Feudal fragmentation is a phenomenon common to all medieval states. It did not escape the Russian lands either. In general, the reasons, circumstances and results of the fragmentation of Rus' differ little from their world analogues. The difference is due only to secondary circumstances.
The real reasons
An event or phenomenon can have causes, prerequisites and reasons. The first are those factors that make an event inevitable in principle, the second determine the implementation of the fact in a specific time period and in certain place. In general, the reason cannot always be detected; otherwise, it is an insignificant event that directly “triggers” the process.
The reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Rus' are the same as those of other medieval states.
- The growth of the possessions of large feudal lords (in Rus' - patrimonial boyars and appanage princes). Under conditions of conditional feudal land tenure and real possibility movement along the feudal ladder (vertical social mobility those times) they felt no worse central ruler, and they were not weaker than him.
- The technical difficulties of managing vast territories at that time. It is known that Charlemagne and (the most famous creators of medieval giant powers) spent a significant part of their lives traveling. Central authorities simply did not have time to respond to the situation on the ground; Accordingly, the authority of local authorities increased.
- Insignificance economic ties. Long-distance trade trips were difficult, trade mainly took place over short distances, subsistence farming and work for a specific order dominated. Accordingly, if there was political unity, it was not supported by the material base.
- The gradual growth of the economy inevitably created several centers. The influence of cities increased, but only in their own district.
Thus, Russian history in this matter is completely subject to the general logic of the development of the historical process.
Other deadlines
Specific historical conditions led to the fact that the feudal fragmentation of Russian lands began much later than in the countries of Western Europe. There this period covers the 9th-13th centuries. In Rus', its beginning dates back to the end of the 11th century (when the Yaroslavichs actively divided power and stipulated the right of each appanage prince to “his own patrimony”). Claims that the fragmentation of the country began after death are unfounded. It’s just that fragmentation is not a linear process; it has its own setbacks.
The chronological delay is explained by the later formation of medieval Slavic statehood. The country needed time to go through its proper historical path.
The period of fragmentation in Rus' also ended a little later. The main stage occurred in the 14th century, and the unification of the country was formally completed by Ivan the Terrible. Here the reason for the delay lies in the Mongol conquest.
He divided the whole land
This is how the poet Tolstoy described the orders of Yaroslav the Wise, who divided his possessions between his sons. Therefore, we can assume that the death of this (certainly outstanding) ruler became the reason for the beginning of the fragmentation of the country. Yaroslav officially assigned each of his heirs a part of the country to own. If we take into account that feuds for the throne constantly occurred even without the official status of contenders (let us at least remember the career of Yaroslav himself), then now the Yaroslavichs received a downright official order to divide the country.
Feudal fragmentation - a stage in political development medieval society, when a single state at the early stage of the Middle Ages is fragmented into a number independent states(in Rus' - principalities and lands). At the same time, the grand-ducal power remains, but has only a nominal significance. Local princes were completely independent and often fought with the great princes. Reasons for feudal fragmentation:
- economic - growth of productive forces in crafts and agriculture in places. At the end of the XI-XII centuries. Two-field and three-field systems began to spread everywhere. The number of cities grew (in the 10th century - 60, by the beginning of the 13th century - 230). At the same time, the growth of productive forces took place under conditions of the dominance of a subsistence economy and the absence of economic ties between Russian lands;
- social - determined by the development of feudal relations on the ground. In the IX-X centuries. There were quite noticeable differences in the level of development of society between Kiev and its outskirts. “The Tale of Bygone Years,” comparing the Polyans and the Drevlyans, noted that the Polyans “have a meek and quiet disposition,” and the Drevlyans “live bestially, according to bestial customs, eat everything unclean, have shaming before their wives,” as well as the custom of kidnapping the bride. This testified to the backwardness of the Drevlyans and the weak spread of Christianity among them, since they did not know fasting. At the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century. the outskirts were no longer behind Kyiv in terms of level social development. It started everywhere social stratification. Under such conditions, the local nobility began to strive to have an apparatus of power capable of coping with social clashes;
- political - were determined by the interest of the local nobility in securing their own feudal centers princely dynasties. The presence of princes at local princely tables in a laddered order of ascension to power was temporary. Therefore, they did not pay much attention to local affairs. This situation suited the local nobility. At the same time, already in Kyiv period A tradition began to take shape according to which certain dynasties began to be established in individual feudal centers. Thus, Chernigov, Tmutarakan and Ryazan began to be listed as the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich; Pereslavl on the Dnieper, Rostov and Suzdal - for the descendants of Vsevolod and Vladimir Monomakh, etc.
- ideological - associated with the spread of traditions of suzerainty - vassalage and the idea of independence of each prince in his own fiefdom.
Consequences of fragmentation:
- After the death of Vladimir Monomakh's son, Mstislav the Great, Rus' in 1132 broke up into about 20 principalities and lands different sizes. Subsequently, crushing continued. Along with the rise of the economy and culture in this process there were also negative consequences: civil strife and weakening of the country's defense. This was sensitive for Rus', which was located on the border with the steppe;
- The Polovtsian onslaught intensified. Russian population was forced to leave Belaya Vezha on the Don, Tmutarakan, and leave lands in the Lower Dnieper region;
- Gradually, a defense system began to take shape, in which each prince was responsible for his own section of the Russian border. Therefore, the defeat of Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich Novgorod-Seversky and his brother Bui-Tur Vsevolod of Kursk in 1185, described in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” had dire consequences for Rus', creating a gap in the Russian defense into which the Polovtsians of the khans Bonyak and Konchak invaded . With great difficulty we managed to push them back into the steppe. The author of the Lay called on the princes to unite military forces for the defense of Rus'. On the eve of the Mongol invasion, this call was very relevant, but the princes as a whole were unable to overcome local interests and rise to an understanding of all-Russian tasks. However, it can be noted social phenomena positive order. For example, in the separate isolated principalities, crafts and cities developed more successfully than before, and estates multiplied, which at that time became the most progressive form of organizing large-scale farming on earth. New centers of chronicle writing were formed, remarkable architectural structures were built, and the Old Russian literature, journalism, culture became richer and more diverse.
Feudal fragmentation is an objective process of development of society, a progressive phenomenon for a certain era, since during this period the following happened. phenomena:
● Feudal relations were maturing
● The social division of labor deepened
● Agriculture, cities and crafts developed
● Development of national self-awareness of peoples
● Beginning of registration of a single national idea
● A necessary aspect for the transition from an early feudal organization to a powerful centralized state
It was during the period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' that in other countries the formation of small isolated state entities, on the basis of which centralized states were formed, created on a different socio-economic foundation than that of the early feudal organization.
Reasons for fragmentation.
1. Division of ancient Russian lands
The division of land took place between the heirs Prince of Kyiv Yaroslav the Wise, who died in 1054. After his death, an internecine struggle between the princes followed.
BUT!
● The first division of Kyiv lands began under Vladimir the Red Sun (feuds between his sons at the beginning of the 11th century).
● Civil strife existed in Rus' business as usual, but they did not lead to complete collapse early feudal empire (which was Kievan Rus).
2. Natural character of the ancient Russian economy
The natural economy is a set of very closed economic units, little included in trade and other economic relations, because they:
■ Self-sufficient
■ Self-sustaining
■ Virtually exclusive external factors development
By the 12th century Kievan Rus there were few genuine economic ties between the individual principalities.
● The Russian economy had a natural character even during the formation of a single centralized state in the 14th – 15th centuries
● Subsistence farming did not prevent the unification of lands around Moscow
3. The growth of boyar estates.
By the 12th century, the fiefs had become strong and independent, which allowed the boyars to continue their policy of increasing their power:
■ Attack on communal lands enslavement of free communal smerds
■ Increase in quitrents and duties (performed by dependent servants in favor of the feudal lord)
■ Getting more power the right to take a fine from dependent smerds increasing the amount (fines)
■ Demand from the Grand Dukes of Kyiv to confirm “feudal immunity” - partial granting of independence to the boyars and non-interference of the Grand Duke in the affairs of the estate
● The princes did not agree to confirm the status of “feudal immunity”, although it was spelled out in “Russian Pravda” continued to interfere in the internal affairs of the boyar estates
● The princes forced the boyars to come to Kyiv with their warriors and participate in military campaigns
● The interests of the boyars and princes sometimes did not coincide refusal to serve the prince
4. Growth and strengthening of cities
Cities began to demand economic and political independence; they became centers of various principalities with their own strong princes
In addition, there is an increase in the role of city meetings - veche, which expressed the ideas of decentralization and independence from Kyiv.
5. Absence is genuine single state– central or feudal.
Although religion and language became common for all Slavic tribes (cultural-religious aspect), in politically Kievan Rus was a fragile state formation.
6. Loss important paths “from the Varangians to the Greeks”
In the 11th – 12th centuries, the main trade and transport routes moved to the Mediterranean Sea, and main role Venice and Genoa began to play the role of trade intermediary between Europe and Asia.
Thus, Kyiv lost its status as a major international center trade, which led to:
■ Decrease in income from foreign trade, on which the economic well-being of the mountains largely depended. population
■ Reducing funds to maintain strong centralized power, administrative apparatus and a unified army
7. Raids of nomads from the south and east
Raids on Kievan Rus are both the cause and consequence of the decline of the state.
Cause of decline: nomadic raids increasing discord accelerating state collapse
Consequence: weakened by civil strife Kiev troops the ability to raid
The consequences of feudal fragmentation.
As a result of all the above reasons (that is, centrifugal forces), in the middle of the 12th century the Old Russian state broke up into 14 principalities, in each of which the boyars sought to become the sovereign master:
● Novgorod – republican form of government
● Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
● Murom-Ryazan Principality
● Chernigov-Seversky Principality
● Pinsk-Turov Principality
● And other principalities...
Later, these principalities began to unite around 3 main centers
■ Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
■ Galicia-Volyn Principality
■ Novgorod feudal republic
Rus' under Mongol-Tatar rule
Endless civil strife, which continued after the collapse of Kievan Rus, led to the fact that in the 1230-1240s ancient Russian lands were captured by Mongol-Tatar conquerors.
Great Mongol Power
● Formed at the beginning of the 13th century in the steppes Central Asia
● Mongols – the dominant group of the state
● Tatars are the largest group in the state
● 1206 – state association tribes led by Khan Temujin (Genghis Khan)
The main occupation of the population is nomadic cattle breeding. Therefore, the feudal nobility demanded the expansion of pastures and the conquest of new lands.
Conquests:
■ 1220s – Siberian territories, most China, Central Asia, Iran, Transcaucasia, Volga region
■ 1237 – Batu’s invasion of Rus'. Pali: Ryazanskoe, Vladimirskoe, Yaroslavskoe, Moscow, Tver Principality; Ural, Urals, Black Sea steppes.
■ 1242 – unsuccessful campaigns against Hungary, Poland, Silesia and Moravia.
■ 1243 – Batu Khan founded the state of the Golden Horde with its capital Sarai-Batu on the Lower Volga
It is worth noting that the Horde initially recognized the power of the “Great Khan” in Mongolia, but as the Great Khan collapsed Mongol power The Golden Horde khans became independent.
As a result of the invasion of the Golden Horde, the economy of Rus' was thrown back centuries:
● Cities, villages, cultural monuments, craft centers were destroyed
● Of the 74 cities, 14 were completely destroyed, and 15 were rebuilt as small villages.
● Thousands of people died and many were enslaved
Economic dependence Rus'
1. Yasak is a heavy annual tribute that was imposed on the entire population. For this purpose, the population was initially rewritten.
2. The collection of tribute was carried out by Mongolian tax collectors - Baskaks, or “Besermensky” (Basurmansky) merchants.
Basurman merchants are merchants who, having paid a certain amount to the Horde from a certain territory, received the right to collect it from the population in a much larger amount.
3. A number of duties have been introduced
a. Military, Yamskaya, underwater, etc.
b. Supply of Russian soldiers to the Horde, horses and carts for the Baskaks
c. Paying high trade duties
4. 1st floor 14th century - collection of tribute passes to Russian princes
a. The princes were obliged to bring expensive gifts to the khans
b. Placed a heavy burden on the population
Political dependence of Rus'
1. Receipt of letters by Russian princes from the khans of the Horde - the right to reign.
a. The struggle between the princes for the right to become the Grand Duke of all Rus'
b. Increasing fragmentation of principalities
2. Separation of Rus' from Western Europe
Expansion into Rus' in the middle. 13th century
1. From the East ( Golden Horde)
The stubborn resistance of the Russian people allowed them to maintain their statehood and forced the Horde to refuse to create its own permanent administration in Rus'.
The forces are unequal, but the struggle is constant.
2. From the West - attacks by the Swedes and Teutonic Knights ( real threat statehood)
Goals: renunciation of Orthodoxy and adoption of Catholicism; expansion of territories
To repel the invasion, military squads gathered throughout Rus' to jointly defend the country. Prince of Novgorod Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky resisted German-Swedish troops 2 times:
“Relaxations” on the part of the Golden Horde
1. Golden Horde laws did not apply on the territory of the Russian principalities
2. The Russian princes, who continued to rule in their principalities, using their own legal norms, were not eliminated
3. The Mongol dynasty was not established in the occupied territories
4. Benefits of the Russian Orthodox Church and tolerant attitude towards Christian religion:
a. The church is exempt from paying tribute and performing various duties
b. The Russian clergy received special charters - labels providing greater rights and privileges, as well as the inviolability of church property
Yarlyk is a preferential charter that was issued by the Golden Horde khans to Russian princes, as well as secular and spiritual feudal lords.
Thanks to these relaxations (and especially religious ones) Russian Orthodoxy turned out to be among those forces that preserved not only religious, but also national unity Russian state. The church acted as a powerful core in the national liberation movement against the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
Since the 30s. XII century Kievan Rus entered a period of feudal fragmentation. It was natural stage socio-economic development caused by objective prerequisites.
Let us name the main reasons and prerequisites for feudal fragmentation:
1) the growth of large appanage princely and boyar land ownership (patrimony) created the conditions for political independence;
2) the dominance of subsistence farming, weak economic ties allowed isolated princely and boyar farms to conduct independent economic life and not depend on the central authority of the Kyiv prince;
3) as a result of the rapid development of crafts, the transformation major cities into new political and cultural centers some of them (Novgorod, Pskov, etc.) became independent administrative centers, around which local markets developed and the power of governor-boyars and local princes was established;
4) small feudal lords were interested in firm princely power in the localities to jointly suppress peasant revolts and repel external dangers;
5) the weakening of the central power of the Grand Duke of Kyiv was largely due to the inheritance of the princely throne not by the eldest son, but by the eldest in the family, which gave rise to quarrels, military clashes and the creation of new independent principalities.
With the establishment of feudal fragmentation in Rus', the specific order (destiny - princely possession), when the princes ruled the free population of their principalities as sovereigns and owned their territories as private owners. With the cessation of the movement of princes among principalities in order of seniority, all-Russian interests were replaced by private ones: increasing one’s principality at the expense of its neighbors.
With the change in the position of the prince, the position of the rest of the population also changed. Now the boyars and boyar children had the opportunity to choose whom to serve, which was recorded in the right of departure. Keeping your land holdings, they had to pay tribute to the prince in whose principality their estates were located.
Political fragmentation led to an unprecedented economic and cultural rise of each Russian land separately, and in this sense it undoubtedly played a progressive role. On the other hand, the political disunity of the Russian lands led to a weakening of their military potential, which turned out to be disastrous during the era of the Mongol invasion.
Formation of a single Great Russian state (XIV – first quarter of the 16th centuries)
The Mongol-Tatar invasion radically changed the territorial and economic structure of Rus'. Fleeing from the Horde, the Russians moved north of the Oka and to the upper reaches of the Volga, which resulted in the economic rise of the cities of Pereyaslavl, Gorodets, Kostroma, and Moscow. In the XIV century. in Rus' new large political associations- Moscow, Tver and Ryazan principalities, between which rivalry developed for the great reign of Vladimir and the role of the unifier of all Russian lands. As a result, victory went to the Moscow Principality, which led the unification process in the northeast of Rus'.
Economic and socio-political prerequisites were formed for the unification of Russian lands:
1) the growth of the population of North-Eastern Rus' and the reasonable policy of its princes, who invited boyars with their numerous warriors and servants from other principalities to serve, contributed to the intensive development of new lands and the elimination of economic isolation;
2) the vigorous restoration of agriculture in North-Eastern Rus' (along with cutting and fallowing, the “steam” system of agriculture with three-field crop rotation began to spread; plows with two iron coulters (ploughshares) and water mills appeared) contributed to the revival of old cities and the emergence of new ones, and consequently , development of crafts and growth in the number of townspeople, strengthening trade relations and the formation of a common economic space;
3) the interest of peasants, townspeople, small and medium-sized feudal lords in a strong princely power capable of stopping feudal strife and protecting the interests of the entire population;
4) interests of self-defense and fight against external enemies in the east and west they dictated the need for unification, developed national consciousness, the desire for consolidation and independence of all the forces of the Russian people;
5) active support for unifying trends Orthodox Church, who acted as the spiritual leader of all Russian people and the guarantor of the strengthening supreme power a prince who personified the power of the Russian people and defender of religion. In 1299, the residence of Metropolitan Maxim was transferred from Kyiv to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, which turned spiritual power into strong weapon in the struggle for the unification of the Slavs on the basis of a single faith, recognized the sacred duty of Christians to fight the Horde yoke, pursued a policy of “conciliarity”, i.e. spiritual unity of all people.
The beginning of the collection of Russian lands
At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. First the Pereyaslav, Gorodets, then the Tver, and finally the Moscow princes joined the struggle for leadership in the northeast.
Moscow, as a peripheral lot, went to one of junior lines descendants of Vsevolod Big Nest, fourth son of Alexander Nevsky, Prince Daniil(1273-1303), who became the founder of the Moscow princely house .
In 1316, the son of Daniel Yuri (1303-1325) married the sister of Khan Uzbek - Konchak, thereby “snatching” from the Tver prince Mikhail a golden label for the great reign of Vladimir and strengthened his patrimony - Muscovy, which became the centers of unification of Russian lands. Under Prince Yuri, the residence of Metropolitan Peter was moved from Vladimir to Moscow, which made it the spiritual center of Rus'.
In the unification of Russian lands around Moscow big role played Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340), who led the fight against Tver princes for the khan's label, bypassing seniority. In 1328, Ivan received from Khan Uzbek a golden label for the great reign of Vladimir, as well as the right to collect tribute (“exit”) from all Russian lands and send it to the Horde. Thus, the Russian people were delivered from the Baskaks, and a relative peace. Tribute began to be collected on plows, i.e. depending on the amount of cultivated land and industries. The collection of tribute allowed Ivan to improve the financial affairs of the principality. Because of this, he went down in history under the nickname Kalita (wallet).
Ivan Kalita managed to transfer the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir to his son Simeon the Proud (1340-1353), and then to his grandson - Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389).
Prince Dmitry from a young age showed strength of character, a desire for independence and independence from the Horde. He expanded the boundaries of the Moscow principality, annexing Dmitrov, Starodub (Suzdal) and Kostroma. During Horde yoke he introduced his own coinage (with the image of a cockerel), which testified to the increased independence of Moscow. Prince Dmitry was the first to raise the banner of the all-Russian armed struggle against Mongol yoke. In 1374, he stopped paying tribute to the Golden Horde, which at that moment was experiencing a process of feudal civil strife.
After the victory on the Kulikovo field, he included in his Moscow fiefdom Principality of Vladimir, without asking permission from the Golden Horde, and from that time on, the throne of the Grand Duke of Moscow-Vladimir was inherited from father to son, and the “escheated” appanage principalities became the property of the Grand Duke.
In 1389, after the death of Dmitry Donskoy, his eldest 18-year-old son Vasily I (1389-1425) ascended the Grand Duke's Moscow-Vladimir throne. He bought it from the Khan of the Golden Horde and annexed it to Muscovy. Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets, Tarus and Meshcher, practically stopped paying annual tribute to the Golden Horde.
After the death of Vasily I in North-Eastern Rus', an almost 30-year internecine feudal war for the grand-ducal throne (1425-1453). The reason for the discord was the will of Dmitry Donskoy, according to which after his death the throne passes to his son Vasily Dmitrievich (Vasily I), who was not yet married and had no children. Therefore, Dmitry Donskoy ordered that in the event of Vasily’s death, the great reign should pass to his uncle, Prince Yuri Dmitrievich of Galicia-Zvenigorod. But before his death in 1425, Vasily I bequeathed the Moscow throne to his 10-year-old son Vasily II (1425 - 1462). The war between Vasily II and Yuri Dmitrievich, and then his sons (Vasily Kosy and Dmitry Shemyaka), lasted about 20 years and reached excessive cruelty on both sides.
Results of the feudal war:
1) by the end of his reign, all the appanages of the Moscow principality, except Verei, were concentrated in the hands of Vasily II. The Grand Duke's possessions increased 30 times compared to beginning of the XIV V.;
2) the victory of Vasily II secured new order inheritance from father to eldest son. During his lifetime, he forced his son Ivan III to be recognized as the “Grand Duke”, which made him the generally recognized heir to the great reign according to the new order of inheritance;
3) Vasily II, who did not divide his possessions equally between his sons, mortgaged state principle in princely inheritance;
4) Grand Duke ceased to be first among equals and found himself in relation to appanage princes in the position of master.
The final stage of the unification of Great Russia is associated with the activities of the son of Vasily II, Ivan III.
Having become the Grand Duke of Moscow, he outlined the main directions of foreign and domestic policy Moscow:
1) further collection of Russian lands
Calculating, strong-willed and decisive Ivan III managed to successfully achieve all of its main goals. Suzdal and Nizhny Novgorod (1462), Yaroslavl (1463), Perm Territory (1472), Rostov the Great (1474), Tver (1485), etc. were annexed to the Moscow principality. The independence of Novgorod was liquidated (1478)
2) creation of a single centralized state with unified legislation, unified system measures and weights.
In 1464 he introduced the coat of arms of Moscow - St. St. George the Victorious on horseback, slaying the dragon. In 1472 he married the niece of the overthrown Turks last emperor Byzantium Constantine XI Sophia Palaiologos and proclaimed himself successor Byzantine emperors, and Moscow - the center Christendom. Even the name of the country changed; they began to call it “Russia” in the Greek manner instead of “Rus”. In 1485, Ivan III accepted the title of Sovereign of All Rus', thereby declaring that he was the sovereign ruler of a single state to which his subjects must swear allegiance; the sovereign has the right to put disgrace on the boyars, take away their possessions and even execute the disobedient. Finally, in 1497, Ivan III accepted the first National emblem Russia - a double-headed Byzantine eagle, on the chest of which the coat of arms of Moscow was placed.
3) a system of central government agencies- The Palace and the Treasury, which were directly subordinate to the Grand Duke.
4) In 1497, the first set of laws of a single Russian state(Sudebnik), which was supposed to unite the judicial systems of different lands, based largely on the “Russian Truth”.
5) During the reign of Ivan III, Rus'’s dependence on the Golden Horde was destroyed. Ivan III did not go to bow to the khan, and from 1475 he stopped paying tribute. In 1480, Khan Akhmat decided to restore the payment of tribute by the Moscow principality and moved to Rus'. As a result of “standing on the river. Ugre" Mongol-Tatars admitted their defeat, and the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which lasted almost two and a half centuries, was finally overthrown.
two trends in the development of the state, a dynastic crisis.
Related information.
Feudal fragmentation - a period of weakening of central power in feudal states due to decentralization varying in duration and effect, due to the strengthening of large feudal lords in the conditions of the seigneurial system of labor organization and conscription. New smaller ones territorial entities lead an almost independent existence; subsistence farming is dominant in them.
Reasons for feudal fragmentation:
- - economic
- a) growth of productive forces in crafts and agriculture locally. At the end of the XI-XII centuries. two-field and three-field systems began to spread everywhere;
- b) an increase in the number of cities (in the 10th century - 60, by the beginning of the 13th century - 230);
- c) the growth of productive forces occurred under the dominance of a natural economy;
- d) lack of economic ties between Russian lands;
- - social
- a) development of feudal relations locally. In the IX-X centuries. There were quite noticeable differences in the level of development of society between Kiev and its outskirts. The Tale of Bygone Years, comparing the Polyans and the Drevlyans, noted that the Polyans “have a meek and quiet disposition,” and the Drevlyans “live bestially, according to bestial customs, eat everything unclean, have shaming before their wives,” as well as the custom of kidnapping the bride. This testified to the backwardness of the Drevlyans and the weak spread of Christianity among them, since they did not know fasting. At the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century. the outskirts no longer lagged behind Kyiv in terms of social development. Social stratification began everywhere. Under such conditions, the local nobility began to strive to have an apparatus of power capable of coping with social clashes;
- - political
- a) the interest of the local nobility in securing their own princely dynasties to their feudal centers. The presence of princes at local princely tables in a laddered order of ascension to power was temporary. Therefore, they did not pay much attention to local affairs. This situation suited the local nobility.
- b) The formation of traditions according to which certain dynasties began to be established in individual feudal centers. Thus, Chernigov, Tmutarakan and Ryazan began to be listed as the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich; Pereslavl on the Dnieper, Rostov and Suzdal - for the descendants of Vsevolod and Vladimir Monomakh, etc.
- - ideological
- a) the spread of the traditions of suzerainty - vassalage and the idea of independence of each prince in his own patrimony.
The collapse of Kievan Rus outwardly looked like a division of lands among the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise. In 1097, a congress of Russian princes took place in the city of Lyubech (near Kyiv), the decisions of which became the beginning of the formation of independent principalities. However princely strife continued. Added to the internal strife was the danger from outside - the invasion of the nomadic Polovtsians. The Polovtsians turned out to be strong and dangerous enemy. Military campaigns of individual princes (for example, the campaign of the Seversk prince Igor in 1185) ended unsuccessfully. To defeat the Polovtsians, it was necessary to unite the forces of the Russian princes and stop the princely strife. With such patriotic appeal The nameless author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” addressed the princes. For some time, the unity of Rus' was restored by Prince Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). After his death, quarrels broke out between the princes new strength, and the Russian lands broke up into independent states.
The largest lands of the time of feudal fragmentation were the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the Galician-Volyn Principality and the Novgorod Republic.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was located in the northeast of Rus', between the Oka and Volga rivers. Nature and climate favored the development of agriculture and cattle breeding. The main cities of the principality - Suzdal, Rostov, Vladimir - became centers of crafts and trade. Princely and boyar landholdings grew rapidly. Northeastern Rus' became independent under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157), nicknamed for his intervention in princely strife and desire to capture distant cities and land. His policy of expanding the principality, continued by his sons Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), turned it by the beginning of the 13th century. northeastern Rus' into the strongest state among the Russian lands.
The Galician-Volyn principality was located southwest of Kyiv with rich lands and developed trade. Largest cities- Vladimir Volynsky, Galich, Kholm, Berestye - were famous as craft centers. Unlike the northeast, in the southwest of Rus' large boyar land ownership developed early. Having become rich, the boyars began to compete for power with the Galician and Volyn princes, ruining the country with long and fruitless military campaigns. The principality reached its power during the reign of princes Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187), Roman Mstislavich (1199-1205) and Daniil Romanovich (1238-1264).
Novgorod land was located in the north and north-west of Rus'. The center of this state was Novgorod, the second largest city in Rus' after Kyiv. Located at the intersection trade routes, Novgorod became largest center trade with the south, east and especially with the west.
IN Novgorod land developed differently from other Russian lands political system. Since 1136, when the Novgorodian uprising ended with the expulsion of the prince, Novgorod enjoyed the right to independently choose a prince from any princely family. The prince and his army were invited to defend borders and wage wars if necessary, but he could not interfere with internal relations. The head of the city-state was the bishop (later the archbishop), the highest ecclesiastical judge, custodian of the city treasury. Executive branch belonged to the mayor, and the governor of the Novgorod militia was the thousand. The posadnik and tysyatsky were annually elected from among the Novgorod boyars for general meeting townspeople - veche.
By the 13th century. the struggle between the forces of feudal centralization and boyar-princely separatism in Rus' was in full swing. It was at this time that the process of internal socio-economic and political development was interrupted by an external military intervention. It came in three streams: from the east - the Mongol-Tatar invasion; from the northwest and west - Swedish-Danish-German aggression; southwest - military attacks by Poles and Hungarians.
The consequences of feudal fragmentation were varied.
Positive:
- 1) The difficulties of life in the south forced people to move to the north and east of the country, settling and developing these previously undeveloped outskirts of ancient Rus'.
- 2) Each prince, having received part of the Russian lands into permanent possession, strives for their improvement - builds new cities, encourages the development of agriculture, crafts, and trade;
- 3) In the Russian principalities, a system of vassalage is developing, when small landowners are in the position of subjects and servants, and not relatives and co-rulers of the prince;
- 4) There is activity in public life.
Negative:
- 1) The ruin of the population due to endless princely civil strife;
- 2) An increase in external danger, the possibility of complete enslavement of Russian lands by foreign invaders.