sites of Eurasia allowed scientists to conclude that the cult of the female ancestor was generated matriarchy. With very primitive relationships between the sexes, children knew only their mothers, but did not always know their fathers. Women guarded the fire in the hearths, homes, and children; women of the older generation could keep track of kinship and monitor compliance with exogamous prohibitions so that children were not born from close relatives, the undesirability of which was obviously already realized. The ban on incest had its positive results - the descendants of the former Neanderthals became healthier and gradually turned into modern people.

Mesolithic About ten thousand years BC, a huge glacier, reaching 1000-2000 meters in height, began to melt rapidly; the remains of this glacier have survived to this day in the Alps and on the mountains of Scandinavia. The transition period from the glacier to the modern climate is called the conventional term “Mesolithic”, i.e. The “Middle Stone” Age is the interval between the Paleolithic and Neolithic, which lasts approximately three to four thousand years.

The Mesolithic is clear evidence of the strong influence of the geographical environment on the life and evolution of mankind. Nature has changed in many respects: the climate has warmed, the glacier has melted, deep rivers have flowed south, large expanses of land previously covered by the glacier have gradually become free, vegetation has been renewed and developed, mammoths and rhinoceroses have disappeared.

In connection with all this, the stable, established life of the Paleolithic mammoth hunters was disrupted, and other forms of economy had to be created. Using wood, man created a bow and arrows. This significantly expanded the object of hunting: along with deer, elk, and horses, they began to hunt various small birds and animals. The great ease of such hunting and the ubiquity of game made strong communal groups of mammoth hunters unnecessary. Mesolithic hunters and fishermen roamed the steppes and forests in small groups, leaving behind traces of temporary camps.

The warming climate allowed for the revival of gathering. The collection of wild cereals turned out to be especially important for the future, for which wooden and bone sickles with silicon blades were even invented. An innovation was the ability to create cutting and piercing tools with a large number of sharp pieces of flint inserted into the edge of a wooden object.

Probably at this time people became familiar with moving through water on logs and rafts and with the properties of flexible rods and fibrous tree bark.

The domestication of animals began: a hunter-archer went after game with a dog; killing wild boars, people left litters of piglets to feed.

The Mesolithic is the time of human settlement from south to north. Moving through forests along rivers, Mesolithic man walked through the entire space cleared by the glacier and reached what was then the northern edge of the Eurasian continent, where he began to hunt sea animals.

Mesolithic art differs significantly from Paleolithic art: the leveling communal principle weakened and the role of the individual hunter increased - in rock paintings we see not only animals, but also hunters, men with bows and women waiting for their return.