Last update: 04/05/2015

Reviews the basic concepts of learning theories, including behaviorism, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning.

If you're taking a learning psychology test or are simply interested in the topic, then this short guide to major topics including classical conditioning and operant conditioning will be of great help.
First, let's look at what learning is.

Learning is relative constant change in behavior that occurs as a result of a particular experience. In the first half of the twentieth century scientific school, known as behaviorism, has proposed several theories to explain educational process. According to behaviorism, there are three types of learning.

Behaviorism is a scientific school of psychology that considers only the external manifestations of behavior. The essence of the behaviorist doctrine, formed by , is that psychology is an experimental and objective science that should not consider internal mental processes, since they cannot be observed and measured.

Classical conditioning

is a learning process in which a direct associative connection is established between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that causes a certain reaction. For example, in classic example Pavlova, the smell of food was always accompanied by the ringing of a bell. Once a permanent connection was established between these two phenomena, the sound of a bell alone could cause the required reaction.

Operant conditioning

is a learning process in which the likelihood of a desired response is increased or decreased through reward or punishment. The essence of this method, originally studied by Edward Thorndike and then by B.F. Skinner, is that the consequences of our actions shape our behavior.

Observational learning

is a learning process that occurs through observing and imitating the behavior of others. As shown in Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment, people imitate other people's behavior even without additional incentive. Effective observational learning requires four important element: attention, good motor skills, motivation and memory.

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The basic learning laws of behaviorist theory are widely used in modular technology training. The principles of behaviorist learning theory were formulated by E. Thorndike, who long time studied the characteristics of animal learning. His experiments with animals served as the basis for the emergence of the behaviorist movement in psychology. But experiments with animals cannot be completely transferred to humans, therefore the principles of behaviorism in the practice of modular training have been improved.

The legitimacy of transferring the principles of animal learning to human learning by Thorndike is beyond doubt, because for him there are no qualitative differences between these two processes. He directly writes: “The development of the animal world in this regard consists in the quantitative growth and quantitative complication of the same process of connection between situation and response, inherent in all vertebrates and even lower animals, starting at least with lampreys and ending with man himself.”

The process of learning, according to Thorndike, consists of establishing certain connections between a given situation and a given reaction,” as well as strengthening these connections.

As the basic laws of formation and connection between stimulus and response, he points out the law of effect, the law of repetition (exercise) and the law of readiness.

E. Thorndike attaches particular importance to the law of effect. He defines it in the following way: “When the process of establishing a connection between a situation and a response is accompanied or replaced by a state of satisfaction, the strength of the connection increases; when this connection is accompanied or replaced by a state of dissatisfaction, its strength decreases.”

The law of exercise is that the more often the temporal sequence of stimulus and response is repeated without a subsequent stimulus and subsequent response, the stronger the connection will be. Moreover, Thorndike emphasizes that the mere repetition of the temporal sequence of stimulus and reaction without subsequent positive effect(reinforcement) does not lead to the formation of a connection, i.e. exercise only matters when combined with reinforcement.

The law of readiness indicates the dependence of the speed of connection formation on its correspondence to the current state of the subject. “Every psychological connection,” writes Thorndike, “bears the imprint of the individual nervous system in its specific state.” This law is the main advantage of the modular training system. Those. every student receives an education individual schedule, as the material is gradually mastered. This is very important point, because Each student has a special way of thinking and psyche and therefore learning according to a strict schedule leads to a high level of failure in schools and higher education institutions.

In addition to these three principles, known as the “laws of learning,” Thorndike points out a number additional conditions, promoting the formation and consolidation of connections between external influence and the corresponding reaction of the student. Among them, he includes awareness of the belonging of stimulus and response, and the acceptability of this connection. The co-ownership of stimulus and response lies, for example, in the fact that they are recognized as belonging to the same class of objects (for example, they are parts of speech) or as elements of something whole, etc.

It should be noted that E. Thorndike opposes those supporters of behaviorism “who do not want to see anything in psychological life person except external manifestations muscular activity." He points out that the activity of neurons consists not only of conducting nerve current from external sensory organs to external motor organs. They also have their own inner life: create internal communications between themselves and between those caused by their behavior in various ways, ideas and feelings. But, recognizing the reality of the psyche, E. Thorndike does not take it into account when analyzing learning, limiting last scheme stimulus – response – reinforcement. The importance of the psyche in the formation of a connection is not shown and is not taken into account. The psyche remains an internal process running in parallel nervous activity and not in any way included in the subject’s behavior; its purpose turns out to be unknown. This understanding of the psyche is no different from the understanding of it by the old subjective-idealistic psychology.

Introduction

Relevance of the research topic. At the beginning of the 21st century, the psychology of behaviorism is gaining more and more wide use in Russia. The situation of transition from Soviet system To western path development caused in most people enormous social and ideological upheavals associated with the deprivation of a sense of belonging to a powerful state, the loss of a consolidating and elevating social idea, devaluation moral values etc.

The focus of behaviorism is precisely the problem of a person faced with the need to independently, in confusion and doubt, determine his identity and the values ​​for which he lives. Developing one's own individuality becomes both a task and a way to cope with the new social reality.

The general situation in psychology, characterized by the movement from the natural science paradigm to the humanities, from the explanatory approach to the understanding, from the study of man as an isolated object to the consideration of the inextricable connection between man and the world, also contributes to the development and spread of behaviorism and the desire for the active exchange of ideas with it on the part of others psychological directions.

The purpose of this work is to substantiate the question of the features behavioristic concept learning.

Behavioral concept of learning

B. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning

Translated from English, behaviorism means “behavior.” It was this that became the central focus of attention in this direction.

Behaviorism recognized the existence of complex behavior, which was explained by combinations of chains of stimuli and reactions. Actually, their study was also part of the main tasks of the current.

Learning (training, teaching) is the process of a subject acquiring new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and/or modification. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2006. - P. 68-72. Change psychological structures, which occurs as a result of this process, provides the opportunity for further improvement of activities.

For the first time, the laws of learning established experimental methods, were established within the framework of behaviorism. The theory developed by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), called the theory of operant conditioning.

Skinner's goal was to explain the mechanisms of learning in humans and animals (rats and pigeons) based on a limited set of basic principles. The main idea was to manipulate the environment, control it, while obtaining orderly changes. He said: “Control the conditions, the environment, and order will be revealed to you.” Skinner B. Operant behavior // History of foreign psychology: Texts. M: AsT, 2006. P. 60-82 4.

The training procedure is called “operant conditioning.”

It consisted in the experimenter's desire to establish a connection between stimulus (S) and response (R) through reinforcement - reward or punishment. In the stimulus-response (S-R) circuit, the key for Skinner was the response. The reactions were considered from the point of view of simplicity and complexity. Simple - salivation, withdrawal of the hand; complex - solution mathematical problem, aggressive behavior.

Operant conditioning is the process by which the characteristics of a response are determined by the consequences of that response. The implementation of operant behavior is inherent in biological nature body. Skinner viewed learning as a process.

Reinforcement is one of the principles of conditioning. Already with infancy, According to Skinner, people’s behavior can be regulated with the help of reinforcing stimuli Skinner B. Operant behavior // History of foreign psychology: Texts. M. AsT, 2006. S, 60-82 5. There are two different types reinforcements Some, such as food or pain relief, are called primary reinforcers because... they have natural reinforcing powers. Other reinforcing stimuli (smile, adult attention, approval, praise) are conditioned reinforcers. They become such as a result of frequent combination with primary reinforcers.

Operant conditioning relies mainly on positive reinforcement, i.e. to such consequences of reactions that support or enhance them, for example, food, monetary reward, praise. However, Skinner emphasizes the importance of negative reinforcement, which leads to response extinction. Such reinforcing stimuli can be physical punishment, moral influence, psychological pressure.

In addition to reinforcement, the principle of conditioning is its immediacy. It was found that in initial stage In an experiment, a response can be brought to its highest level only if it is reinforced immediately. Otherwise, the reaction that has begun to form will quickly fade away.

With operant conditioning, as well as with respondent conditioning, generalization of stimuli is observed. Generalization is an associative connection of a reaction with stimuli that has arisen during the process of conditioning, similar to the initial production conditioned reflex. Examples of generalization are: fear of all dogs, which was formed as a result of an attack by one dog, positive reaction child (smile, saying the words “dad” when in contact with men similar to his father, moving towards a meeting, etc.)

Formation of a reaction is very difficult process. The reaction does not occur immediately and suddenly; it takes shape gradually, as a series of reinforcements are implemented. Serial reinforcement is the development of complex behaviors through reinforcement of actions that gradually become more similar to the final form of behavior that was intended to be formed. Continuous behavior is formed in the process of reinforcement of individual elements of behavior, which together form complex actions.

The following reinforcement modes were identified: continuous reinforcement - presentation of reinforcement every time the subject gives the desired response; intermittent or partial reinforcement. For more strict classification Two parameters were identified for reinforcement regimes: temporary reinforcement and proportional reinforcement. In the first case, they reinforce only when the period during which it is necessary to perform the corresponding activity has expired, in the second: they reinforce for the amount of work (number of actions) that must be performed.

Based on two parameters, four modes of reinforcement were described: Watstone J. Behavior as a subject of psychology (behaviorism and neobehaviorism) // a textbook on the history of psychology / Ed. P.Ya.Galperina, A.N. Zhdan. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1980. - P.34-44. 6

Constant ratio reinforcement schedule. Reinforcement is carried out in accordance with the established volume of reactions. An example of such a regime could be payment for a certain, constant amount of work.

Constant interval reinforcement schedule. Reinforcement is given only when a firmly established, fixed time interval has expired. For example, monthly, weekly, hourly payment, rest after a strictly established time of physical or mental work.

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule. In this mode, the body is reinforced based on an average predetermined number of reactions.

Variable interval reinforcement schedule. The individual receives reinforcement after an indefinite interval has passed.

Skinner talked about the individuality of reinforcements, the variability in the development of a particular skill in different people, as well as in different animals. Moreover, the reinforcement itself is unique in nature, because it is impossible to say with certainty that this person or an animal, it can act as a reinforcer.

As the child develops, his reactions are internalized and remain under the control of reinforcing influences from others. environment. Reinforcing influences include food, praise, emotional support, etc. He believes that speech acquisition occurs through general laws operant conditioning. The child receives reinforcement when pronouncing certain sounds. Reinforcement is not food and water, but the approval and support of adults.

From the point of view of learning psychology, there is no need to look for an explanation of the symptoms of the disease in hidden underlying reasons. Pathology, according to behaviorism, is not a disease, but either (1) the result of an unlearned response, or (2) a learned maladaptive response.

Behavior change is also based on the principles of operant conditioning, on a system of behavior modification and associated reinforcements.

Changes in behavior can occur as a result of self-control. Self-control includes two interdependent reactions: Ufimtseva O.V. Behaviorism. - M.: Nauka, 2008. P.178 7

A control response that influences the environment by changing the likelihood of secondary reactions occurring ("withdrawing" to avoid expressing "anger"; removing food to discourage overeating).

A controlling reaction aimed at the presence of stimuli in the situation that can make the desired behavior more likely (the presence of a table for the educational process).

Behavior change can also occur as a result of behavioral counseling. Much of this type of counseling is based on learning principles.

Advantages:

The desire for rigorous testing of hypotheses, experimentation, and control of additional variables.

Recognition of the role of situational variables, environmental parameters and their systematic study.

The pragmatic approach to therapy allowed the creation of important procedures for behavior change.

Flaws:

Reductionism is the reduction of principles of behavior obtained from animals to the analysis of human behavior.

Low external validity is caused by the behavior of experiments in laboratory conditions, the results of which are difficult to transfer to natural conditions.

Ignoring cognitive processes when analyzing S-R connections.

There is a big gap between theory and practice.

Behavioral theory does not produce consistent results.

Unlike previous theories, where the source of child development is innate instincts, at the center of learning theory is social environment, the influences of which shape a person and are the source of his mental development. The subject of research in this area of ​​psychology is not inner world person (not his emotions, experiences or mental actions), but externally observable behavior. Therefore, this direction received the name behaviorism (from English word behavior- “behavior”).

The roots of this theory are associated with the name of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered the mechanism of the conditioned reflex. In their famous experiments on dogs, Pavlov showed that initially neutral stimuli for the body (sound, sight, smell) acquire physiological significance, if they are associated with vital positive or negative reinforcement. For example, ringing a bell or turning on a light bulb before feeding, after several combinations, begins to cause salivation in dogs. If the same signals are combined with negative reinforcement (for example, electric shock), they will cause defensive reaction. This mechanism for the formation of connections between external stimuli and reactions (S - R) was put by the American scientist J. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, as the basis for the formation of human behavior in general and child development in particular. However, this mechanism was significantly expanded and enriched with new concepts.

Thus, the outstanding American scientist B. Skinner introduced the concept of instrumental (or operant) conditioning. If in classical conditioning a connection is established between stimulus and response, then in instrumental conditioning certain forms of behavior are associated with subsequent reinforcement. If any sequence of actions triggers reinforcement, those actions will be repeated. For example, if a dog is given a piece of sugar every time it stands on its hind legs and dances, it is likely to repeat this action often in order to get the desired reward. This pattern also exists in humans. When parents reward a child for good behavior, this encouragement is viewed by behaviorists as positive reinforcement that reinforces desired behaviors. Punishment, on the contrary, is negative reinforcement that inhibits a child's bad behavior. Thus, the child learns to behave correctly and reinforces socially acceptable forms of behavior.

However, the stimulus-response scheme (S-R ) I soon discovered my limitations. As a rule, stimulus and response are in such difficult relationships that it is impossible to trace a direct connection between them. One of the largest representatives of neobehaviorism, E. Tolman, introduced a significant amendment to this scheme. He suggested placing between S And R middle management, or “intermediate variables” (V), in As a result, the diagram took the form S-V-R. By intermediate variables Tolman meant internal processes, which mediate the action of the stimulus, i.e., influence external behavior. These include goals, ideas, desires - in a word, internal mental life person. However, these variables themselves are of interest to researchers only insofar as they influence human behavior.

In the 30s of our century, American scientists N. Miller, J. Dollard, R. Sears and others made an attempt to translate the most important concepts of psychoanalytic theory into the language of learning theory. It was they who introduced the term into scientific use social non-scientists. On this basis, the concept has been developed for more than half a century social learning, the central problem of which is the problem socialization. Transforming Freudian ideas, N. Miller and J. Dollard replace the pleasure principle with the principle of reinforcement. They call reinforcement that which increases the tendency to repeat a response. Learning is the strengthening of the connection between stimulus and response that occurs through reinforcement. The main forms of social reinforcement are praise, attention from adults, their evaluation, etc. The task of parents is to support the correct, socially acceptable behavior of the child and reject unacceptable forms of behavior and thus socialize him. If the child’s behavioral repertoire does not have an appropriate response, it can be acquired by observing the behavior of the model. Learning through imitation in social learning theory it is the main way of acquiring new forms of behavior. Particular emphasis was placed on the role of imitation American psychologist A. Bandura. He believed that reward and punishment were not enough to teach new behavior. Children acquire new behavior through imitation of a model. One of the manifestations of imitation is identification, i.e. processes in which a person borrows not only actions, but also thoughts and feelings of another person acting as a model. Imitation leads to the fact that the child can imagine himself in the place of the model and experience sympathy for this person.

The famous American psychologist R. Sears introduced the dyadic principle of studying child development, according to which adaptive behavior and its reinforcement should be studied taking into account the behavior of the other partner. Sears focuses on the mother's influence on the child's development. The central point of learning in his theory is addiction. Reinforcement always depends on contact between mother and child. The child constantly experiences dependence on the mother, and the motivation for dependence (active demand for love, attention, affection, etc.) - critical need child that cannot be ignored. At the same time, development baby is coming on the way to overcoming this dependence and changing its forms. It can be seen that in this approach social learning theory is most closely intertwined with psychoanalysis.

The basis of social learning theory is not only the scheme S-R, but also Freud's teachings. Freud and the behaviorists agree not on the issue of sexuality, but on the child and society. The child is considered as a being alien to society. He enters society like a “rat in a maze,” and an adult must guide him through this maze so that as a result he becomes like an adult. The initial antagonism of the child and society unites these two directions and reduces development to learning acceptable forms of behavior.

Child development, from the position of behaviorism, is a purely quantitative learning process, that is, a process of gradual accumulation of skills. This learning does not imply the emergence of qualitatively new mental formations, since it occurs in the same way at all stages of ontogenesis.

Therefore, in behaviorism we're talking about not about mental development child, but about his social learning. The child’s experiences, ideas, and interests are not the subject of research here, since they cannot be seen and measured. And for behavioral psychology there are only objective methods, based on registration and analysis of external observable facts and processes. This is both the strength and weakness of behaviorism. Strength This direction lies in the fact that it introduced clarity, objectivity, and “measurability” into psychology. Thanks to him, psychology turned to the natural scientific path of development and became an exact, objective science. The method of measuring behavioral reactions has become one of the main ones in psychology. This explains the enormous popularity of behaviorism among psychologists around the world.

Weak side this concept consists in underestimating human consciousness, his will and own activity. According to the theory of behaviorism, classical and operant conditioning are universal learning mechanisms common to humans and animals. In this case, learning occurs as if automatically: reinforcement leads to “consolidation” in nervous system successful reactions, regardless of the will and desires of the person himself. From here, behaviorists conclude that with the help of incentives and reinforcements, any human behavior can be formed, since it is strictly determined by them. In this understanding, a person is a slave to external circumstances and his past experience.

A separate line in the development of behaviorism is represented by the system of views of B. Skinner. Burres Frederick Skinner (1904-1990) nominated operant behavior theory.

Based on experimental studies And theoretical analysis behavior of animals, he formulated a position on three types of behavior: unconditionally reflexive, conditioned reflex And operant. The latter is the specificity of B. Skinner’s teaching.

The first two types are caused by stimuli (S) and are called respondent responsive behavior. These are type S conditioning reactions. They constitute a certain part of the behavioral repertoire, but they alone do not ensure adaptation to the real environment. In reality, the adaptation process is built on the basis of active tests - the body’s influence on the world. Some of them may accidentally lead to useful result, which is therefore fixed. Some of these reactions (R), not caused by a stimulus, but secreted (“emitted”) by the body, turn out to be correct and are reinforced. Skinner called them operant. These are type R reactions.

Operant behavior assumes that the organism actively influences the environment and, depending on the results of these active actions they are consolidated or rejected. According to Skinner, these are the reactions that predominate in an animal’s adaptation: they are a form arbitrary behavior. Rollerblading, playing the piano, learning to write are all examples of human operant actions controlled by their consequences. If the latter are beneficial for the organism, then the likelihood of repetition of the operant response increases.

After analyzing behavior, Skinner formulated his theory of learning. The main means of developing new behavior is reinforcement. The entire procedure of learning in animals is called “sequential guidance to the desired reaction.”

Skinner identifies four modes of reinforcement:

1. A constant ratio reinforcement schedule in which the level of positive reinforcement depends on the number of actions performed correctly. (For example, an employee is paid in proportion to the quantity of products produced, i.e., the more often correct reaction body, the more reinforcements it receives.)
2. A schedule of reinforcement at a constant interval, when the organism receives reinforcement after a strictly fixed time has passed since the previous reinforcement. (For example, an employee is paid a salary every month or a student has a session every four months, while the response rate deteriorates immediately after receiving reinforcement - after all, the next salary or session will not be soon.)
3. Variable ratio reinforcement schedule. (For example, gain-reinforcement in gambling can be unpredictable, fickle, a person does not know when and what the next reinforcement will be, but every time he hopes to win - such a regime has a significant impact on human behavior.)
4. Variable interval reinforcement schedule. (At indeterminate intervals, the person is reinforced or the student's knowledge is monitored with "surprise tests" at random intervals, which encourages more compliance high level diligence and response as opposed to “constant interval” reinforcement.)

Skinner distinguished “primary reinforcers” (food, water, physical comfort, sex) and secondary, or conditioned (money, attention, good grades, affection, etc.). Secondary reinforcements are generalized and combined with many primary ones: for example, money is a means of obtaining many pleasures. An even stronger generalized conditioned reinforcement is social approval: in order to receive it from parents and those around them, a person strives to behave well and comply with social norms, study hard, make a career, look beautiful, etc.

The scientist believed that conditioned reinforcing stimuli are very important in controlling human behavior, and aversive (painful or unpleasant) stimuli, punishment are the most general method control over behavior. Skinner identified positive and negative reinforcements, as well as positive and negative punishments (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2.

Skinner fought against using punishment to control behavior because it causes negative emotional and social side effects(fear, anxiety, antisocial actions, lying, loss of self-esteem and confidence). In addition, it only temporarily suppresses unwanted behavior, which will reappear if the likelihood of punishment decreases.

Instead of aversive control, Skinner recommends positive reinforcement as the most effective method to eliminate unwanted and encourage desirable reactions. The “successful approximation or behavior shaping method” involves providing positive reinforcement for those actions that are closest to the expected operant behavior. This is approached step by step: one reaction is consolidated and then replaced by another, closer to the preferred one (this is how speech, work skills, etc. are formed).

Skinner transferred the data obtained from studying animal behavior to human behavior, which led to the biologization interpretation. Thus, Skinner's version of programmed learning arose. Its fundamental limitation lies in the reduction of learning to a set of external acts of behavior and reinforcement of the correct ones. This ignores the internal cognitive activity man, therefore, there is no learning as a conscious process. Following the attitude of Watsonian behaviorism, Skinner excludes the inner world of man, his consciousness from behavior and conducts the behaviorization of the psyche. Thinking, memory, motives and the like mental processes he describes in terms of reaction and reinforcement, and man as a reactive being subject to the influences of external circumstances.

The biologization of the human world, characteristic of behaviorism as a whole, which in principle does not distinguish between man and animal, reaches its limits in Skinner. Cultural phenomena turn out to be “cleverly invented reinforcements” in his interpretation.

For permission social problems modern society B. Skinner put forward the task of creating behavioral technologies, which is designed to exercise control of some people over others. Since a person's intentions, desires, and self-awareness are not taken into account, behavior control is not related to consciousness. This means is control over the reinforcement regime, which allows people to be manipulated. For maximum effectiveness, it is necessary to take into account which reinforcement is most important, significant, valuable in this moment (law of subjective value of reinforcement), and then provide such subjectively valuable reinforcement in the event correct behavior person or threaten to deprive him or her in case of improper behavior. Such a mechanism will allow you to control behavior.

Skinner formulated the law of operant conditioning:

“The behavior of living beings is completely determined by the consequences to which it leads. Depending on whether these consequences are pleasant, indifferent or unpleasant, a living organism will show a tendency to repeat a given behavioral act, not attach any significance to it, or avoid its repetition in the future.”

Man is able to foresee possible consequences his behavior and avoid those actions and situations that will lead to negative consequences for him. He subjectively assesses the likelihood of their occurrence: than more opportunity negative consequences, the more strongly it influences human behavior ( law of subjective assessment of the probability of consequences). This subjective assessment may not coincide with the objective probability of consequences, but it influences behavior. Therefore, one of the ways to influence human behavior is “escalating the situation,” “intimidation,” and “exaggerating the likelihood of negative consequences.” If it seems to a person that the latter resulting from any of his reactions is insignificant, he is ready to “take a risk” and resort to this action.