There are various social psychological theories personality. There are American, European, Eastern, and domestic socio-psychological theories of personality.
Among the many modern socio-psychological theories of personality, the following can be distinguished: psychodynamic theories of personality, behaviorist theories of personality, cognitive theories of personality, humanistic theories of personality, role theories of personality, A. Maslow’s theory of self-actualization I, mirror theory (I-concept), existential theories of personality.
The content of these theories is described in more detail in the book by A. Kjell and D. Ziegler “Theories of Personality” (1997).
Among domestic socio-psychological theories of personality can be distinguished: the theory of relationships V.N. Myasishchev, the installation theory of D.N. Uznadze, dispositional personality theory (V.A. Yadov), personality structure K.K. Platonov, the theory of integral individuality (V. Merlin).
These theories allow us to talk about personality not only as an individual, but also typical socio-psychological phenomenon.
One of important areas socio-psychological analysis of personality is the study of its relationships to other people. American psychologist A. Maslow in his works on self-actualization I repeatedly emphasized that one person can treat another person as himself, and that other can perceive the people around him in the same way that he perceives things, and treat them accordingly.
Having specified this statement by A. Maslow, the American scientist E. Shostrom named the first personality type actualizer, and second - manipulator. Exploring mental properties who show actualizers on the one hand and manipulators on the other in both business and interpersonal communication, E. Shostrom discovered in the former honesty and sincerity in relationships with people, a consistently shown interest in them, independence and openness in expressing their position, faith in themselves and in those with whom they communicate. In the latter, he found carefully disguised falsehood in contacts with people, imitation of experiences with actual indifference to these people, deliberate prudence in the selection of means of influencing them, and again carefully hidden cynicism in relation to the basic values of life and culture. Without denying the existence in life of socio-psychological personality types, which in some situations behave as actualizers, and in others - as manipulators, E. Shostrom evaluates pronounced actualizers as integral, original people.
Manipulators, in his opinion, push their originality deep into the depths and repeat, copy, replicate someone else's behavioral models.
Comparing manipulators who adopted such models, he identified differences between them, affecting the characteristic attitude of each of them both towards themselves and towards other people, and most importantly - the form of expression of this attitude in everyday behavior. Based on this, E. Shostrom identified eight types of manipulators, which he designated as: “dictator”, “rag”, “calculator”, “stuck”, “hooligan”, “nice guy”, “judge”, “defender”.
It seems that the description of the main characteristics of actualizers and manipulators made by E. Sjostrom is also relevant for our reality. There are various psychological theories of personality development. Among them, psychoanalysis occupies a significant place. But if you call things by their proper names, then classical psychoanalysis by 3. Freud has nothing to do with personality development. Only tribute of respect forces us to dwell on the disclosure of its main provisions. According to Freud, it is not the “rider” who controls the horse, but the “centaur” who controls the person. Another thing is social psychoanalysis, the founders of which were his students.
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
"East Siberian State Technological University"
Department of “Anti-crisis management and personnel management”
Course work
Discipline: “Social Psychology”
on the topic: “Socio-psychological theories of personality”
Completed by: Student of the Western Federal District, specialty “personnel management”, born in 2010.
Kulikova Alina Igorevna
Checked by: Ph.D. Ottens A.P.
Submission date: ___________________
Defense date: _________________
Grade: ______________________
Ulan-Ude, 2011
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….3
1.1 The concept of personality……………………………………………………….5
1.2 Social attitude of the individual……………………….7
1.3 Socialization of personality (mechanisms, factors and stages,
personality adaptation)………………………………………………………...9
1.4 Asocialization, desocialization and resocialization of the individual…………15
Chapter 2 Social-psychological theories of personality
2.1 Specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding
Personalities……………………………………………………………………………….18
2.2 Characteristics of socio-psychological theories of personality……….19
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….29
List of used literature……………………………………………………31
Introduction
Several generations social psychologists formed under the influence of socio-psychological theories set out in many textbooks by various authors. As favorable socio-political conditions emerged, socio-psychological theory from mythology began to turn into science as such. But overcoming the crisis in the field of socio-psychological theory turned out to be difficult. The fact is that here it is impossible to limit ourselves to the rejection of some principles, theories, terms and the transition to the use of others. The crisis is associated with deep processes in society, with an ossified mentality. Therefore, a change in outlook on life and attitude towards a person, an understanding of his value, is necessary.
Social psychology as a direction of scientific knowledge can be created by those who know reality not theoretically, but from the inside. Not possible in modern social conditions proceed from theoretical schemes that have developed in the past. At the same time, it is necessary to understand why socio-psychological theory is sociologized. Currently, it is impossible to do without analyzing those factors, often sociological, that determine the content of socio-psychological phenomena. When will the change happen? social institutions, it will work out new system relationships, a new way of life will be established, then the time will come for a more subtle and specific socio-psychological analysis. For now, circumstances allow us to create only a “framework” of socio-psychological theory that is adequate to today’s reality. At the same time, it is necessary to free the socio-psychological theory of ideology and fill it with appropriate content. Many principles, the so-called scientific schools, who gained their fame in the past as a result of political speculation. It so happened that a number of phenomena fell out of the field of view of the theory of social psychology, without taking into account which neither society nor the individual can be understood
Without a close connection with theory it is impossible normal development applied areas of social psychology. Today, more than ever, society needs social and psychological knowledge. It should be emphasized that only when a thorough, scientifically funded and truly practical socio-psychological theory is created, will it be able to be a serious help in solving vital problems.
This course work consists of two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.
Purpose of the study: to study the characteristics of socio-psychological theories of personality.
Chapter 1 Social psychology of personality
1.1 The concept of personality
Social psychology studies personality, problems of formation and socialization of personality, its position in a group and in the communication system.
The concept of “personality” reveals the socio-psychological essence of a person, which is formed as a result of a person’s assimilation social forms consciousness and behavior, socio-historical experience of humanity. We become individuals under the influence of life in society, education, training, communication, and interaction.
Sociology views personality as a representative of a certain social group, as a social type, as a product of social relations. But psychology takes into account that at the same time the personality is not only an object of social relations, not only experiences social influences, but refracts and transforms them, since gradually the personality begins to act as a set of internal conditions through which refracts external influences society. Thus, the personality is not only an object and product of social relations, but also an active subject of activity, communication, consciousness, and self-awareness.
The personality is not only purposeful, but also a self-organizing system. What does it mean to be a person? To be a person means to have an active life position. To be an individual means to make choices that arise due to internal necessity, to evaluate the consequences of the decision made and to be accountable for them to yourself and the society in which you live. To be an individual means to constantly build oneself and others, to own an arsenal of techniques and means with which one can master own behavior, subjugate him to your power. To be a person means to have freedom of choice and bear its burden.
A personality (in the narrow sense) is a subject of problem solving, choice, capable of independently and responsibly solving problems; it is a subject of culture. Personality can manifest itself where a person faces problems and conflicts. A person is not yet a person if he is not able to decide for himself life problems and take responsibility for your decisions and actions.
Personal freedom, or freedom of choice, will, is determined by a person’s ability to choose one or another behavior option, sometimes contrary to social circumstances or his own inclination. “Man is the only creature that can say “no” to his vital biological drives at any moment” (M. Scheler).
Social and psychological phenomena arise from the interaction of the social environment, individuals and groups. The social environment is everything that surrounds a person in his social life. The social environment depends on the type of socio-economic formations, on class and nationality, on intra-class differences of certain strata, on everyday and professional differences.
So, the socio-economic formation forms a given social environment, which gives rise to one way of life or another and, subsequently, a way of thinking and behavior. Consequently, socio-economic formation - social environment - lifestyle - personality - this is the fundamental way of personality formation.
The differences between people are multifaceted: these include differences in beliefs and interests, knowledge and experience, abilities and skills, temperament and character. And yet, the functioning of the psyche of all people is subject to general patterns: Everyone has memory, emotions and other mental processes. K.K. Platonov, pointing out that for a socio-psychological analysis of personality, the concepts of “personality”, “individual”, “individuality” should be clearly distinguished, gives the following definition of personality. Personality is a person as a subject of active activity, transforming the world, and therefore, a bearer of consciousness and self-awareness.
According to the opinion of E.V. Shorokhova, the socio-psychological understanding of personality is based on the characteristics of the social type of personality as a specific formation, a product of social circumstances, its structure, the totality of role functions of the individual, their influence on social life.
1.2 Social attitude of the individual
Social attitude is one of the main categories of social psychology of personality. Social attitude is associated with a number of mental properties and processes, such as perception and assessment of the situation, motivation, decision making and behavior. Social attitudes of an individual are the product of a collision of needs and situations of their satisfaction, which are fixed in the personal structure as a result of experience.
In English, the concept of “social attitude” corresponds to the concept of “attitude,” which was introduced into scientific use by W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki (1920). They gave the first definition of attitude: a state of consciousness that regulates a person’s attitude and behavior in connection with a certain object in certain conditions, and his psychological experience of the social value, the meaning of the object.
In modern social psychology, the definition of social attitude that was given by G. Allport (1924) is more often used: “a social attitude is a state of psychological readiness of an individual to behave in a certain way in relation to an object, determined by its past experience.”
Social attitudes are formed on the basis of one’s own life experience the individual and the experiences received from other people. The main way of transmitting attitudes is verbal form.
The main function of the installation is regulation social behavior individual. When they talk about the system social attitudes personality, then from the point of view of social and personal significance, individual social attitudes form a kind of hierarchical structure. This fact is reflected in the well-known dispositional concept of regulation of social behavior of the individual V.A. Yadova (1975). It identifies four levels of disposition as formations that regulate the behavior and activity of an individual. The first level includes simply installations. In the understanding of D.N. Uznadze, regulating behavior at the simplest, mainly everyday level, to the second - social attitudes, which, according to V.Ya. Yadov, come into action at the level of small groups; the third level includes the general orientation of the individual’s interests, reflecting the individual’s attitude to his main spheres of life (profession, social activity, hobby, etc.); At the fourth, highest level there is a system of value orientations of the individual.
Finally, a few words should be said about certain types or types of social attitudes. First of all, the so-called perceptual attitude is often distinguished as a special type, meaning the individual’s predisposition to a certain interpretation of the perceived elements of reality. The other two important types of social attitudes are stereotype and prejudice. Stereotypes and prejudices differ from ordinary social attitudes primarily in the content of their cognitive component. A stereotype is a social attitude with a frozen, often impoverished content of the cognitive component. When they talk about stereotypical thinking, this refers to the limitation, simplicity and superficiality of a person’s ideas about certain objects of reality or about ways of interacting with them. The reasons for the emergence of stereotypes are usually a lack of knowledge, dogmatic upbringing, underdevelopment of the individual, or a stop for some reason in the processes of its development. Prejudice is a social attitude with a distorted content of its cognitive component, as a result of which the individual perceives some social objects in inadequate form. The main reason for the formation of prejudices lies in the underdevelopment of the cognitive sphere of the individual, due to which the individual uncritically perceives the influence of the relevant environment. Therefore, most often prejudices arise in childhood, when the child still has no or almost no adequate knowledge about a particular social object, but under the influence of parents and the immediate environment a certain emotional and evaluative attitude towards it is already formed. The corresponding life experience of an individual, emotionally experienced but not sufficiently critically interpreted, can also influence the formation or consolidation of a prejudice. If another person is the object of a stereotype or prejudice, then often the leading features are his appearance, gender, profession, nationality, and other features are unjustifiably ignored. The most characteristic feature of perception based on stereotypes and prejudices is the division of people into “us” and “strangers”, while differences in positive qualities(auto-stereotype), and “strangers” are endowed with negative evaluations (hetero-stereotype).
1.3 Socialization of personality
(mechanisms, factors and stages, personality adaptation)
In psychology, socialization is usually understood as the process and result of an individual’s assimilation and active reproduction of social experience, carried out in communication and activity. Socialization occurs under the influence of various factors, including purposeful educational influences on the individual from other people and public institutions, and the spontaneous influence of various life circumstances on him. The concept of “socialization” is inextricably linked with ideas about the individual and the nature of his relations with society. Hence the different interpretations of socialization processes. For some, it is learning social behavior; for others - modeling personality in accordance with the requirements of culture. If we focus on the theory of social attitudes, which explains the processes of regulation of human social behavior, then we can say that socialization is the formation, formation and development of a system of social attitudes of an individual.
According to many psychologists, socialization occurs in the following areas of a person’s life: in activity, in communication and in the sphere of self-awareness. Socialization in the field of activity of A.N. Leontiev defined it as “an expansion of the catalog of activities that the child owns.” This refers to the gradual assimilation of those types of activities that the child can independently reproduce, i.e. mastering cultural patterns of behavior. In the sphere of communication, socialization occurs during the gradual expansion of the circle of communication, the deepening of the process of communication itself, associated with changes in its content and forms. In the sphere of self-awareness, socialization acts in terms of forming an image of oneself. Identification is the process of emotional and other self-identification of a person with another person, group, or model. This is a mechanism of personality socialization, which carries out the individual’s “appropriation” of his human essence. Identification is usually opposed to isolation - a mechanism of individualization of personality, embodied in a person’s desire to stand out from others, to close himself off. Identification has a double impact on personality development: on the one hand, it forms the ability to establish positive relationships with people, leading to the development of socially significant qualities, on the other hand, it can contribute to the dissolution of the individual in another person, the emasculation of the individual.
Based on the above, we can offer the following understanding of socialization: it is a process active absorption the individual values and norms of society and their formation into a system of social attitudes, which determines the position and behavior of the individual as an individual in the system of society.
The implementation of the socialization process is influenced by a large number of various factors, which, in the most general form, can be presented in the form of two large groups: the first includes social factors that reflect the socio-cultural aspect of socialization and touches on the problems of its group, historical, cultural and ethnic specificity, and secondly – individual and personal factors that are largely determined by the individual psychological characteristics of a person and the uniqueness of his or her life path.
TO social factors usually include macro-, mesa- and micro-factors reflecting socio-political, economic, historical, national, etc. features of personality development, including quality of life, environmental conditions, the occurrence of extreme and other social circumstances.
Macro factors are those social and natural conditions development and socialization of the individual, which are determined by his living as part of large social communities, such as a country, a state. This also includes culture - a system of spiritual forms of ensuring human life and socialization, which covers all aspects of life: biological (sleep, food, rest, sexual sphere, etc.), production (creation of means of material life support, tools, food, clothing , housing), spiritual (language, speech activity, worldview, aesthetic activity, etc.), social (communication, social relationships).
Mesofactors are determinants of the socialization of an individual, conditioned by his living as part of communities. average size. These factors include ethnicity (nation). Belonging to a particular nation and its traditions largely determines the specifics of a person’s socialization. Another mesafactor is regional conditions characteristic of the socialization of people living in one or another part of the country, state, which has its own distinctive features (a single socio-economic system, a common historical past, cultural and social identity). The type of settlement (village, town, town, city, region), for certain reasons, also gives a unique character to the socialization of the people living in it. The process of socialization is greatly influenced by the means of communication (print, radio, television, theater and cinema), through which information (knowledge, spiritual values, moral and legal norms, etc.) is disseminated to quantitatively large audiences.
The microfactors that determine the course of socialization include those institutions of society that carry out the process itself and for which a person turns out to be, first of all, an object of influence. According to their social status, these institutions can be formal or informal. The first are official institutions of society (state), which, according to their functional purpose, are designed to educate and educate each new generation (preschool institutions, schools, universities, cultural institutions, etc.). The second, informal institutions, have a socio-psychological basis. These are different social groups, from small to large, in which the individual is included (family, class, professional work group, peer group, ethnic community, etc.)
In essence, socialization is the process of personality formation. It begins from the moment an individual is born and continues throughout his life, although in old age this process sometimes acquires a regressive character. In this case, the following are distinguished: the first or early period, covering the first 12 years of a person’s life; the second period is between 12-18 years. The second period of socialization is distinguished psychologically by the completeness of the formation of thinking abilities. By the third period, the basic system of social attitudes of the individual turns out to be already formed and quite stable. The individual acquires greater independence and criticality in the perception of various social drives; his own life experience, including the experience of social relations, becomes his main institution of socialization.
According to Erikson, self-awareness requires psychological reciprocity—i.e. correspondence between a person’s self-image and how others perceive him and what they want from him. This statement emphasizes that if a young person is not accepted by society or even by any individual, this can greatly hinder him in establishing his own self.
One of the leading and determining mechanisms of personality socialization is psychological adaptation.
“Socio-psychological adaptation is the process of people acquiring a certain socio-psychological status, mastering certain socio-psychological functions. At the same time, the status of a “social personality” is understood as the position of an individual in a system of mixed relations, which determines his rights, responsibilities and privileges.” In the process of socio-psychological adaptation, a person strives to achieve harmony between the internal and external conditions of life and activity. As it is implemented, the adaptability of the individual increases, i.e. the degree of its adaptation to life in society. Adaptability can be: internal, manifested in the form of restructuring functional structures and personality systems under certain environmental changes. External (behavioural), when the personality is not internally restructured and retains itself and its independence. Mixed, in which the personality partially changes and adapts internally to the environment, its values, norms and at the same time partially adapts instrumentally, preserving his “I” and independence.
The opposite characteristic of adaptability - personality maladaptation can be of several types: stable situational maladaptation, characterized by a person’s lack of adaptation mechanisms, when there is a desire, but no ability to adapt; temporary maladaptation, in which there is an imbalance between the individual and the environment, giving rise to the adaptive activity of the individual; general stable maladaptation, which is a state DC voltage, dissatisfaction, activating unconscious pathological defense mechanisms of the psyche.
Thus, socio-psychological adaptation also acts as a means of protecting the individual, with the help of which internal mental tension, anxiety, and destabilizing states that arise in a person when interacting with other people and society as a whole are weakened and eliminated.
Psychologists describe two types of socio-psychological adaptation: progressive and regressive. In the course of progressive adaptation, the unity of interests and goals of the individual, on the one hand, and society, on the other, is achieved. Regressive adaptation is formal and does not meet the interests of society, the development of the social group, or the individual himself. According to the mechanism of implementation, socio-psychological adaptation can be voluntary (at the request of the person) or forced (causing damage, deforming the personality).
So, we can conclude that socio-psychological adaptation is a process that occurs when the conditions of the social environment change and is associated with correction, completion, deformation, partial restructuring of individual functional systems of the psyche or the personality as a whole.
The main meaning of socialization is the actualization of the “I”, the disclosure of the individual’s potential, the development of his individuality as a social being. How socially mature and harmonious a person is is, the breadth of his socialization is assessed. IN totalitarian state Such methods of socialization as masochism, sadism, destruction and conformism are observed. Masochism is the desire for submission, the rejection of one’s “I”, as if merging it with another person or social group, i.e. This is a kind of escape from freedom caused by the fear of loneliness and responsibility. Under sadism in in this case is understood as placing other people in a dependent position, acquiring unlimited power over them; exploitation and intimidation of others. Destruction as a method of socialization consists in ridding a person of the feeling of his own powerlessness through the violent destruction of the surrounding world, in particular specific social institutions. Conformism means the individual’s rejection of his own “I” and his transformation into a person of the crowd, automatically following the majority, acting “like everyone else.”
Any process of human development is a process of his individual development within the framework, in the context, in the conditions of society, a social group, social contacts, and communication. Each person himself - individually, personally, directly - goes through the path social development. Mastering the knowledge included in public consciousness, cannot replace a person’s process of his personal social experience, accumulated as a result of individual comprehension of social laws.
1.4 Asocialization, desocialization and resocialization of the individual
The concept of “socialization” means involvement, connection with society, while the prefix “a” in the concept of “asocialization” means the process of assimilation by an individual of antisocial, antisocial norms, values, negative roles, attitudes, behavioral stereotypes, which objectively lead to the deformation of social relations , to destabilize society.
Speaking about asocialization, one cannot fail to mention two more terms related to this problem: “desocialization” and “lag in socialization.” The first means that at a certain stage of normal socialization of the individual, some deformation occurs when he falls under the influence of a negative microsphere - a courtyard group of peers, a criminal group, etc. As a result of this, the individual experiences the destruction of previous positive norms of values, in replacement of which new antisocial norms and values and patterns of behavior are adopted. A lag in socialization means an untimely, belated assimilation by an individual of those positive norms and patterns of behavior that are prescribed by society for each stage of socialization. Over time, the lag can lead to the assimilation of negative norms by the individual or to the thoughtless submission of such a person lagging behind in socialization to the will of other antisocial elements.
Socialization of the individual occurs during the same chronological periods (childhood, adolescence and adolescence) as socialization, while desocialization can also occur in adulthood. For example, a mature person who has embarked on the path of stealing state property under the influence of a group of hidden criminals can at the same time remain a good father of the family, be cultured, polite, and normally perform all other social roles.
On early stage The main mechanism of asocialization is the mechanism of imitation, when children or adolescents unconsciously or partially consciously adopt negative patterns of behavior from adults leading an antisocial lifestyle.
In relation to an individual who has embarked on a criminal path of behavior, society, represented by socialization institutions, bodies social control carries out resocialization, i.e. the process of social restoration of the individual, his assimilation again or for the first time of social norms and values that are positive from the point of view of society, patterns of behavior. The prefix “re” in the concept of “resocialization” means dismantling, destruction of negative, antisocial norms and values acquired by a person in the process of asocialization (desocialization) and instilling in him positive norms and values approved by society.
Thus, some teachers believe that “the re-education of convicts is aimed at their re-socialization and return to an honest working life in freedom” (i.e. in this case, re-socialization is considered as a result of the re-education process). Lawyers also use this term, in particular, when studying issues of penal policy in relation to youth, noting the greater ability for resocialization of a young subject compared to an adult (here resocialization is considered not only as a result, but also as a process).
The problem of resocialization is connected not only with the correction of convicts. It addresses the problem of including convicts and other categories of people into the normal process of socialization: patients, drug addicts, people who have experienced stress during accidents, military operations, and natural disasters. Therefore, at present, along with the concept of “social adaptation,” the term “social rehabilitation” is widely used in social psychology. Social adaptation necessary for both healthy and sick people. As for social rehabilitation, people who are characterized by post-traumatic syndrome need it, in particular “Avganup”, liquidators Chernobyl accident, persons who have suffered natural natural disasters, refugees from so-called “hot spots”, released from prison, disabled people, etc. These people need not only social assistance, but also in psychotherapy, psychocorrection (auto-training, etc.).
Social psychological theories of personality
2.1 Specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding personality
Currently there is whole line approaches to understanding personality: 1) biological; 2) sociological; 3) individual psychological; 4) socio-psychological, etc. In accordance with the first approach, personality development is the deployment of a genetic program.
From point of view sociological approach personality is a product of cultural and historical development. In this regard, it is appropriate to quote K. Marx that “personality is not an abstraction inherent in an individual, in its reality it is the totality of social messages.”
From the point of view of the individual psychological approach, personality development is influenced by such features as human constitution, type nervous system etc. It is important here to distinguish between close, but not identical concepts“individual”, “person”, “personality”.
In the West, the branch of psychology that studies personality is called personology. The fact is that in English a person is a person.
The etymology of the word “personality” helps to understand the socio-psychological nature of the concept. In Russian, the word “personality” means a guise, i.e. mask. This circumstance emphasizes what is typical in a person, which allows us to talk about it as a sociotype, an archetype.
The specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding personality are as follows:
He explains the mechanisms of personality socialization;
Reveals its socio-psychological structure;
Allows you to diagnose this structure of personality characteristics and influence it.
The socio-psychological structure of the individual includes: mentality, value-semantic sphere, motivational sphere (direction, life goals, plans, life path), cognitive characteristics (pictures of the world); socio-psychological competence of the individual; status-role characteristics of the individual; emotional mental states, social feelings personality.
2.2 Characteristics of socio-psychological theories of personality
There are various socio-psychological theories of personality: American, European, Eastern, domestic. Among them we can distinguish psychodynamic, behavioristic, cognitive, humanistic, role theories of personality, Maslow’s theory of self-actualization of the “I”, theories of the mirror “I” (“I am a concept”), and existential ones. Among the domestic socio-psychological theories of personality, one can highlight the theory of relationships by V.N. Myasishchev, the installation theory of D.N. Uznadze, distance theory of personality, personality structure of K.K. Platonov, theory of integral individuality. These theories allow us to talk about personality not only as an individual, but also as a typical socio-psychological phenomenon.
American psychologist A. Maslow, in his works on self-actualization of the “I,” repeatedly emphasized that one person can treat another as he treats himself, and this other can perceive the people around him in the same way as he perceives things, and treat them accordingly . Having specified this statement by A. Maslow, the American scientist E. Shostrom called the first type of personality an actualizer, and the second a manipulator. Studying the mental properties of E. Shostrom identified eight types of manipulators, which he designated as “dictator”, “rag”, “calculator”, “stuck”, “hooligan”, “nice guy”, “judge”, “defender”.
For the first, according to the observations of E. Shostrom, when communicating with people, an openly forceful manner of behavior is characteristic, for the second - a seemingly endless game of giveaway, for the third - cold prudence, for the fourth - imitation of defenselessness and constant need for care, for the fifth - terrorizing others in one’s own interests, for the sixth – playing a “friend” person, for the seventh – demonstrating an accusatory position towards the objects of manipulation, for the eighth – hypocritically playing the role of a defender, but again with the goal of getting what they want from them.
The outstanding German-American psychologist E. Fromm argued back in the 50s of the twentieth century that the desire to manipulate people logically follows from market manipulation. The belonging of each of them to one or another group requires behavior that is taken for granted in society, so to speak, socially normal for a representative of this group - a man, a teacher, a husband, a father, etc. By demonstrating such behavior, a person constantly acts as a bearer of a social role or several social roles at the same time. Sociologist I.S. Cohn, specifying this position, writes: “The individual’s belonging to a group is expressed in certain functions(roles) in which his duties and rights in relation to the group are recorded.”
A role is the expected behavior determined by a person's status. There are impersonal (social) and interpersonal roles. Interaction with each other in study, work, in everyday life and while performing various roles, for example, a teacher, a banker, an investigator, a mother, people remain individuals. Any social role always leaves the opportunity for the performer to express his individuality. As a result, social relationships become interpersonal.
Psychoanalytic approach Z. Freud (1856-1939) to understanding personality.
The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was a consistent determinist; he believed that everything in mental life has its own cause, every mental event is caused by a conscious or unconscious intention and is determined by previous events. His main merit is that he was the first to introduce the concept of the unconscious into science and create methods for working with unconscious motives. He identified three spheres of the psyche: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious. It is in the unconscious that the main determinants of personality are located - mental energy, motivations and instincts. There are two basic instincts: libido, or the desire for sexual satisfaction, and the instinct of aggression and the desire for death. In the personality structure, according to Freud, there are also three main components: It (Id), I (Ego) and Super-I (Super-Ego). The id, the basic, original and central part of the personality, is almost entirely unconscious. It includes psychic forms that were never conscious, and those that turned out to be unacceptable to consciousness and were repressed from it. The id does not know the values of good and evil, does not know morality.
I (Ego), on the one hand, follows unconscious instincts, and on the other, obeys the demands of reality. This part of the personality is responsible for voluntary behavior, can control and suppress instincts, strives to reduce tension and increase pleasure.
The super-ego develops from the Ego and serves as a repository of moral principles, norms of behavior, and is a judge and censor of the activities and thoughts of the Ego. Motives, thoughts, etc. that do not correspond to the norms imposed by the superego are repressed into the area of the unconscious or preconscious.
To prevent the repressed material from entering consciousness again, the “I” uses various methods of defense. Freud pointed mainly to such forms of defense as rationalization, sublimation, projection and avoidance. However, despite the presence of protection, repressed desires (they are mainly associated with sexual experiences) break into consciousness in the form of dreams, fantasies, “accidental” slips, unexpected actions, etc. Suppressed motives continue to operate and significantly influence human behavior. Moreover, they intensify and go beyond the control of consciousness. When a strong but suppressed motive breaks into consciousness, a person may fall into a hysterical fit or have other neurotic reactions.
Freud conveyed great significance to childhood sexual experiences. The Oedipus complex he proposed is well known, the basis of which is the boy’s forbidden love for his own mother and hence hatred of his own father. In his psychosexual development, a person goes through various phases, which Freud discussed in detail in the context of character formation and future psychological problems of the individual. “Stuck” in one of these phases (oral, anal, faile and genital) can persist in unconscious form into adulthood.
In all cases neurotic disorders it turns out that libidinal energy is “incorrectly” attached to the image of a particular person, idea or thing. Psychoanalysis helps to release miscathected energy, which can be used more positively.
Psychoanalysis of Carl Jung (1875-1961)
The Swiss scientist C. Jung proposed the idea of the existence, along with the individual unconscious, of a collective unconscious, the content of which is the so-called archetypes, i.e. some general forms mental representations, filled in the course of individual life with personal emotional and figurative content. The collective unconscious exists in the thoughts of each individual; it is collective because it is the same for many people and thereby unites them into peoples, nations, and humanity as a whole.
Jung identifies several main archetypes: Persona, Ego, Shadow, Anima and Animus, Self.
A persona is how we present ourselves to the world: the character we adopt, our social roles, the clothes we choose to wear, individual style expressions.
The ego is the center of consciousness and creates a sense of consistency in our conscious lives.
The shadow is the center of the personal unconscious, in which
material repressed from consciousness. It includes tendencies, desires, memories and experiences that are rejected by the individual as incompatible with his persona or contrary to social standards and ideals.
Anima and animus are ideal unconscious structures that reflect the idea of femininity and masculinity, respectively. All relationships with the opposite sex are influenced by these archetypes.
The Self is the central archetype of order and integrity of the individual. According to Jung, consciousness and the unconscious are not necessarily opposed to each other, they complement each other, forming an integrity that is the self.
Psychoanalysis of Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
The basic principles of the Austrian psychiatrist A. Adler are holism (integrity), unity of individual lifestyle, social interest and social feeling, and the orientation of behavior towards achieving a goal. Adler argued that goals and expectations influence human behavior more than past experiences, and everyone's actions are motivated primarily by the goals of superiority and mastery of the environment.
A. Adler coined the term “inferiority complex,” believing that all children experience a feeling of inferiority due to their small physical size and lack of strength and capabilities.
The feeling of inferiority causes a desire for superiority, which directs thoughts and actions towards the “goal of victory.” Adler emphasized the importance of aggression and the struggle for power in human life. However, he understood aggression not as a desire for destruction, but as a strong initiative in overcoming obstacles. Later, Adler considered aggression and the will to power as a manifestation of a more general motive - the desire for superiority and self-improvement, i.e. the urge to improve oneself, develop one's abilities and potential.
The goal of superiority can be either positive or negative. If it involves community service and interest in the well-being of others, then we can talk about the constructive and healthy development of the individual. This is expressed in the desire for growth, for the development of skills and abilities, for work for a more perfect life.
Each person chooses his own life style, i.e. unique way following your life purpose. A. Adler emphasized the creative active nature of the individual in shaping his own life, as well as social character human behavior. It speaks of a sense of community, a feeling of kinship with all humanity. Adler believed that only through cooperation with others can we overcome our actual inferiority or feelings of inferiority. A constructive striving for excellence plus a strong social sense and cooperation are the main characteristics of a healthy individual.
Behaviorist approach to understanding personality.
The word "behaviorism" comes from the English behavior - behavior. Behaviorism uses two basic concepts to explain behavior: stimulus and response; consciousness and other subjective concepts are denied. Proponents of behaviorism strive to deal only with observable forfeits.
The American psychologist, leader of behaviorism B. Skinner views personality as an isolated self, which has no place in the scientific analysis of behavior. Personality is defined by him as the sum of behavior patterns. Patterns of behavior are a certain holistic set of behavioral reactions. Different situations produce different response patterns.
I. Pavlov himself discovered the mechanism for the formation of conditioned reactions when combining an unconditioned reflex with some conditioned signal, then B. Skinner significantly expanded this system, proposing a model of the so-called operant conditioning - rewarding for desired and punishing for undesirable reactions. A reinforcing stimulus is given after the desired reactions have been obtained, which helps reinforce them and repeat them. Punishment (or a negative reinforcer) reduces the likelihood of certain responses.
An autonomous person, freedom, dignity, creativity, from the point of view of B. Skinner, are only fictions; he also denies the spontaneity of behavior and its sources that lie outside life experience. Skinner is more interested in controlling behavior than in predicting behavior.
Understanding personality from the perspective of humanistic psychology.
Fundamental humanistic psychology K. Rogers believed that the decisive role in the life and development of a person is played by his idea of himself, especially since it does not help to judge what he really is. Does not exist objective image itself, which can be used as a standard.
And Maslow, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, connected all his work with the problem personal growth and development. He made significant theoretical and practical contributions to the creation of an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which actually denied creativity, love, altruism and other great values of humanity. He believed that Freud's psychoanalysis presents us with a sick part of the psyche that needs to be filled with a healthy part. The central concept for the humanistic psychology of language is self-actualization.
A. Maslow began by studying outstanding people, which seemed to him the most soulfully healthy and creative.
A. Maslow names the following characteristics of a self-actualizing personality:
More effective perception of reality and a more comfortable attitude towards it;
Acceptance of yourself, others, nature;
Spontaneity, simplicity, naturalness?
Need for privacy;
Constant freshness grade.
Deeper interpersonal relationships;
Democratic character structure;
Discrimination between means and ends, good and evil;
Philosophical non-hostile sense of humor;
Self-actualizing creativity.
Another cardinal idea of A. Maslow was the concept of hierarchy fundamental needs, which develop from lower and higher. This physiological needs(food, water, sleep, etc.), security need, the need for love and belonging, for esteem, for self-actualization.
Understanding personality from the point of view of transactional analysis.
A transaction is a unit of communication, which can be a transactional stimulus (addressing another person) or a transactional response.
Eric Berne argues that most people in their lives are mainly engaged in games, devoting very little time to authentic life, sincere human intimacy, which gives true satisfaction.
As a rule, play is learned in childhood, and further man does not realize the true reasons for his behavior, acting according to a predetermined pattern. The main unconscious goal of the game is to remain in one or another state of “I”, which brings internal satisfaction, sometimes “pathological”.
In order to find your problem and solve it, you need to give up the game; the game was created as a means of avoiding the problem.
Understanding personality within the framework of existential psychology.
The term “existence” (“existence”) was first used by S. Kierkegaard, whose works formed the basis of this philosophy. Another source of existentialism is considered to be the phenomenology of E. Husserius. The greatest philosophers– existentialists are Strat and Camus.
The object of study of existentialists is man as a subject of experiencing his existence. Naturally, psychology and psychotherapy of the twentieth century. could not help but be influenced by this teaching.
Let us show the main features of existential psychotherapy using the example of the psychotherapy of its largest representative, W. Frankl. The main purely human aspiration, according to V. Frank, is the desire to find the meaning of one’s existence, and a person feels frustration if this aspiration remains unfulfilled.
It is not a person who poses the question about the meaning of life - life itself poses this question to him, and a person constantly has to answer it not with words, but with actions. The meaning of life, in principle, is available to any person, regardless of gender, age, intelligence, character, environment and various beliefs. It is always unique, it cannot be taught, but a person can create it and is responsible for the implementation of his unique meaning life. Moreover, a person can find and realize meaning under any circumstances.
In search of a signal, a person directs his conscience. Conscience is an organ of meaning. Frankie calls this ability human self-transcendence. A person finds meaning outside himself. The more he devotes himself to the cause, to his partner, the more to a greater extent becomes himself. The feeling of having found the meaning of life gives a person enormous mental strength to overcome life's difficulties.
Normal feeling happiness, according to Frank, is a phenomenon that accompanies the achievement of a goal. Following the meaning of life. When a person does not have the meaning of life, the implementation of which would make him happy, he can try to achieve it “bypassing”, for example, with the help chemicals(alcohol, drugs), sexual and other pleasure. However, the more a person strives for pleasure and happiness, the more it eludes him and requires more and more artificial and sophisticated stimulation. Thus, turning to yourself, your pleasures, i.e. reflection aimed at personal happiness leads to the loss of this happiness.
Conclusion
During the theoretical study of the topic, the following questions were considered:
the problem of socio-psychological properties of personality in modern social psychology is considered;
The socio-psychological characteristics of the individual are considered.
As a result, G.M.’s definition was taken to define the socio-psychological properties of a person. Andreeva: “these are properties that are formed in real social groups, in conditions of joint activities with other people, as well as in communication with them.”
When considering the question of what constitutes a person, we proceeded from the definition of a professional (A.A. Derkach, V.M. Dyachkov) as “a civil servant who has reached a high level of qualifications, consciously changing and developing himself in the course of professional activities, making his individual creative contribution to the profession, who has found an individual purpose in the profession, focused on high achievements, harmoniously combining personal interests and the interests of society.”
As a result, a model was built that allows us to comprehensively present and highlight the main blocks that ensure the success of an individual’s activities. This model includes:
personality qualities;
her abilities;
her professional skills;
motivation of activity;
upbringing.
Our hypothesis is that successful professional activity is hampered by such socio-psychological characteristics of the individual as: externality, low level communicative and organizational skills, an authoritarian style of behavior in relationships with people, was only partially confirmed.
The study found average level development of communication and organizational skills. This is likely due to rapidly changing conditions that require people to have at least an average level of these abilities.
In addition, the study revealed gender differences in the level of development of communication and organizational abilities. The data obtained in the sample of men suggests that their level of development of these abilities in most cases is at a high level compared to the data obtained in the sample of women.
With a very favorable picture as a whole, and we are talking about the presence of such psychological tendencies such as: responsiveness, compliance, kindness; in their activities, people cannot fully realize them in relation to others. We also assumed that professional activity is hampered by an authoritarian style of behavior in relationships. However, such a style of behavior as trusting goodwill was identified. It should be noted that ideally everyone would like to have more developed leadership qualities (this is clearly illustrated by the data obtained on “I am the ideal”).
Therefore, the following recommendations can be made. To increase the effectiveness of professional activity, it is desirable to work towards increasing the level of development of communication and organizational abilities, towards changing the type of locus of control towards internal and towards development leadership qualities. To achieve these goals, various trainings can be conducted.
List of used literature
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The concept of personality in social psychology.
Currently, in modern society, interest in the problems of the capabilities of the human personality is very great. Therefore, almost all social sciences turn to this subject of research: the problem of personality is at the center of both philosophical and sociological knowledge; it is dealt with by ethics, pedagogy, genetics and psychology.
Personality- is a conscious and active person who has the opportunity to choose one way of life or another. It all depends on the personal and psychological qualities that are inherent in the individual; they must be correctly understood and taken into account.
Personality is formed as a result of the mutual influence of the biological (innate) characteristics of the individual’s psyche and his social experience. Since a person, from the moment of birth, finds himself in a system of various social connections, it is almost impossible to separate the biological and social determinants of his future personality. Genetically determined mental traits (gender, temperament, natural inclinations) determine the assimilation of social experience.
Currently, a number of approaches to understanding personality have emerged:
1) biological;
2) sociological;
3) individual psychological;
4) socio-psychological, etc.
From point of view biological approach , personality development represents the unfolding of a genetic program.
From point of view sociological approach , personality is a product of cultural and historical development.In sociology personality is considered not as an individuality, but as an impersonal person, as a certain social type, as a deindividualized person - a product, a carrier, an exponent of social trends. the main problem sociological analysis of personality is a problem of social typology of personality.
Psychological approach: For general psychology personality acts as the entire set of human properties, including biological properties that determine social significance, behavior and human activity.
In social psychology the emphasis, when studying personality, is placed on its socially conditioned characteristics, on the formation in it of certain qualities as a result social impact etc.
Specifics of social psychology of personality tied up Firstly, with the study of patterns and causes of individual behavior in the context of a real group. The focus of social psychology of personality is on the relationship between a person and the people around him, which influences continuous process the formation of his personality.
Secondly, social psychology of personality highlights a specific aspect of the consideration of problems traditional for the social psychology of a small group: problems of leadership, emotional connections between group members, their conformity or independence, their acceptance of role positions. This aspect involves the analysis of individual socio-psychological qualities of a person.
Third, social psychology of personality deals with issues of socialization - the assimilation and reproduction by an individual of the norms, values and customs of his society. At the same time, it is important through which groups and in what way the socialization of a given individual is carried out, on what the characteristics or, possibly, the pathology of this process depend. The results of socialization are manifested in the activity, communication and self-awareness (including social identity) of a person.
Fourthly, social psychology of the individual pays special attention to the origin and implementation of the individual’s social attitudes (attitudes) - that is, the readiness to behave in one way or another in certain situations related to communication.
In domestic science, problems social psychology of personality is developed by such scientists like A. G. Asmolov, V. A. Bogdanov, E. V. Shorokhova, V. A. Yadov, E. P. Belinskaya and others. G. M..
One of the domestic scientists who considered personality as an object of research in social psychology was Platonov. He identified 4 different substructures in the personality structure: 1) biologically determined substructure which includes typological, age, and gender characteristics of the individual, i.e. biopsychic(which includes temperament, gender, age, and sometimes pathological properties of the psyche); 2) psychological substructure, including individual properties of individual mental processes that have become properties of the individual (memory, emotions, sensations, thinking, perception, feelings and will); 3) Individual social experience personality, which includes the knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired by a person. This substructure is formed primarily in the learning process and is of a social nature; 4) substructure of personality orientation most socially conditioned, formed under the influence of upbringing in society, most fully reflects the ideology of the community in which a person is included (within which, in turn, there is a special hierarchically interconnected series of substructures: drives, desires, interests, inclinations, ideals, individual picture of the world and highest form orientation - beliefs). These substructures differ By " specific gravity» social and biological contents.
According to Platonov, these substructures differ in the “specific weight” of social and biological contents; it is precisely in the choice of these substructures as the subject of analysis that general psychology differs from social psychology.
General psychology focuses its attention on three substructures:
*biological(gender, age, temperament),
*psychological(memory, emotions, thinking) and
*social experience(knowledge, skills, abilities, habits), and the share of social psychology remains
*fourth substructure focus(beliefs, worldview, personal meanings, interests).
American psychologist R. Cattell indicates three aspects of personality:
1) interests;
2) abilities;
3) temperament.
L. Rubinstein considers personality in three planes, such as:
2) abilities;
3) temperament and character.
A.N. Sukhov and A.A. Derkach note that socio-psychological structure of personality includes:
* mentality,
* value-semantic sphere,
* motivational sphere (direction, life goals, plans, life path),
* cognitive characteristics (pictures of the world);
* “I”-characteristics” (“I”-concept, “I-image”, self-attitude, self-esteem);
* locus of control; socio-psychological competence of the individual;
* status-role characteristics of the individual;
* emotional mental states, social feelings of the individual.
I. Psychoanalytic approach to understanding personality(3. Freud, K. Jung, A. Adler).
1. 3. Freud (psychodynamic theory of personality) was a consistent determinist, he believed that everything in mental life has its own cause, every mental event is caused by a conscious or unconscious intention and is determined by previous events. His main merit is that he was the first to introduce the concept of the unconscious into science and create methods for working with unconscious motives.
He highlighted three spheres of the psyche: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious.
It is in the unconscious that the main determinants of personality are located - mental energy, motivations and instincts. There are two basic instincts: libido, or the desire for sexual satisfaction, and the instinct of aggression and the desire for death. In the personality structure, according to Freud, there are also three main components: It (Id), I (Ego) and Super-I (Super-Ego).
It (Id)- this basic, original and central part of the personality is almost entirely unconscious. It includes psychic forms that were never conscious, and those that turned out to be unacceptable to consciousness and were repressed from it. The id does not know values, good and evil, does not know morality.
I (Ego) on the one hand, it follows unconscious instincts, and on the other, it obeys the demands of reality. This part of the personality is responsible for voluntary behavior, can control and suppress instincts, strives to reduce tension and increase pleasure.
Superego serves as a repository of moral principles, norms of behavior, and is a judge and censor of the activities and thoughts of the Ego. Motives, thoughts, etc. that do not correspond to the norms imposed by the superego are repressed into the area of the unconscious or preconscious.
To prevent the repressed material from entering consciousness again, the “I” uses various methods of defense. Freud pointed mainly to such forms of defense as rationalization, sublimation, projection and avoidance. However, despite the presence of protection, repressed desires (mainly associated with sexual experiences) break into consciousness in the form of dreams, fantasies, “accidental” slips of the tongue, unexpected actions, etc. Repressed motives continue to operate and significantly influence on human behavior.
2. C. Jung (analytic personality theory) proposed the idea of existence alongside the individual unconscious the collective unconscious, the content of which are the so-called archetypes, i.e. certain general forms of mental representations, filled with personal emotional and imaginative content in the course of individual life. The collective unconscious exists in the thoughts of each individual; it is collective because it is the same for many people and thereby unites them into peoples, nations and humanity as a whole.
Jung identifies several basic (for understanding the structure of personality) archetypes: Persona, Ego, Shadow, Anima and Animus, Self.
A person is how we present ourselves to the world: the character we adopt, our social roles, the clothes we choose to wear, our individual style of expression.
Ego- the center of consciousness, it creates a sense of consistency and direction in our conscious life.
Shadow- the center of the personal unconscious, in which material repressed from consciousness is concentrated. It includes tendencies, desires, memories and experiences that are denied by the individual as incompatible with his persona or contrary to social standards and ideals.
Anima And Animus– ideal unconscious structures that reflect the idea of femininity and masculinity, respectively. All relationships with the opposite sex are influenced by these archetypes.
Self– the central archetype of order and integrity of the individual.
According to Jung, consciousness and the unconscious are not necessarily opposed to each other, they complement each other, forming a whole that is the self.
Another of Jung's most famous ideas was the concept of introversion and extroversion, characterizing a person whose energy is predominantly directed towards either the internal or external world. No one is a pure introvert or extrovert, but each individual is more inclined towards one of these orientations.
3. A. Adler (Individual personality theory) The cornerstone of individual psychology is the integrity and uniqueness of the individual, his unique individuality.
Basic concepts and principles of individual psychology of Adler:
1) feelings of inferiority and compensation;
2) the desire for superiority;
3) lifestyle;
4) creative “I”;
5) social interest;
6) birth order;
7) fictitious finalism.
II. Role theory of personality.
The main provisions of this theory were formulated by G. Cooley, J. Mead, R. Linton, T. Parsons, R. Merton and others.
The role concept of personality arose in American social psychology in the 30s. XX century (C. Cooley, J. Mead) and became widespread in various sociological movements, primarily in structural-functional analysis. T. Parsons and his followers consider personality as a function of the many social roles that are inherent in any individual in a particular society.
Charles Cooley believed that personality is formed on the basis of many interactions between people and the world around them. In the process of these interactions, people create their “mirror self”, consisting of three elements:
1) how we think others perceive us (I'm sure people are paying attention to my new clothes);
2) how we think they react to what they see (I'm sure they like my new clothes);
3) how we respond to the reaction we perceive from others (Apparently, I will dress like this).
This theory places importance on our interpretation of other people's thoughts and feelings.
American psychologist J. Mead in his works showed that the process of learning social roles begins in childhood and progresses in three stages:
1) imitation, when a child imitates the behavior of adults without understanding the meaning of his actions;
2) individual game, when a child, in the course of individual play, masters the first social roles (playing “daughter-mother”, learns the social role of “parent”, playing “doctor” or “shop”, learns professional roles, etc.), understands the meaning of behavior, improvises and practices options;
3) group game, when a person, joining a collective game (football, volleyball, etc.), learns to focus on the opinion of the group. Here the semantic content of the concepts “norm” and sanction is worked out on a small social scale.” The rules of the game are the prototype of the legislative framework, the opinion of the group of players is the prototype of public opinion, which is regarded by a person as the opinion of a “significant other.” During the game, the child understands that the opinions of a “significant other” cannot be ignored. Thus, group play prepares the child for adult life.
When characterizing the role theory of personality, it is necessary to refer to the characteristics of 2 concepts: "social status" And "social role".
Social status – it is a certain position occupied by an individual in society or a social group, connected with other positions through a system of rights and responsibilities. The status fixes the set of specific functions that a person must perform in a social group, society, and the conditions that must be presented to him for the implementation of these functions.
Thus, the concept of social status characterizes the place of the individual in social stratification society, in the system of social interactions, its activities in various spheres of life and, finally, the assessment of the individual’s activities by society. Social status is reflected both in internal position(in attitudes, value orientations, etc.), and appearance(clothing, demeanor, slang and other signs of social affiliation).
Each person is characterized by not one, but several statuses. R.Merton introduced the concept "status set" , which is used to designate the entire set of statuses of a given person. In this group, most often distinguished key, main, or integral status, characteristic of a given individual. It is by this status that he is singled out by those around him and identified with this status of the individual. It often happens that the main status is determined by the position or profession of a person (director, banker). But it is not necessarily the position or profession that determines the main status of a person. It can also be race (for example, black) and social origin (noble), etc. In general, the main thing for a person’s life is the status that determines the values and attitudes, lifestyle, circle of acquaintances, and behavior of the individual.
The following types of human statuses are also distinguished:
1) social group And private status.
Social group status- this is the position of an individual in society, which he occupies as a representative of a large social group (race, nation, gender, class, stratum, religion, profession, etc.). This status depends on the position of a particular social group in the social stratification of society.
Personal status- this is the position of the individual in a small group (family, school class, student group, community of peers, etc.). This status is determined individual qualities personality and depends on how it is assessed and perceived by members of a small group
2) prescribed And achievable statuses.
Prescribed status defined as imposed by society, regardless of the efforts and merits of the individual. It is determined by gender, race, ethnic origin, social status family, place of birth, etc.
Achieved (acquired) status determined by the efforts of the person himself, his talents, perseverance, determination, or turns out to be a consequence of luck and luck.
Considering the concept of “social status”, it is necessary to say something about the concept of “social role”. Social role is a model of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and responsibilities prescribed by a specific status .
The social role should be considered in two aspects: role expectation and role performance. There is never a complete match between these two aspects.
Role Expectation- this is the totality of all the demands that others place on us.
Role-playing- this is the real behavior of a person in a certain role, which he builds at his personal discretion, which is already connected with interests, value orientations and human abilities .
WITH the same status is associated with the performance of several social roles.
In the process of fulfilling social roles of an individual, certain difficulties (role tension) and conflicts may arise ( role conflicts), associated with contradictions between different normative social roles or between different elements of the same social role.
Role tension usually arises in connection with difficulties in fulfilling, combining role obligations and the discrepancy between the internal attitudes of the individual and the requirements of the role (for example, modern women experience difficulties in simultaneously implementing social requirements to be a “good housewife”, “good mother”, “good wife”, “good specialist” ).
Role conflicts – the manifestation of a more acute contradiction between roles or different sides of one role, when these roles or sides appear as incompatible, mutually exclusive (for example, combining the role of “soldier” and the role of “believer”).
III. Behaviorist approach to understanding personality.
The word "behaviorism" comes from English - behavior. Behaviorism uses two basic concepts to explain behavior: stimulus (S) and response (R). Consciousness and other subjective concepts are denied. Proponents of behaviorism tend to deal only with observable facts. In this sense, behavior, no matter how complex it may be, can be studied like any other observable phenomenon.
In the course of general psychology, we talked about identifying 2 main directions within the framework of the behaviorist approach:
1) Reflex direction - theory operant conditioning(B. Skinner)
2) Social direction – social-cognitive theory of personality (A. Bandura) and social learning theory (J. Rotter).
Operant conditioning theory. Operant conditioning is a method of forming conditioned connections (reflexes), in which the simplest operant reaction as a unit of the process of behavior (learning) is accompanied by appropriate reinforcement. In this case, the interaction of the organism with the environment occurs according to the following three-component scheme:
1) the event about which the reaction occurs;
2) the reaction itself;
3) reinforcing consequence.
In a three-component scheme (unit of learning), the stimulus and response, compared to the Pvlovian scheme (S-R), change places: reinforcement (stimulus) follows the reaction (R-S). Thus, a reinforcing stimulus is given after the desired responses have been received, which helps reinforce them and repeat them. Punishment (or a negative reinforcer) reduces the likelihood of certain responses. Positive and negative reinforcers regulate and control behavior.
He identified the following types of reinforcing stimuli:
1) Primary reinforcers are direct physical rewards.
2) Secondary reinforcers are neutral stimuli that are associated with primary reinforcers so that they themselves begin to act as rewards. Money or the promise of money is one example of a secondary reinforcer.
An autonomous person, freedom, dignity, creativity, from the point of view of B. Skinner, are only fictions; he also denies the spontaneity of behavior and its sources that lie outside life experience.
Social cognitive theory of personality. A. Bandura came to the conclusion that human behavior is determined not only by external, but also by internal factors. Thus, according to Bandura, personality is a set of social skills and reflexes, on the one hand, and a system of internal factors (self-efficacy, subjective significance, etc.), on the other hand. In the socio-behavioral structure of personality Bandura identifies three components:
1) self-efficacy – acts as a construct “I can - I can’t”;
2) self-esteem - is considered as worthy of approval, encouraged or, conversely, unworthy of approval, punishable behavior;
3) self-regulation is an assessment of activity.
Social learning theory. The focus of J. Rotter's theory of social learning is the prediction of human behavior in complex situations. He highlighted four variables, the analysis of which allows us to predict the future outcome of an individual’s actions:
1) behavioral potential - the likelihood of certain actions in certain life situations;
2) expectation – the subjective probability of repeating past behavior in similar situations;
3) the value of reinforcement - depends on expectation and correlates with motivation;
4) social psychological situation - described from the point of view of the person himself, i.e. it's subjective.
Rotter first proposed the concept of locus (localization) of control and developed its technology. Locus of control– This personal quality characterizing a person’s tendency to attribute responsibility for the results of his activities to external forces, or to his own abilities and efforts. The locus of control can be external - external or internal (internal). Both types are a stable property of an individual, formed in the process of his socialization.
IV. Understanding personality from the perspective of humanistic psychology.
1. Client direction (phenomenological theory of personality). K. Rogers when considering personality, it is based on the principle of its self-actualization. According to this principle, The main motive of a person’s behavior is the desire for self-actualization. It consists in the realization by a person of his abilities in order to preserve life, make himself stronger, and life more satisfying.
Self-actualization occurs through struggle and overcoming obstacles in personal and social life. Self-actualization of the individual occurs in interpersonal communication, where processes of appreciation, understanding and empathy can lead to closer psychological interaction. At the same time, communication is more consistent when both partners have a correspondence of experience, awareness and message.
Congruence means the exact “match of experience, awareness and message.” The more Partner A perceives Partner B's communication to be consistent with experience, awareness, and message, the more their subsequent interactions will be consistent with psychological consistency and mutual satisfaction. This is how the law of congruence formulates K. Rogers At the same time, he notes that ignoring this law leads to a deterioration in psychological consistency in the actions of both partners.
2. Motivational direction. A. Maslow believed that human life is characterized by the fact that people almost always desire something. Maslow suggested that all human needs are innate and motivational sphere form hierarchical system priorities.
He identified the following human needs, which form a certain hierarchy and develop from lower to higher. This:
1) physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.)
2) the need for security,
3) the need for love and belonging,
4) the need for respect,
5) the need for self-actualization.
V. Cognitive approach to understanding personality.
George Kelly– a representative of the cognitive direction in psychology, which reveals the influence of rational and intellectual processes of the psyche on human behavior. It gives special meaning cognitive processes - thinking, awareness, imagination, concepts, judgments, intelligence.
Your concept of personality D. Kelly named personality construct theory. She views a person as a research scientist who judges his environment, life situations with the help of certain conceptual systems - models of interpretation of reality. Kelly designated them as “ personality constructs».
According to its content personality construct is a set of ideas, concepts, judgments that a person uses to comprehend, interpret or predict a swap experience. If a construct helps a person predict life situations, he will retain it. If the predictive effectiveness of the construct is low, then it will be subject to revision or completely discarded.
Any of the constructs bipolar: smart - stupid; male - female; religious – non-religious; good bad.
Each person, according to Kelly, has his own system personal constructs, which is divided into two groups: nuclear and peripheral. Nuclear constructs– there are about 50 of them – they are at the top structural system. These constructs are concentrated in random access memory, a person uses them especially often when interacting with other people. Peripheral constructs a person has much more - from several hundred to several thousand.
Cognitive scientists distinguish two types of holistic personality: cognitively challenging, which has a large number of constructs, and cognitively simple, i.e. with a small set of personal constructs.
Friendship, love, good relationships between people are possible when people have similar constructs.
VI. Understanding personality within the framework of existential psychology.
The object of study of existentialists is man as a subject and his subjective experience of his existence.Representatives of existential psychology can be considered E. Fromm, V. Frankl and etc.
1) E. Fromm asserted that a person’s behavior is decisively influenced by the culture within which he currently lives, its norms, regulations, processes, as well as the innate needs of a person. According to Fromm, loneliness, isolation, alienation are features that distinguish the life of a person in modern society. On the one hand, people need to have power over life, to have the right to choose, to be free from political, economic, social and religious restrictions; on the other hand, they need to feel connected to other people and not feel alienated from society and nature.
Fromm described several strategies that people use to "escape freedom":
1. Authoritarianism. The tendency to connect oneself with someone or something external in order to gain strength lost by the individual self. Authoritarianism manifests itself in both masochistic and sadistic tendencies. In the masochistic form of authoritarianism, people show excessive dependence, subordination and helplessness in relationships with others. The sadistic form, on the contrary, is expressed in the exploitation of others, domination and control over them.
2. Destructiveness – a person overcomes the sensation own inferiority, humiliating, subjugating or even destroying others;
3. Submission – a person gets rid of loneliness and alienation through absolute submission to social norms regulating behavior, and as a result loses his individuality, becoming like everyone else, and acquiring, as Fromm puts it, “the conformity of an automaton.”
Fromm, explaining the behavior of people, identified five unique life, existential (from lat. existentia – existence) of human needs:
1) need to establish connections: to overcome the feeling of isolation and alienation, all people need to take care of someone, be responsible for someone, take part in someone;
2) need to overcome this refers to the need for people to overcome their passive nature in order to become creators of their lives;
3) need for roots the need for stability, strength, which is similar to the feeling of security that connections with parents and mother gave in childhood; the need to feel part of the world;
4) need for identity the need for human identity with oneself: “I – It's me"; people who have a clear and distinct awareness of their individuality and difference from others perceive themselves as masters of their own lives;
5) the need for a belief system and loyalty - people need a system of views and beliefs in order to explain the complexity of the world and understand it, they also need an object of devotion, something that would be for them meaning of life, – they need to dedicate themselves to someone or something (a higher goal, God).
2) V.Frankl considers the main purely human aspiration - the desire to find meaning in one's existence, and a person feels frustration or an existential vacuum if this desire remains unfulfilled.
It is not a person who poses the question about the meaning of life - life itself poses this question to him, and a person has to constantly answer it not with words, but with actions. The meaning of life is, in principle, accessible to any person, regardless of gender, age, intelligence, character, environment and religious beliefs. It is always unique, it cannot be taught, but a person can create it and is responsible for realizing his unique meaning in life. Moreover, a person can find and realize the meaning of life under any circumstances.
In the search for meaning, man guides his conscience. Conscience is an organ of meaning. This ability Frankl calls human self-transcendence. A person finds meaning outside himself. The more he gives himself to the cause, to his partner, the more human he is and the more he becomes himself. The feeling of having found the meaning of life gives a person enormous mental strength to overcome life’s difficulties. V. Frankl, himself a survivor of Auschwitz and Dachau, argued that best chance Those who were directed to the future, to the cause that awaited them, to the meaning that they wanted to realize, had to survive even in such an extreme situation.
On the contrary, the lack of meaning in life, an existential vacuum, leads to the development of neurosis and makes a person helpless in the face of difficulties.
Research into personality structure is based on specific results from personality studies that reflect seven main approaches to the problem. Each approach has its own theory, its own ideas about the properties and structure of personality, and its own methods for measuring them. Each theory allows you to build one or more structural models of personality. One of the works of V.M. is devoted to the analysis of the main theories of personality. Ru-salova. Let us briefly consider the main theories of personality.
1. Psychodynamic theory of personality. Developed by 3. Freud, according to whom the main source of personality development is innate biological factors(instincts), or rather, general biological energy - libido (from Latin libido - attraction, desire). This energy is aimed, firstly, at procreation ( sexual attraction) and, secondly, for destruction (aggressive attraction).
Freud identifies three main conceptual blocks, or levels of personality:
· id (“it”) – main structure personality, consisting of a set of unconscious (sexual and aggressive) impulses;
· ego (“I”) – a set of cognitive and executive functions of the psyche that are predominantly conscious by a person, representing in a broad sense all our knowledge about the real world;
· superego(“super-ego”) – a structure containing social norms, attitudes, social values the society in which a person lives.
Thus, within the framework of psychodynamic theory, personality is a system of sexual and aggressive motives, on the one hand, and defense mechanisms, on the other, and the structure of personality is an individually different ratio of individual properties, individual blocks (instances) and defense mechanisms.
2. Analytical theory of personality. The founder of the analytical approach to the study of personality is C. Jung. He considered innate psychological factors to be the main source of personality development. A person inherits from his parents ready-made primary ideas - “archetypes”, and the meaning of each person’s life is to fill the innate archetypes with specific content. The main elements of personality are psychological properties individual realized archetypes this person(character traits).
The analytical model distinguishes three main conceptual blocks, or areas of personality:
· the collective unconscious is the focus of all cultural and historical experience of humanity;
· individual unconscious – a set of emotionally charged thoughts and feelings (“complexes”), repressed from consciousness;
· individual conscious – a structure that serves as the basis of self-awareness and conscious activity.
The integrity of the individual is achieved through the action of the “self” archetype, which ensures the “individuation” of a person (or exit from the collective unconscious). The “Self” organizes, coordinates, integrates all the structures of the human psyche into a single whole and creates its uniqueness. This is achieved in two ways of such integration:
· extroversion– focus on filling innate archetypes with external information;
· introversion– focus on the inner world, on one’s own experiences.
3. Humanistic theory personality. There are two main directions: “clinical” (K. Rogers) and “motivational” (A. Maslow). Representatives of humanistic psychology consider innate tendencies towards self-actualization to be the main source of personality development.
According to Rogers, there are two innate tendencies in the human psyche: the first (“self-actualizing tendency”) initially contains future personality traits in a compressed form; the second (“organismic tracking process”) is a mechanism for monitoring personality development. Based on these tendencies, in the process of development a person develops a personal structure of “I”, which includes the “ideal I” and the “real I” and is in complex relationships - from complete harmony (congruence) to complete disharmony.
A.G. Maslow identified two types of needs that underlie personality development: “deficit” needs, which cease after their satisfaction, and “growth”, which only intensify after their implementation. Five levels of motivation act as personality blocks: 1) physiological; 2) security needs (at home, at work); 3) the need for belonging (to another person, family); 4) self-esteem (self-esteem, competence, dignity); 5) the need for self-actualization (creativity, beauty, integrity, etc.). The author formulated the law of progressive development of motivation - from the lower level to the highest (self-actualization).
According to humanists, personality integrity, the basic quality of a “fully functioning personality,” is achieved when the congruence between the “real self” and the “ideal self” approaches one. A holistic personality is characterized by an effective perception of reality; spontaneity, naturalness and simplicity of behavior; orientation to solving a problem, to business; constant “childishness” of perception; frequent experiences of “peak” feelings, ecstasy; a sincere desire to help all humanity; deep interpersonal relationships; high moral standards.
Thus, within the framework of the humanistic approach, personality is the inner world of the human “I” as a result of self-realization.
4. Cognitive theory of personality. According to its founder J. Kelly, the main source of personality development is the environment, the social environment. This theory emphasizes the influence intellectual processes on human behavior. The main concept in this theory is “construct”, which includes the features of all cognitive processes. A construct is a kind of classifier-template for our perception of other people and ourselves. The fundamental postulate of the theory states that personal processes psychologically provide a person in such a way as to create the possibility of maximum prediction of events. Each person has his own system of personal constructs, the joint functioning of which is ensured by holistic properties personality.
A cognitively complex person differs from a cognitively simple person in the following characteristics: 1) has better mental health; 2) copes better with stress; 3) has a higher level of self-esteem; 4) more adaptive to new situations.
5. Behavioral theory of personality. The founders of the social direction of this theory are A. Bandura and J. Rotter. In their opinion, important role in the development of personality, it is not so much external as internal factors that play a role, for example, expectation, goal, significance, etc. Bandura called human behavior self-regulation, the main task of which is to ensure self-efficacy, that is, to perform only those forms of behavior that a person can implement, relying on internal factors (imitation, experience, self-instruction, etc.).
The integrity of personality properties is manifested in the unity of action of the blocks of subjective significance (a structure that evaluates upcoming reinforcement) and availability (a structure associated with the expectation of receiving reinforcement based on past experience). People who don't see the connection (or see weak connection) between their behavior and their results (reinforcements), according to J. Rotter, have an external, or external “locus of control” (“externals” do not control the situation). People who see a clear connection between their behavior and its results have an internal, or internal, “locus of control” (“internals” control the situation).
According to the behavioral theory of personality, personality structure is a complexly organized hierarchy of reflexes or social skills, in which the leading role is played by the internal blocks of self-efficacy, subjective significance and accessibility.
6. Dispositional theory of personality. According to the dispositional theory (from the English disposition - predisposition), the main source of personality development is the factors of gene-environment interaction. Thus, E. Kretschmer established a connection between bodily structure and character type, as well as between physique and a tendency to a certain mental illness.
G. Eysenck suggested that such personality trait, as “introversion-extroversion” (withdrawal-sociability) is determined by the functioning of the reticular formation of the brain. For introverts, it provides a higher tone of the cortex, so they do not need excessive sensory stimulation, they avoid unnecessary contacts with outside world. Extroverts, on the contrary, are drawn to external sensory stimulation because they have reduced cortical tone. He identified personal properties with the properties of temperament. His personality model presents three fundamental properties: 1) introversion-extroversion; 2) neuroticism (emotional instability - emotional stability); 3) psychoticism.
Representative this direction is also G. Allport, the founder of trait theory (a trait is a person’s predisposition to behave in a similar way at different times and in different situations). He is a proponent of identifying three types of traits: 1) a cardinal trait, inherent only to one person and permeating all his actions; 2) common features, characteristic of most people within a given culture (punctuality, sociability, conscientiousness, etc.); 3) secondary traits, less stable than general ones.
Research domestic psychologists B.M. Teplova, V.D. Nebylitsyna, V.M. Rusalov and others are devoted to the development of the formal-dynamic direction of the dispositional theory of personality. The main distinctive feature of this direction is the assertion that in a person’s personality there are two levels, two different aspects of personal properties - formal-dynamic, determined by the relationship between the properties of the nervous system, temperamental characteristics, and content (knowledge, skills, abilities, intelligence, character, attitudes , meanings, etc.).
V.M. Rusalov identifies four formal dynamic properties as the main element of personality:
· ergicity – level of mental stress, endurance;
· plasticity – ease of switching from one behavior program to another;
· speed – individual pace of behavior;
emotional threshold - sensitivity to feedback, to the discrepancy between real and planned behavior.
Each of these properties can be distinguished in three areas of human behavior: psychomotor, intellectual and communicative.
7. The activity theory of personality is most widespread in domestic psychology(S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontyev, K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, A.V. Brushlinsky). The main source of personality development, according to this theory, is activity, which is understood as a complex dynamic system of interaction between the subject (active person) and the world (society), in the process of which personality properties are formed. Within the framework of the activity approach, individual properties or personality traits act as elements of personality; It is generally accepted that personality traits are formed as a result of activities that are always carried out in a specific socio-historical context. In this regard, personality traits are considered as socially (normatively) determined.
The list of personality properties is virtually limitless and is determined by the variety of activities in which a person is included as a subject.
In the activity approach, the most popular is the four-component model of personality, which includes orientation, abilities, character and self-control as the main structural blocks.