All of us, when we go to school and then to university, do not think about the fact that to an ordinary person only a small part of the basics is given different sciences. In fact, there are many of these same sciences. To understand what sciences are, you must first find out how they are classified and into what groups they are divided.
Types of sciences
We will try to present you with the most common science map. All existing systems knowledge on specific topic, are divided into only three groups. This:
- Natural
- Humanities
- Formal Sciences
Each group contains a huge layer of subsections, which, in turn, are stratified into even narrower specializations. We will name only the basic ones, since it would be quite labor-intensive to list what sciences exist.
Natural Sciences
Natural sciences include: physics, geography, chemistry, biology and everything that can somehow influence a person. Their paradox lies in the fact that it is almost impossible to find in this group of sciences at least one that would accurately and completely characterize this entire series. For example, geography gravitates and even overlaps with economics and sociology. Remember that geography includes sections on the economic prosperity of states and its connection with the availability of minerals and minerals.
What sciences study humans? From natural sciences This is biology, or more precisely, a subsection of it. Most of the human sciences fall into next group– humanitarian.
In general, the general core of the natural sciences is the description of real, existing phenomena, fragments or elements of reality, but not their evaluation.
Humanitarian sciences
This is also a wide range of sciences. These include social sciences and typically the humanities.
Social sciences include economics, sociology, political science, and others. These sciences describe actions, events, and they also evaluate them. However, they do not have a clear black and white picture of perception. Their assessment is rather comparative than absolute.
What sciences are humanities? This is history, psychology, linguistics. The entire range of sciences is replete with absolute, but dynamically developing categories. For example, they clearly indicate temporal parameters (what was, what is, or what will be), and strive to give an absolute assessment of the facts and categories being studied.
There is also a subsection humanities, which is quite small, but stands apart. These are sciences that form perception and give assessment. These include art criticism, ethics and the like.
Formal Sciences
Everything is very clear here. Formal sciences include logic, mathematics, statistics, and computer science. This category of sciences has clear terms, the only accepted standards and concepts.
These categories of sciences are understandable, but not all researchers agree with this classification. For example, we can subdivide this entire body of knowledge according to criteria that evaluate the closeness of science to people. Which sciences study society, and which ones study abstract things? Various options are possible here, fortunately, there is room to roam, given the fact that there are more than 20 thousand sciences that people study.
ABSTRACT
Philosophy
CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES
Science as such, as an integral developing formation, includes a number of special sciences, which are in turn divided into many scientific disciplines. Revealing the structure of science in this aspect poses a problemclassification of sciences - the disclosure of their relationship on the basis of certain principles and criteria and the expression of their connection in the form of a logically justified arrangement in a certain series ("structural section").
One of the first attempts to systematize and classify accumulated knowledge (or the “rudiments”, “embryos” of science) belongs to Aristotle (Fig. 1). He divided all knowledge - and in antiquity it coincided with philosophy - depending on the scope of its application into three groups: theoretical, where knowledge is conducted for its own sake; practical, which gives guiding ideas for human behavior; creative, where cognition is carried out to achieve something beautiful.
Figure 1. Classification of knowledge according to Aristotle
Aristotle, in turn, divided theoretical knowledge (according to its subject) into three parts:
a) “first philosophy” (later “metaphysics” - the science of higher principles and the first causes of everything that exists, inaccessible to the senses and comprehended speculatively;
b) mathematics;
c) physics, which studies the various states of bodies in nature. Created by him formal logic Aristotle did not identify it with philosophy or its sections, but considered it an “organon” (tool) of all knowledge.
During the period of the emergence of science as an integral sociocultural phenomenon (XVI-XVII centuries), the “Great Restoration of Sciences” was undertaken by F. Bacon (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Classification of sciences according to F. Bacon.
Depending on the cognitive abilities human (such as memory, reason and imagination), he divided the sciences into three large groups:
a) history as a description of facts, including natural and civil;
b) theoretical sciences, or “philosophy” in in a broad sense words;
c) poetry, literature, art in general.
As part of “philosophy” in the broad sense of the word, Bacon identified “first philosophy” (or philosophy proper), which in turn was divided into “natural theology”, “anthropology” and “philosophy of nature”. Anthropology is divided into “philosophy of man” itself (which includes psychology, logic, theory of knowledge and ethics) and into “civil philosophy” (i.e. politics). At the same time, Bacon believed that the sciences that study thinking (logic, dialectics, theory of knowledge and rhetoric) are the key to all other sciences, for they contain “mental tools” that give instructions to the mind and warn it against errors (“idols”) ").
Hegel gave a classification of sciences on a dialectical-idealistic basis (Fig. 3). Based on the principle of development, subordination ( hierarchy ) forms of knowledge, he his philosophical system divided into three large sections corresponding to the main stages of development of the Absolute Idea (“world spirit”):
a) Logic, which in Hegel coincides with dialectics and the theory of knowledge and includes three doctrines: about being, about essence, about concept;
b) Philosophy of nature;
c) Philosophy of spirit.
Figure 3. Classification of knowledge according to G. Hegel. The philosophy of nature was further divided into mechanics, physics (including the study of chemical processes) and organic physics, which consistently considers geological nature, plant nature and animal organism. The specified division contains at least two important and positive ideas : orientation against mechanism (i.e. the desire to explain all phenomena of reality, including man and society, only with the help of the laws of mechanics); emphasizing hierarchy - the arrangement of areas (spheres) of nature in ascending steps from lower to higher. These ideas were nothing more than “guesses” about the interconnected forms of motion of matter and the classification of natural sciences on this basis - which F. Engels later did.
Hegel divided the “philosophy of spirit” into three sections: subjective spirit, objective spirit, absolute spirit. The doctrine of “subjective spirit” is consistently revealed in such sciences as anthropology, phenomenology and psychology. In the section “Objective Spirit,” the German thinker explores the socio-historical life of mankind in its various aspects. The section on the absolute spirit ends with an analysis of philosophy as “a thinking consideration of objects.” At the same time, Hegel places philosophy above private scientific knowledge and portrays it as a “science of sciences.”
With all its schematism and artificiality, Hegel's classification of sciences expressed the idea of the development of reality as an organic whole from its lower stages to the highest, right up to the generation of the thinking spirit.
The founder of positivism, O. Comte, proposed his classification of sciences. Rejecting Bacon's principle of dividing sciences according to different abilities human mind, he believed that this principle should follow from the study of the classified objects themselves and be determined by the actual, natural connections that exist between them.
Implementing his plans regarding the classification (hierarchy) of sciences (Fig. 4), the French philosopher proceeded from the fact that:
a) there are sciences related to the external world, on the one hand, and to man, on the other;
b) philosophy of nature (i.e. the totality of sciences about nature) should be divided into two branches: inorganic and organic (in accordance with their subjects of study);
V) natural philosophy consistently covers “three great branches of knowledge” - astronomy, chemistry and biology.
Figure 4. Classification of sciences according to O. Comte.
Concluding his thoughts on the hierarchy of sciences, the philosopher emphasizes that we, in the end, “gradually come to the discovery of an unchanging hierarchy ... - equally scientific and logical - of six basic sciences - mathematics (including mechanics), astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and sociology."
To facilitate the use of this hierarchical formula of his, Comte proposed to “compress” this formula, namely to group the sciences in the form of three pairs:
a) primary, mathematical and astronomical;
b) intermediate, physico-chemical;
c) final, biological and sociological.
Having introduced sociology into his hierarchy of sciences, Comte, as is known, became the founder of this science, which is rapidly developing today. He was convinced that sociology should have its own methods, irreducible to any others as “insufficient” for it.
Comte argued that between all types of knowledge there is a deep intercom. However, Comte's classification of sciences is mainly static in nature and underestimates the principle of development. In addition, he did not escape physicalism, relativism, agnosticism, indeterminism and some other shortcomings.
F. Engels solved the problem of classification of sciences on a materialistic and at the same time dialectical basis. Based on contemporary natural scientific discoveries, he took the forms of movement of matter in nature as the main criterion for dividing sciences.
With the concept “form of motion of matter” (Fig. 5), common and uniform for all areas of nature, Engels embraced: firstly, various processes V inanimate nature; secondly, life (biological form of movement). It followed that the sciences are naturally arranged in a single row - mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, the sociological form of the movement of matter - just as the forms of movement of matter themselves follow each other, transform into each other and develop from one another - the highest from the lower, complex from the simple. “The classification of sciences, each of which analyzes a separate form of motion or a series of forms of motion of matter interconnected and transforming into each other, is at the same time a classification, an arrangement, according to the inherent sequence of these forms of motion themselves, and this is precisely what it consists of. meaning".
Figure 5. “Form of motion of matter” according to Fr. Engels.
At the same time, Engels paid special attention to the need for a thorough study of complex and subtle transitions from one form of matter to another. In this regard, he predicted (and this was subsequently confirmed many times - and still is) that it is at the intersections of the basic sciences (physics and chemistry, chemistry and biology, etc.) that one can expect the most important and fundamental discoveries. The “butt” sciences express the most general, essential properties and relationships inherent in the totality of forms of movement.
Due to the fact that there are no sharp boundaries between individual sciences and scientific disciplines, especially in Lately, in modern science interdisciplinary and comprehensive research, uniting representatives of scientific disciplines very distant from each other and using methods from different sciences. All this makes the problem of classifying sciences very difficult.
The classification of sciences given by Engels has not lost its relevance to this day, although, of course, it is being deepened, improved, specified, etc. as our knowledge of matter and the forms of its movement develops.
IN late XIX- early 20th century The most interesting and productive ideas on the problem of classification of social sciences were formulated by the German philosopher and cultural historian W. Dilthey, a representative of the “philosophy of life,” and the leaders of the Baden school of neo-Kantianism W. Windelband and G. Rickert.
V. Dilthey identified two aspects of the concept of “life”: the interaction of living beings - in relation to nature; interaction that exists between individuals in certain external conditions, comprehended regardless of changes in place and time - in relation to the human world. Understanding life (in the unity of these two aspects) underlies the division of sciences into two main classes. Some of them study the life of nature, others (“spiritual sciences”) - the life of people. Dilthey argued for the independence of the subject and method of the humanities in relation to the natural sciences.
Comprehension of life, based on itself, he believed, is the main goal of philosophy and other “spiritual sciences”, the subject of study of which is social reality in the fullness of its forms and manifestations. That's why the main task humanitarian knowledge - comprehension of the integrity and development of individual manifestations of life, their value conditionality. At the same time, Dilthey emphasizes: it is impossible to abstract from the fact that a person is conscious being, which means that when analyzing human activity one cannot proceed from the same methodological principles from which an astronomer proceeds when observing the stars.
From the principles and methods on which the “sciences of the spirit” must proceed in order to comprehend life, Dilthey identifies the method of understanding, i.e. direct comprehension of some spiritual integrity. In the natural sciences, the method of explanation is used - revealing the essence of the object being studied, its laws on the path of ascent from the particular to the general.
In relation to the culture of the past, understanding acts as a method of interpretation, which he called hermeneutics - the art of understanding the written manifestations of life. He views hermeneutics as methodological basis all humanitarian knowledge. Dilthey distinguishes two types of understanding: understanding one’s own inner world, achieved through introspection (self-observation); “understanding someone else’s world” - through getting used to it, empathy, feeling (empathy). The philosopher considered the ability to empathy as a condition for the possibility of understanding cultural and historical reality.
If the supporters of the “philosophy of life” proceeded from the fact that the cultural sciences differ from the natural sciences in their subject matter, then the neo-Kantians believed that these two groups of sciences differ, first of all, in the method they use.
The leaders of the Baden school of neo-Kantianism, W. Windelband and G. Rickert, put forward the thesis that there are two classes of sciences: historical (“sciences of the spirit”, “sciences of culture”) and natural. The first are idiographic, i.e. describing individual, unique events, situations and processes. The second are nomothetic: they record the general, repeating, regular properties of the objects being studied, abstracting from the unimportant individual properties. Therefore, nomothetic sciences - physics, biology, etc. - are able to formulate laws and corresponding laws general concepts. As Windelband wrote, some of them are sciences about laws, others are sciences about events.
At the same time, Windelband and Rickert did not consider the division of sciences into natural science and “spiritual sciences” successful and satisfactory. They believed that this division is fraught for social science either with a reduction to the methodology of natural science, or to irrationalistic interpretations of socio-historical activity. This is why both thinkers proposed to start in the division scientific knowledge not from the differences in the subjects of the sciences, but from the differences in their basic methods.
Analyzing the specifics of social and humanitarian knowledge, Rickert pointed out its following main features: its subject is culture (and not nature) - a set of actually generally accepted values in their content and systematic communication; the direct objects of his research are individualized cultural phenomena with their attribution to values; his final result- not the discovery of laws, but a description of an individual event based on written sources, texts, material remains of the past; a complex, very indirect way of interacting with the object of knowledge through the specified sources; The cultural sciences are characterized by an idiographic method, the essence of which is to describe the features of essential historical facts, and not their generalization (construction of general concepts), which is inherent in natural science - the nomothetic method (this is the main difference between the two types of knowledge); objects social knowledge unique, cannot be reproduced, often unique; social and humanitarian knowledge depends entirely on values, the science of which is philosophy; abstractions and general concepts in humanitarian knowledge are not rejected, but they are here - aids when describing individual phenomena, and not an end in itself, as in natural science; V social cognition there must be constant consideration of all subjective aspects; if in the natural sciences their unity is due classical mechanics, then in the humanities - the concept of “culture”.
Summarizing his reasoning in The Sciences of Nature and the Sciences of Culture (1911), Rickert writes that “we can distinguish in the abstract two kinds of empirical scientific activity. On one side stand the natural sciences, or natural science.
Their goal is to study general abstract relationships, if possible laws... They abstract from everything individual as unimportant and usually include in their concepts only what is inherent in a known set of objects. At the same time, there is no object that would be fundamentally removed from power natural scientific method. Nature is the totality of all reality, understood in a generalizing way and without any relation to values.
On the other side are the historical sciences of culture... The named sciences study objects classified as universal cultural values; as historical sciences they depict their individual development in its particularity and individuality”—this is the individualizing method.
These two types of sciences and their methods correspond to two methods of concept formation: 1) with the generalizing formation of concepts, only repeating moments that fall under the category of the universal are selected from the diversity of the given; 2) during the individualizing formation of concepts, the moments that make up the individuality of the phenomenon under consideration are selected, and the concept itself represents an “asymptotic approximation to the definition of an individual.” The objects of historical sciences are “the essence of the cultural process,” which is “a set of objects associated with universally significant values,” and where individual phenomena are correlated with the latter, “in the sense of its content and the systematic connection of these values.”
Thus, both the humanities and natural sciences use abstractions and general concepts, but for the former these are only auxiliary means, because their purpose is to give the concrete, maximum Full description historical unique phenomenon. For the latter, general concepts in in a certain sense- an end in itself, the result of generalization and a condition for the formulation of laws. Thus, the generalizing method in the cultural sciences is not abolished, but has a subordinate meaning: “And history, like natural science, subsumes the particular under the “general.” But, nevertheless, this, of course, does not in the least affect the opposition of the generalizing method of natural science and the individualizing method stories".
Justifying the differences between natural science and socio-historical sciences, the Badeners built between them " the Chinese wall". So, Rickert argued that " historical science and science, which formulates laws, are (are) concepts that are mutually exclusive." This incorrect thesis was soon corrected by M. Weber and subsequent major representatives of humanitarian thought.
In the middle of the 20th century. The original classification of sciences was proposed by V.I. Vernadsky. Depending on the nature of the objects being studied, he distinguished two kinds (types) of sciences: 1) sciences, the objects (and laws) of which cover all of reality - both our planet and its biosphere, and outer space. In other words, these are sciences whose objects correspond to the basic ones, general phenomena reality; 2) sciences, the objects (and laws) of which are peculiar and characteristic only of our Earth. In accordance with this understanding of the objects of different sciences and “taking into account this state of our knowledge, we can distinguish in the noosphere (sphere of the mind) the manifestation of the influence on its structure of two areas of the human mind: sciences common to all reality (physics, astronomy, chemistry, mathematics) , and Earth sciences (biological, geological and human sciences)". Logic, according to the Russian scientist, occupies a special position, since, being inextricably linked with human thought, it equally covers all sciences - both the humanities and natural and mathematical ones. All aspects of scientific knowledge form unified science, which is in rapid development, and the area covered by it is ever increasing.
Until relatively recently, systems of theoretical and fundamental sciences, mainly natural and mathematical ones, were usually built. The situation was worse with the classification of social sciences and the humanities in general, and even much worse with the classification of applied (practical), and, above all, technical sciences.
According to the subject and method of cognition, one can distinguish the sciences about nature - natural science, about society - social science (humanitarian, Social sciencies) and about knowledge itself, thinking (logic, epistemology, dialectics, epistemology, etc.). Technical sciences leave a separate group. A very unique science is modern mathematics. According to some scientists, it does not belong to the natural sciences, but is the most important element their thinking.
Construction task complete system sciences implies coverage of all sciences in general, including applied and practical ones. But to solve such a problem, it is necessary to develop a single principle common to all sciences, which would make it possible to include them in a complete system or classification. After this, we can trace how this principle is implemented when considering the three main aspects of the entire body of human knowledge, and in this case we will have to take as a basis not individual sciences and scientific disciplines, but some of their groups, in order to determine the sequential order of their arrangement and interrelationship each other, expressed through the general principle we have established for the construction of this complete system.
The principle of constructing a complete system of sciences and the method of depicting it.
Three main sides human knowledge. For a relatively long time, attempts have been made to present the general system of sciences as arising from answers to three successively asked questions: what is being studied? (subject approach); how, in what ways is it studied? ( methodological approach); why, for what, for what purpose is it being studied? (approach taking into account practical applications).
The answers to these questions reveal three different sides a complete system of scientific knowledge: object-subject, methodological-research and practical-target. The connection between these three parties is determined by a consistent increase specific gravity subjective moment when moving from one side to the other. That's what it is general principle, which underlies a complete system of scientific knowledge and unites all sciences into one whole.
Distinguishing sciences by object (subject), method and practical application.
First class sciences. Let's start with the natural sciences. The natural sciences represent the simplest undeveloped case of the first class of sciences or the first group of sciences of this class. Let us repeat once again in relation to this case that as a result of natural scientific knowledge, everything introduced from the researcher (subject) himself in the process of knowledge, in the course of scientific discovery; law of nature or natural science theory only if they turn out to be correct if they are objective in content. However, the completely subjective moment can and should be eliminated only in relation to the content of scientific knowledge, but not its form, since the latter bears the inevitable imprint of the cognitive process. Adjacent to this first group of the first class of sciences are mathematical and abstract-mathematized sciences, which are among those sciences that differ from each other in their object (subject).
Social sciences constitute a more complex and more developed case of the first class of sciences. In such sciences, the subjective moment is retained not only as a conceptual form of objective content, as is the case in natural science, but also as an indication of the subject of history, the subject social development And social relations, which is organically included in the object itself social sciences. F. Engels noted that “in the history of society there are people gifted with consciousness, acting deliberately or under the influence of passion, striving for certain goals...”.
The sciences of thinking, together with the social sciences, constitute the humanities, that is, the sciences of man. But unlike the social sciences proper, their subject, strictly speaking, is not the object itself, for example in the form public relations, but an object reflected in the public or individual consciousness of a person (subject).
Second class of sciences. These are sciences that differ in their research method, which is ultimately determined by the nature of the object (subject) being studied, but which is additionally interspersed with a certain amount of subjective element. Since we are talking here not just about an object (subject) that exists outside and independently of our consciousness, but about the techniques and methods we used to study it, i.e. about how it is consistently, step by step, recorded in our consciousness.
Third grade science. It consists of applied, practical, including technical sciences. Here the subjective moment, while maintaining the determining value of the objective moment, increases to the maximum to a greater extent when determining practical significance scientific achievements, practical focus scientific research. If during the development and application of a research method the subjective moment is of a transient, temporary nature, then in practical sciences it is organically included as achieved goal into the final result. All practical, applied sciences are based on a combination of an objective moment (the laws of nature) and a subjective moment (the purpose of the technical use of these laws in the interests of man).
In turn, each group of sciences can be subjected to more detailed division. Thus, the natural sciences include mechanics, physics, chemistry, geology, biology and others, each of which is divided into whole line individual scientific disciplines. The science of the most general laws in reality is philosophy, which cannot, however, be completely attributed only to science.
According to their “remoteness” from practice, science can be divided into two large types: fundamental, which clarify the basic laws and principles real world, sciences where there is no direct orientation to practice; and applied - direct application of the results of scientific knowledge to solve specific production and socio-practical problems, based on the patterns established basic sciences. At the same time, the boundaries between individual sciences and scientific disciplines are conditional and fluid.
There may be other criteria (bases) for the classification of sciences. So, for example, highlighting such main spheres of natural sciences as matter, life, man, Earth, Universe allows us to group these sciences into the following rows:
1) physics > chemical physics> chemistry;
2) biology > botany > zoology;
3) anatomy > physiology > evolutionary doctrine> the doctrine of heredity;
4) geology > mineralogy > petrography > paleontology > Physiography and other earth sciences;
5) astronomy > astrophysics > astrochemistry and other sciences about the Universe.
The humanities are also subdivided within themselves: history, archeology, economic theory, political science, cultural studies, economical geography, sociology, art history, etc. No matter how the sciences are subdivided, “but science is one and united, for, although the number of sciences is constantly growing, new ones are being created, they are all connected into a single scientific structure and cannot logically contradict one another.”
The most famous classification of sciences given by F. Engels V " Dialectics of nature" Based on the development of moving matter from lower to higher, he identified mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, social sciences. 18. The classification of sciences by B.M. is based on the same principle of subordination of the forms of motion of matter. Kedrova. He distinguished six main forms of matter movement: subatomic physical, chemical, molecular physical, geological, biological and social
Currently, depending on the sphere, subject and method of knowledge, sciences are distinguished:
1) about nature - natural;
2) about society - humanitarian and social;
3) about thinking and cognition - logic, epistemology, epistemology, etc. In the Classifier of directions and specialties of higher vocational education
with a list master's programs(specializations) developed by scientific and methodological councils - departments of the UMO in the areas of education are highlighted:
1) natural sciences and mathematics (mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, soil science, geography, hydrometeorology, geology, ecology, etc.);
2) humanities and socio-economic sciences (cultural studies, theology, philology, philosophy, linguistics, journalism, book studies, history, political science, psychology, social work, sociology, regional studies, management, economics, art, physical education, commerce, agroeconomics, statistics, art, law, etc.);
3) technical sciences (construction, printing, telecommunications, metallurgy, mining, electronics and microelectronics, geodesy, radio engineering, architecture, etc.);
4) agricultural sciences (agronomy, animal science, veterinary science, agricultural engineering, forestry, fisheries, etc.).
Please note that in this Classifier, technical and agricultural sciences are separated into separate groups, and mathematics is not classified as natural sciences.
Some scientists do not consider philosophy a science (only science) or put it on a par with the natural, technical and social sciences21. This is explained by the fact that they consider it as a worldview, knowledge about the world as a whole, a methodology of knowledge, or as the science of all sciences. Philosophy, in their opinion, is not aimed at collecting, analyzing and generalizing facts, discovering the laws of motion of reality, it only uses the achievements of specific sciences. Leaving aside the debate about the relationship between philosophy and science, we note that philosophy is still a science that has its own subject and methods of studying the universal laws and characteristics of everything infinite in objective space and time material world 22.
In the Nomenclature of Specialties scientific workers, approved by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Russian Federation on January 25, 2000, the following branches of science are indicated: physico-mathematical, chemical, biological, geological-mineralogical, technical, agricultural, historical, economic, philosophical, philological, geographical, legal, pedagogical, medical, pharmaceutical, veterinary, art history, architecture, psychological, sociological, political, cultural studies and earth sciences 23.
Each of the named groups of sciences can be subjected to further division. Thus, legal sciences that study state legal phenomena are divided into the following groups:
1) historical (history of the domestic state and law, history of the state and law foreign countries, history of political and legal doctrines);
2) sectoral (constitutional law of Russia, civil law, civil procedural law, administrative law, labor law, criminal law, criminal procedural law, international law and etc.);
3) applied (forensics, criminology, law enforcement agencies, legal psychology, prosecutorial supervision, legal statistics, forensic Medicine and etc.).
In addition to the named groups of sciences, V.M. Syrykh also highlighted sciences that study the state and law of foreign countries, as well as legal regulation international relations (state law foreign countries, international law, etc.)24. In my opinion, they can be classified as industrial or historical sciences.
Some authors include the theory of state and law in the group of historical theoretical sciences 25. Obviously, the theory of state and law should be given special place in the complex of legal sciences. In relation to others legal sciences it acts as a generalizing science and performs epistemological and methodological functions.
According to the generic subject of research, the following sciences can be distinguished:
state-legal cycle (theory of state and law, constitutional law, municipal law, etc.);
civil law cycle (civil law, business law, family law, civil procedural law, etc.);
criminal legal cycle (criminal law, criminology, criminology, penal law, criminal procedure, etc.);
administrative and legal cycle (administrative law, financial law, tax law, customs law, etc.);
historical and legal cycle (history of the domestic state and law, history of political and legal doctrines and etc.);
international legal cycle (international law, private international law, European law and etc.).
There are other classifications of sciences. For example, depending on the connection with practice, sciences are divided into fundamental (theoretical), which clarify the basic laws of objective and subjective world and are not directly oriented towards practice, and applied ones, which are aimed at solving technical, production, socio-technical problems.
The original classification of sciences was proposed by L.G. Jahaya. Having divided the sciences of nature, society and knowledge into theoretical and applied, within this classification he identified philosophy, basic sciences and private sciences that spun off from them. For example, he classified history, political economy, law, ethics, art history, and linguistics as the main theoretical sciences about society. These sciences have a more detailed division, for example, history is divided into ethnography, archeology and world history. Politics, management, legal proceedings, criminology, military science, and archival science correspond to state science as the main applied science. In addition, he gave a classification of the so-called “junction” sciences: intermediate sciences that arose on the border of two neighboring sciences (for example, mathematical logic, physical chemistry);
crossed sciences, which were formed by combining the principles and methods of two sciences distant from each other (for example, geophysics, economic geography);
complex sciences that were formed by crossing a number of theoretical sciences (for example, oceanology, cybernetics, science)26.
In statistical collections, the following sectors of science are usually distinguished: academic, industrial, university and factory.
Classification of sciences requires detailed consideration. It is this question that is addressed in the article.
Science is the study of reality, taking place according to a certain system. Science reproduces all natural and essential aspects in a logical form, making things easier to understand by introducing concepts, laws, theories and categories.
Classification of sciences is a way of dividing all sciences into categories according to some principles. This reveals the mutual connection of sciences and the expression of this connection in the form of the organization of scientific activity.
Classification of sciences can be made according to such criteria as:
1. Type of focus of science.
2. Science subject group.
If we take a classification that depends on the subject group, then we can get two main types of sciences, which are distinguished modern natural science.
1. Natural sciences.
2. Humanitarian sciences.
Natural sciences study natural properties, natural relationships and natural connections of things.
The object of study in the natural sciences is nature and its components, while in the humanities the person himself and the society surrounding him. The main natural orientation is the discovery of something new, the proof of truth. in turn, they explain already formulated facts and bring them to a logical understanding. Natural sciences tend to generalize everything, the influence of values in them is hardly noticeable, and the human role is denied, extolling mother nature above all else. The humanities like to consider each issue purely individually, their values are clearly expressed, openly promoted, and the role of man is inevitably mentioned in everything. Natural sciences also have such features as a neutral attitude towards ideology, a very strict separation of the relationship between subject and object, where the object is material and stable, a clear superiority of assessments quantitative nature and global participation in building the foundation of the methodology. In turn, the humanities can be distinguished by ideological loading, the coincidence of the roles of subject and object, where the object is most often changeable and ideal, the clear predominance of qualitative assessments and the practical rejection of experimental methods.
According to most scientists, it was from this global classification of sciences, from the division of all sciences into two large groups, that increasingly smaller and highly specific classifications arose. In each of these large groups You can include more than a dozen classifications covering certain areas of science.
1. Sciences of historical and legal orientation.
2. Sciences of general theoretical legal orientation.
3. Sciences of legal branches.
4. Specialized sciences (forensics, statistics).
Classification of sciences is one of the most important areas unification and systematization of scientific activities.
Chapter 1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES
Basic concepts: natural, humanities and technical sciences,
fundamental and applied sciences
Criteria for classification of sciences
Classification is a method that allows you to describe a multi-level, branched system of elements and their relationships. The science of classification is called systematics. There are artificial and natural classifications. The first does not take into account the essential properties of the classified objects, the second takes these properties into account. More thinkers Ancient Greece raised the question of the types and types of sciences whose goal is knowledge. Subsequently, this issue developed, and its solution is still relevant today. The classification of sciences provides information about what subject a particular science studies, what distinguishes it from other sciences, and how it is related to other sciences in the development of scientific knowledge. generally accepted
is a classification based on the following characteristics: subject of science, method
Research and research result.
Classification of sciences by subject of research
According to the subject of research, all sciences are divided into natural, humanitarian and technical.
Rice. 1. Classification of sciences
ditch riddles" (1899) he pointed to a group of problems (riddles) that are the subject of study of essentially all natural sciences as a single system naturally- scientific knowledge, natural sciences. “The riddles of E. Haeckel” can be formulated in the following way: How did the Universe originate? what types physical interaction act in the world and do they have the same physical nature? What does everything in the world ultimately consist of? what is the difference between living and nonliving things and what is the place of man in the endlessly changing Universe and a number of other questions of a fundamental nature.
Based on the above concept of E. Haeckel about the role of natural sciences in understanding the world, we can give following definition natural sciences.
Natural science is a system of natural scientific knowledge created by natural sciences V the process of studying the fundamental laws of development of nature and the Universe as a whole.
Natural science is the most important section modern science. Unity and integrity are given to natural science by the natural scientific method that underlies all natural sciences.
Humanitarian sciences- these are sciences that study the laws of development of society and man as a social, spiritual being. These include history, law, economics and other similar sciences. Unlike, for example, biology, where a person is considered as biological species, in the humanities we are talking about man as a creative, spiritual being. Technical science- this is the knowledge that a person needs to create the so-called “second nature”, the world of buildings, structures, communications, artificial sources energy, etc. Technical sciences include astronautics, electronics, energy and a number of other similar sciences. IN technical sciences Ah, the relationship between natural science and the humanities is more evident. Systems created on the basis of knowledge of technical sciences take into account knowledge from the field of humanities and natural sciences. In all the sciences mentioned above, it is observed specialization and integration. Specialization characterizes an in-depth study of individual aspects and properties of the object, phenomenon, or process under study. For example, a lawyer can devote his entire life to researching problems in the development of criminal law. Integration characterizes the process of combining specialized knowledge from various scientific disciplines. Today there is general process integration of natural sciences,
humanitarian and technical
sciences in solving a number current problems, among which are of particular importance global problems development of the world community. Along with the integration of scientific knowledge, the process of education of scientific disciplines at the intersection of individual sciences is developing. For example, in the twentieth century. such sciences as geochemistry (geological and chemical evolution of the Earth), biochemistry ( chemical interactions in living organisms) and others. The processes of integration and specialization eloquently emphasize the unity of science and the interconnection of its sections. The division of all sciences according to the subject of study into natural, humanitarian and technical faces a certain difficulty: what sciences include mathematics, logic, psychology, philosophy, cybernetics, general systems theory and some others? This question
is not trivial. This is especially true for mathematics. Mathematics, as one of the founders noted quantum mechanics English physicist P. Dirac (1902-1984) is a tool specially adapted to deal with abstract concepts of any kind, and in this area there is no limit to its power. The famous German philosopher I. Kant (1724-1804) made the following statement: there is as much science in science as there is mathematics in it. The peculiarity of modern science is manifested in its widespread application
It contains logical and mathematical methods. There are currently discussions about the so-called interdisciplinary and general methodological sciences. The first ones can present their knowledge O laws of the objects under study
in many other sciences, but as additional information. The second ones are developing general methods scientific knowledge, they are called general methodological sciences. The question of interdisciplinary and general methodological sciences is debatable, open, and philosophical.