1.1. The formation of the subject and methods of research in psychology.
Subject, object and main tasks of psychology as a science.
The evolution of views on the subject of psychology. Soul, consciousness, behavior, unconscious, personality, psyche, activity as a subject of psychology at various stages of its development. Integrative trends in modern psychology.
Mental phenomena and their difference from phenomena studied by other sciences. The concept of the categorical apparatus of psychological science. The main categories of psychology: psyche, consciousness, individual, personality, individuality, communication, activity.
Psyche as a subject of psychology. The history of the development of views on the nature and functions of the psyche, the determinants of its emergence and development. Search for criteria of the psyche in the history of psychology. Anthropopsychism, panpsychism, biopsychism, neuropsychism, brainpsychism. Units of analysis of the psyche. Psyche as a form of interaction of an animal organism with the environment. Sensitivity as a criterion of the psyche in the concept of A.N. Leontiev. The concept of advanced reflection of reality.
The phenomenon of man as a unity of natural, social, mental and spiritual reality. Qualitative uniqueness of the human psyche and the conditions for its formation. Biogenetic, psychogenetic, sociogenetic and systemic approaches to the essence of the human psyche. The main forms of manifestation of the human psyche and their relationship. Reflection activity. Social and genetic aspect of mental development. Man and the development of his higher mental functions.
Psychology and other sciences. Psychology and philosophy. Psychology and natural science. Psychology and sociology. Psychology and pedagogy. Psychology and technical sciences. Modern structure of psychological science. Branches of psychology.
Principles of psychology as a science.
Systematic principle. The emergence of a systemic understanding of the psyche. The “organism-environment” system. Understanding systematicity in various psychological schools. System development. Systematic approach to activities. The principle of activity. Life activity as adaptation to the environment. The role of the internal program and needs in the organization of individual behavior. Trans-situational activity. Self-propulsion of activity. The principle of determinism. Pre-mechanical and mechanical determinism. Biological determinism. Mental and social determinism. Development principle. Development of the psyche in phylogenesis. The role of heredity and environment. Development of the psyche in ontogenesis: factors and criteria. Age periodization of personality development. The principle of the activity approach. The principle of a personal approach. Anthropological principle.
Main directions and schools in foreign psychology.
Behaviorism. The crisis of introspective “psychology of consciousness”. Stages of formation and development of behaviorism. Philosophical traditions of objectivism and mechanism, zoopsychology and functional psychology as epistemological prerequisites for behaviorism. Positivism as a methodological basis of behavioral psychology. Teaching of I.P. Pavlova about conditioned reflexes and the possibility of modifying an individual’s behavior. Experiments by E. Thorndike. Behavioral Science Program (D. Watson). The connection between stimulus and response as a unit of behavior and its study. Laws of behavior. Observation as the main method of behaviorism. Contributions of behavioral psychology to the development of empirical methods, problems of learning and action. Disadvantages of behaviorism and an attempt to overcome them in neobehaviorism (Tolman, Hull). Intermediate variables. Operant and classical conditioning. Social learning. Behavioral psychotherapy. General model and basic methods of behavioral psychotherapy.
Gestalt psychology. The study of sensory formations as a systemic organization of a whole that determines the properties and functions of its component parts. A program for studying the psyche from the perspective of holistic structures (K. Koffka, V. Koehler, etc.). Laws of perception. Study of thinking as a reorganization of cognitive structures. Possibilities of applying the basic principles in modern psychology. Levin's K field theory. Criticism of the associative concept and the development of Gestalt psychology. Development of a theory of a dynamic system of behavior. Tension and balance between the individual and the environment. Motivation as a “region of living space.” The concept of a field in the system of objects that stimulate activity at a given moment in the subjective space of the individual. Geometric model of the subject's movement in the psychological field. Field behavior: the role of needs and intentions. Stylistic field behavior as a sign of pathology.
Psychoanalysis of S. Freud."Deep layer" of personality, drives, instincts. Psychoanalysis of the unconscious sphere. Freudianism as a psychotherapeutic technique and theoretical concept. The structure of the psyche, libido. Forms of psychological protection. Methods of psychoanalysis. The role and tasks of the psychoanalyst. The limitations of pansexualism and its overcoming in neo-Freudianism. The influence of psychoanalysis on the development of psychology.
Individual psychology of A. Adler. The idea of a person's unconscious desire for excellence as a source of motivation. Study of the social nature of human problems. Inferiority complex as the initial force of personality development. Ways of self-affirmation. Feeling safe. The desire for excellence as a driving force of personal development. Features of understanding neuroses and their psychotherapy. The meaning of the power of collective feeling.
Analytical psychology of K-G. Jung. The collective unconscious as an autonomous set of archetypes. Inheritance of the experience of previous generations. Personal unconscious as a set of complexes. Personality structure (persona, ego, shadow, anima, animus, self). Mental functions (thinking, feeling, sensation, intuition) and psychological types (intuitive and thinking). Typology of characters (introversion and extraversion) and its use in psychology. The search for spiritual harmony and integrity, overcoming internal conflicts as the basis of a person’s mental life. Individuation as the ability for self-knowledge and self-development. Features of analytical psychotherapy.
Humanistic psychoanalysis by E. Fromm. Existential contradiction as the main problem of human existence. Individual freedom and its suppression by society. Escape from freedom and conformity as a way out of the situation. Finding unity with the world and oneself is a basic human problem. A project to create a healthy society based on psychoanalytic social and individual therapy.
Cultural-philosophical psychopathology of K. Horney. Basic anxiety" as the starting point of personality development. Internal conflicts based on the unconscious experience of "the hostility of the world towards man. "Avoidance" of reality. Aggressiveness of the individual. Basic personality tendencies. Neurotic tendencies. Restoring lost realistic relationships based on life path analysis. Features of psychotherapeutic techniques.
Transactional analysis by E. Bern as a theory of ego states and psychotechnics of activity analysis, communication and psychological games. The main ego states of the subject (Parent, Adult, Child) and their characteristics. “Switching” of ego states and their manifestation in life. Game as a form of behavior with an ulterior motive. "Script programs" of a person's life path. Features of transactional psychotherapy.
Transpersonal psychology by S. Grof in search of a new theoretical paradigm of the human psyche. Study of forms of special spiritual experience through experiences in altered states of consciousness. Holotropic breathing and special music as ways to “turn off” consciousness. Liberation and transcendence of personality. Psychodynamic, perinatal and transpersonal experiences. New understanding of the psychotherapeutic process.
Logotherapy by V. Frankl. Theory and practice of psychotherapy focused on acquiring the meaning of life. Free will, the will to meaning and the meaning of life. Causes of existential vacuum and frustration. The concept of neogenic neuroses. Searching for meaning “beyond oneself”, in every moment of life. Principles of dereflection and paradoxical intention as methods of therapy. Self-transcendent.
Genetic psychology by J. Piaget. Study of the origin and development of intelligence in the cognitive activity of children. Schema (cognitive structure) and its role in shaping behavior. Increasing complexity of circuits as a direction of cognitive development. Operations as mental equivalents of behavioral patterns. Principles that ensure the process of formation of schemes: organization and adaptation. Adaptation process: assimilation and accommodation. Stages of intelligence development. The transition from egocentrism through decentration to an objective position as a path of intellectual development. Semiotic function and mechanism for transferring detailed external material actions to the internal plane. Laws of cognitive development. Clinical conversation as the main research method. The role of training in the development of intelligence.
Cognitive psychology. An attempt to overcome the crisis of behaviorism and Gestalt psychology. Study of transformations of sensory information (D. Broadbent, S. Sternberg). Study of the building blocks of cognitive processes (J. Sperling, R. Atkinson). The decisive role in the behavior of the subject (U. Neisser). Cognitive approach to the study of individual differences (M. Eysenck) and personality constructs (J. Kelly). The concept of cognitive complexity as a characteristic of the human cognitive sphere. The importance of the cognitivist direction in psychology.
Humanistic psychology. Study of personality problems as an integral system. Contrasting behaviorism and psychoanalysis with humanistic principles. Study of human needs by A. Maslow. Hierarchical organization of needs and self-actualization of personality. Personal development based on self-confidence and the desire for an “ideal self” (K. Rogers). The concept of "incongruence". Non-directive "person-centered" psychotherapy. Self-actualization and the “Fully Functioning Personality.” The influence of humanistic psychology on the development of modern science.
Domestic schools and directions in psychology.
Ananyev B.G. Study of character genesis in schoolchildren in the 30s of the twentieth century. Work in the psychology sector of the Brain Institute on the problem of sensory cognition. The idea of human integrity (individuality) and its development, the idea of maturity as a period of dynamic changes, including changes in psychophysiological functions and their interrelations. The idea of creating a unified concept of human science as a complex discipline. Man: individual, personality, individuality. Problems of humanity. Research in sensory and perceptual processes. Theoretical ideas of the school of B.G. Ananyev about the structure of intelligence, about the connection of intellectual functions with somatic processes, about the dependence of intellectual activity on life activity. Work in the field of educational psychology.
Anokhin P.K. Reinforcement as an affective signal. Reverse afferentation. Afferent synthesis. Acceptor of action results as a psychological mechanism of anticipatory reflection of reality. Features of understanding the conditioned reflex, memory, decision-making process. The theory of functional systems as a scientific concept of the organization of processes in the body and its interaction with the environment.
Vygotsky L.S. The essence of the cultural-historical concept in psychology. Genesis of higher mental functions of man. An instrumental approach to the study of the psyche and its development. Mechanism of interiorization. The concept of a “psychological tool” (cultural sign) as a tool for transforming mental functions. The concept of psychological systems, the dynamics of their development and interaction. Zone of proximal development in the ontogenetic development of a child. A combination of development and systematic principles. Experimental studies of thinking and speech. Hypothesis about the localization of mental functions. Cultural-historical concept of the essence of consciousness. Meaning and senses as units of the psyche. Ideas about the “incorporation” of higher functions into consciousness. The relationship between the roles of “natural” and “cultural” development in the formation of the human psyche.
Galperin P.Ya. Orienting activity as a subject of psychology. Study of attention and “linguistic consciousness”. Problems of the relationship between learning, mental development and creative thinking. The concept of systematic step-by-step formation of mental actions and concepts. Stages of formation of new actions, images and concepts. Features of learning using schemes of indicative principles of action. Psychological mechanisms for “improving” action and transferring the highest to the “mental plane”. Types of orientations in a task. Systematic step-by-step formation of mental actions as a theory of learning and a method of psychological research.
Zaporozhets A.V. Contribution to the development of the foundations of activity theory. The role of the subject's practical actions in the genesis of cognitive mental processes. Perceptual action theory. Study of orienting activity and perception in behavior regulation. Emotions as a link in semantic activity.
Leontyev A.N.. Experimental studies of voluntary attention and memory as higher mental functions based on the ideas of cultural-historical theory. Development and creation of a general psychological theory of activity. Statement about the primacy of activity in relation to reflection, its leading role. The origin of the psyche in activity, the mechanisms of its development through the development of activity, the acquisition by the psyche at the highest stages of its development of the status of a special objective activity. Structural units of activity. Motivational sphere and mechanisms of personality development. Analysis of consciousness. Study of mental processes. Study of the development of the psyche in phylo- and ontogenesis. The significance of the concept of activity for various branches of psychology, the development of psychological theory and practice.
Lomov B.F. Study of human problems in the control system and in interaction with technology. Development of the fundamentals of engineering psychology. Development of methodology and fundamental theory of psychology. Principles of a systematic approach to the analysis of mental phenomena. The relationship between communication and cognition and activity. Contribution to the development of various branches of psychology.
Luria A.R. Study of affective states and problems of thinking based on cultural-historical theory. Development of problems of cerebral localization of higher mental functions and their disturbances in brain damage. The origin and development of neuropsychology. Creation of a system of neuropsychological diagnostic methods. Development of problems in the neuropsychology of memory and neurolinguistics. Research work of representatives of the Luriev School: theoretical research in the field of neuropsychology; work in the field of clinical and experimental neuropsychology; research in the field of rehabilitation neuropsychology.
Myasishchev V.N. The study of natural objects in the process of relationships with the outside world. A person in a system of relationships. The concept of relationships as a special approach to personality problems. The system of relationships is the psychological core of personality and the prism of various mental phenomena. Character traits as attitude transformation. A study of neuroses through contradictory relationships. Research in medical psychology.
Nebylitsyn V.D. Experimental substantiation of the inverse relationship between the strength of the nervous system and sensitivity. Development of views of B.M. Teplov. Introduction of factor analysis into the study of the physiology of individual mental differences. Creation of electroencephalographic methods and study of the properties of the nervous system. Dynamics of nervous processes. The role of the typological in the individual psychological uniqueness of activity. Interpretation of temperament.
Pavlov I.P. as the founder of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. The principle of nervism. Unconditioned and conditioned reflex. The doctrine of two human signaling systems. Establishment of deterministic and objective approaches in physiology, medicine and psychology.
Platonov K.K. Understanding the subject of psychology as a system of concepts and categories that reveal the essence of the psyche. Hierarchy of psychological categories. Attributes, structure and forms of consciousness. Dynamic functional structure, procedural-hierarchical substructures and personality attributes, subordination and superposition of substructures. Understanding activity as the highest hierarchical class of response, form of interaction and human function. Motive as a substructure of activity. Contribution to the development of aviation psychology.
Rubinshtein S.L. Development of an activity approach in philosophy, psychology and pedagogy. Principles of determinism and unity of consciousness and activity. Methodological and theoretical foundations of domestic psychological science. General scheme of activity analysis. Activity, thinking and speech. Personality as an integral system of internal conditions. The relationship between the natural and the social in human psychological development. Mentality as a process. Thinking as an activity and as a process. Development of the subject of general, social and historical psychology. The place and significance of the philosophical and psychological concept of S.L. Rubinstein in science.
Sechenov I.M.. Development of a natural scientific theory of mental regulation of behavior. The concept of the reflexive nature of the psyche. Discovery of the process of inhibition of the nervous system. Psychology building program.
Teplov B.M. Research into the psychology of perception. Development of the concept of abilities as a problem in the psychology of individual differences. Creation of a research program to study the physiological basis of individual psychological differences. Contribution to the formation and development of differential psychophysiology.
Uznadze D.N. Understanding attitude as an explanatory principle for the study of mental phenomena. Overcoming the postulate of immediacy in introspection and behaviorism. Attitude as the basis for the subject’s expedient selective activity. Unconscious readiness for perception and action. Direction and conditions for the emergence of the attitude. Patterns of changing attitudes. Fixation method in an experimental setup study. The difference between the interpretation of the unconscious and that accepted in psychoanalysis.
Elkonin B.D. Development of the provisions of cultural-historical theory in the field of child psychology. The concept of periodization of mental development, based on the concept of “leading activity”. Study of play and analysis of its role in child development. A method of teaching reading through sound analysis of words. Problems of psychodiagnostics of children's mental development. Contribution to the development of developmental psychology.
Structure of the psyche.
Mental processes, properties, states, formations. Mental processes as mental phenomena that provide primary reflection and awareness by the individual of the influences of the surrounding reality. Mental cognitive processes (sensations, perception, memory, ideas, thinking, attention, speech, imagination); emotional (emotions, feelings); volitional (mechanisms of volitional actions, volitional qualities). Mental properties as the most stable and constantly manifested personality traits, providing a certain level of behavior and activity typical for it. Personality properties: orientation, temperament, character, abilities. Mental states as a certain level of performance and quality of functioning of the human psyche, characteristic of him at any given moment in time. Thenic and asthenic conditions. Activity, passivity, vigor, fatigue, apathy, euphoria and other states. Mental formations as mental phenomena that are formed in the process of a person acquiring life and professional experience. Knowledge, skills, abilities, experience.
Mental states of a person.
History of the study of mental states. The place of states in the system of mental phenomena, their relationship with processes and properties. Psychological characteristics of basic conditions. Criteria for their classification. The structure of the mental state. Factors that dynamize and stabilize people's mental states. The problem of the central link in the structure of the mental state. Theories of mental states. N.D. Levitov’s contribution to the knowledge of mental states. Mental states in difficult and extreme operating conditions.
Methods of psychology.
General concept of methodology. Levels of methodology. History of the development of methods for studying mental phenomena. The main paradigms of psychological cognition: philosophical-religious, subjective, natural science, humanitarian, technocratic, psychotherapeutic, etc. Principles of cognition in modern psychology. Methods for organizing psychological research: longitudinal method, cross-sectional method, comparative method. Syndrome analysis method. Basic research methods of psychology: observation and introspection, survey, testing, experiment, modeling, analysis of activity products, biographical method and their types. Psychological methods of correctional and developmental influence.
Development of the psyche in phylo- and ontogenesis.
Modern concepts of the main stages of mental development in the animal world.
The emergence and evolution of the psyche and behavior of animals. The concept of sensitivity as an elementary form of the psyche. Innate and individually variable behavior. Concepts of instinct, learning and intelligence in animals. Complication of animal behavior during evolution. Types of learning. Imprinting. Vicarious learning. Optional learning. Imitation. Latent learning. Cognitive learning. Social behavior of animals. Features of intelligent behavior of animals and their communication systems. Development of symbolic functions in animals.
The socio-historical nature of the human psyche. The problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in the human psyche. The emergence and development of consciousness in the history of mankind in connection with the characteristics of production activity, social relations, culture, language and other factors. Conditions for the emergence of consciousness, collective labor activity and language. The principle of the unity of activity and consciousness.
Development of the human psyche in ontogenesis. Periodization of development. Principles of periodization of development. Periodization in the psychodynamic approach (3. Freud, A. Adler, E. Erikson), periodization by Piaget. Periodization of mental development of B.D. Elkonina. Periodization of mental development within the framework of the cultural-historical approach of L.S. Vygotsky. The concept of socio-historical experience. The formation of consciousness and personality in the process of appropriating socio-historical experience. Characteristics of the assignment process. The role of language. The concept of interiorization. Enrichment of social experience as a result of the creative activity of the subject through exteriorization. Formation of higher mental functions, their social, indirect, voluntary nature and system structures. Consciousness and unconscious mental processes. Sensitive periods of development. Universal model of sensitive periods by R. Aislin - J. Gottlieb.
Communication and behavior as forms of human life.
Communication as a type of personality activity. The relationship between communication and other forms of activity. The role of communication in human development and life. Personality qualities necessary for effective communication. Communication as a type of activity and as a form of interpersonal interaction. Psychological characteristics of communication in various operating conditions. Moral and psychological aspect of the problem of behavior. Subject and social characteristics of personality behavior. Psychological prerequisites for prosocial and antisocial personality behavior. Individualism, collectivism and solidarity in human behavior. Action as an integral part of behavior and psychological characteristics of the individual.
Psychophysical and psychophysiological problems in psychology.
The history of the development of views on the relationship between mental and material phenomena, mental and physiological phenomena. The question of the place of the psyche in nature; about the relationship between mental and material phenomena. The soul as a way of assimilating the external. The question of the relationship between mental and physiological processes in a particular organism (body) as the transformation of a psychophysical problem into a psychophysiological one. Mechanics and changing concepts of soul and body. Hypothesis of psychophysical interaction. Psychophysical parallelism and its variants: psychophysical monism, dualism, pluralism. Psychophysics. Physical stimulus as a signal. Reflex principle of organizing behavioral acts. Transition to neurodynamics. Modern options for solving psychophysical and psychophysiological problems.
Psychology- the science of man, his spiritual essence and psyche in their development and in all its diversity of forms.
General psychology- a fundamental discipline that studies the general patterns of cognitive processes and states and the general mental properties of the individual.
The path to the development of psychological science was more difficult than the development of other sciences, such as physics or chemistry. The reasons for this difference are not difficult to understand. After all, as is well known, the objects of physics, chemistry, and other natural sciences are, in one way or another, visible, tangible, material. Psychology deals with substance, which, although it constantly reveals itself, nevertheless acts as a special reality of the highest level and differs from material reality by its invisibility, intangibility, immateriality.
It was this difference, giving rise to difficulties in recording psychological phenomena, that from the very beginning made it difficult for the development of psychological knowledge, its transformation into an independent science, since its object itself for a long time seemed elusive and mysterious.
The history of psychological knowledge goes back more than 2000 years, during which it developed mainly within the framework of philosophy and natural science.
The beginning of the transformation of psychology into an independent science is associated with the name of the German scientist Christian Wolf(1679-1754), who published the books Rational Psychology (1732), and Experimental Psychology (1734), in which he used the term “psychology”.
However, only from the beginning of the 20th century. psychology finally emerged as an independent science. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. The importance of psychology has increased significantly due to its increasing involvement in various types of practical activities. Such branches as pedagogical, legal, military, management, sports psychology, etc. arose. At the same time, the uniqueness of the object of psychological science has given rise to a large number of scientific schools and theories that complement each other and often contradict each other.
The meaning of the word “psychology” itself becomes clear if we consider that it consists of two Greek terms: « psyche» - soul, derived from the name of the Greek goddess Psyche, And « logos» - word, concept, doctrine, science.
From the moment of its appearance, psychology began to stand out among other sciences, since it was the only one among them that was named after the goddess.
Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology. According to one myth, the god of love Eros fell in love with a simple peasant girl Psyche. distinguished, however, by divine beauty. But Eros's mother, the goddess Aphrodite, was very unhappy with her son. celestial, wanted to unite his fate with a mere mortal. Aphrodite began to make efforts to separate the lovers. She forced Psyche to go through many trials. But Psyche’s desire to unite her destiny with Eros turned out to be so great that it made a strong impression on the gods of Olympus and they decided to help Psyche overcome all the trials that befell her and fulfill Aphrodite’s demands. Meanwhile, Eros managed to convince the Supreme God, Zeus, to turn Psyche into a goddess, to make her as immortal as the gods. This is how lovers manage to unite forever.
In fact, it is precisely this deep thought about the integrity of the universe, which includes two main principles - material and spiritual. contained in an ancient myth, became the basis for the ideas of modern materialistic philosophy and psychology about the essence of the human psyche, as such a property of highly organized matter that embodies the highest stage of the universal evolution of nature.
It is this idea that is expressed in the most common definition of psychological science today:
Psychology is a science whose object is the laws of the psyche as a special, highest form of life activity in humans and animals.
The very same psyche today is understood not as something mysterious and inexplicable, but as the highest form of interrelation of living beings with the objective world, which emerged as a result of a long process of self-organization of nature, expressed in their ability to realize their impulses on the basis information about this world.
At the level of a person, expressing the highest stage of the process of organization, the orderliness of being, the psyche acquires a qualitatively new character due to the fact that the biological nature of a person is transformed by sociocultural factors, thanks to which an extensive internal plan of life activity - consciousness - arises, and a person becomes a personality.
However, even today it should be taken into account that for many centuries the psyche was designated by the term “soul”, which was presented as an ethereal entity, the history and fate of which, according to various religious beliefs that have survived to this day, depends not so much on processes of self-organization of natural life, not so much from a living body, how much from extraterrestrial, supernatural principles, from otherworldly forces inaccessible to our understanding. It is this idea of the essence of the psyche that underlies all modern world religions, including Christianity, and is also supported by some areas of philosophy and modern psychological science.
However, from the point of view of other psychological teachings, the psyche is the highest product of the processes of self-organization of nature and acts as an intermediary between the subjective, human and objective, external world, providing a powerful rise in the effectiveness of human activity in transforming the natural and social environment.
But one way or another, the basis of modern psychology is formed by historically established ideas about the correspondence of the mental and material worlds, the coexistence of internal and external, mental and physical, subjective and objective existence.
Of course, before arriving at such an idea of the essence of the psyche, knowledge about it had to go through a long path of development, including a number of stages. Familiarity with the content of these stages helps to better understand psychic reality and, on this basis, make a conscious choice between the various SS interpretations that exist today.
The process of developing psychological knowledge was long and difficult. These difficulties were not accidental. They are associated with the specifics of the psyche, which gave rise in the past and gives rise today to many problems in the development of psychological science, in particular, it explains the persistence up to the present day. polytheoretical nature this area of knowledge.
Difficulties in the development of psychology are associated with the following features of the mental sphere:
Special location localization object of psychological science. The physical media of this object is located not outside, but inside us. Moreover, the physical carriers of mental functions are “hidden” especially securely inside us: in the skull and in other most durable bone structures of our skeleton.
This is a particularly reliable defense created by nature to protect the psyche. at the same time, it significantly complicates the study of the secrets of this sphere.
The specificity of the mental world also lies in the fact that, being closely connected with the material, physical world, with the process of self-organization common to the entire universe, at the same time, in a number of its properties it is opposite to it. As already noted, the psyche is distinguished by such properties as disembodiment, immateriality, and invisibility. Of course, psychic properties sometimes come out, they manifest themselves in the words, gestures and actions of people and thus partly materialize.
However, between these visible, material manifestations and the psychic phenomena themselves there always remains a distance, sometimes of enormous size. It is not without reason that some experts on the human psyche claim that language is given to us in order to hide our thoughts.
From these features of the mental sphere follows another one that researchers have constantly encountered - impossibility of precise fixation, physical or chemical registration of mental processes occurring in the nervous system, especially in the brain, the impossibility of objectively determining the thoughts and feelings that arise within us. That is why repeated attempts to create a so-called “lie detector” or chronograph turned out to be unsuccessful, since it was invariably discovered. that during their experimental use, these devices record only physiological processes (changes in pulse, body temperature, pressure, etc.) with which mental phenomena are associated, but not these mental phenomena themselves.
And finally, another difficulty in understanding psychic reality arises in connection with the impossibility of using the entire complex of our cognitive abilities to study it, since mental phenomena cannot be seen, smelled, or touched: they can only be perceived indirectly, speculatively, with the help of our ability for abstract thinking, since only this unique ability of ours makes it possible see the invisible.
All these features of mental reality made the task of studying it particularly difficult and led to the fact that the path of development of psychology turned out to be very long and contradictory. This path included a number of stages, each of which generated its own special form of psychological knowledge.
The study of the history of psychology, of course, cannot be reduced to a simple listing of certain psychological problems, ideas and concepts. In order to understand them. it is necessary to understand their internal connection, the unified logic of the formation of psychology as a science.
It is especially important to understand that psychology as a doctrine about the human soul is always conditioned anthropology, the doctrine of man in his integrity. Research, hypotheses, conclusions of psychology, no matter how abstract and private they may seem, imply a certain understanding essence of man, are guided by one or another image of him.
In its turn, doctrine of man fits into general picture of the world, formed on the basis of a synthesis of knowledge and ideological attitudes of a particular historical era. Therefore, the history of the formation and development of psychological knowledge is, although a complex, contradictory, but quite logical process associated with a change in the understanding of the essence of man and the formation on this basis of new explanations of his psyche.
In this process, three main historical stages are usually distinguished, which correspond to three forms of psychological knowledge:
- , or everyday psychology;
Structure of psychological science
The historical process of development of each science is associated with its increasingly significant differentiation, which is based on the process of expanding the object of this science. As a result, modern sciences, especially fundamental ones, which include psychology. represent a complex multi-branch system. As the structure of science becomes more complex, the need arises to classify its constituent branch sciences. The classification of branch sciences means their systematic division, the ordering of scientific knowledge by decomposing a particular science as a generic concept into its constituent generic concepts.
Psychology at the current level of development is a very branched system of scientific disciplines.
They develop general problems and study the general patterns of the psyche that manifest themselves in people, regardless of what activity they are engaged in. Due to its universality, knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology is combined with the term "general psychology".
Studies such mental processes as sensations, perceptions, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. IN personality psychology the mental structure of the individual and the mental properties of the individual that determine the deeds and actions of a person are studied.
In addition to general psychology, psychological science includes a number of special psychological disciplines, related to various areas of human life and activity.
Among the special branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of activity, there are: labor psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, trade psychology and the psychology of scientific creativity, sports psychology, etc.
social Psychology.
The theory and practice of teaching and educating the younger generation is closely related to both general psychology and special branches of psychology.
genetic, differential and developmental psychology.
For a mentally competent organization of education, it is necessary to know the psychological patterns of interaction between people in groups, such as families, schoolchildren and student groups. Relationships in groups are the subject of study of social psychology.
Psychology of abnormal development deals with deviations from the norm in human behavior and psyche and is extremely necessary in pedagogical work with children lagging behind in mental development or educationally neglected children.
Combines all information related to training and education. The subject of educational psychology is the psychological patterns of human learning and education. The sections of educational psychology are: psychology of learning (psychological foundations of didactics, private methods, formation of mental actions); psychology of education (psychological foundations of education, psychological foundations of correctional labor pedagogy); psychology of educational work with difficult children: teacher psychology).
Modern psychology is characterized by both the process of differentiation, which gives rise to numerous special branches of psychology, and the process of integration, as a result of which psychology merges with other sciences, such as, for example, through educational psychology and pedagogy.
Subject of psychological science
The very name of psychology means that psychology is the science of the soul. The study and explanation of the soul was the first stage in the formation. So, for the first time, psychology was defined as the science of the soul. But exploring the soul using scientific methods turned out to be quite difficult. In the course of historical development, focusing on natural scientific research methods and the general scientific ideal of objectivity, psychologists abandoned the concept of the soul and began to develop programs for building psychology as a unified scientific discipline based on a materialistic worldview. Along this path, psychology has achieved significant success in studying the phenomena of the human psyche: the main components of the psyche have been identified, the patterns of formation of sensation and perception have been studied, types of memory, types and characteristics of thinking have been identified, psychological problems of specific types of human activity have been studied, etc.
However, as many psychologists state, the path of abandoning the concept of the soul and replacing it with the concept of the psyche ultimately turned out to be a dead end for psychology.
Throughout the 20th century. Both Western and Soviet psychology proceeded from the world of cash existence, and spiritual life was considered as a product of “specially organized matter” - the brain and social interactions. The result of this half-move was, as noted by B.S. Brother, not only a dead, soulless person who gave his soul as an object of study, but also a dead, soulless psychology.
No matter how much psychology lays claim to scientific objectivity, nevertheless, at the basis of any significant psychological concept of the 20th century, be it behaviorism or Marxist psychology, psychoanalysis or humanistic psychology, the initial image is of a person devoid of an immortal soul, subject to instincts, wandering in search of pleasure , pleasures, activities, self-realization, self-aggrandizement, etc.
In the course of attempts to build psychology as an independent scientific discipline on the basis of a materialistic worldview, a loss of unity psychological science itself. Psychology in the 20th century. is a conglomerate of facts, schools, trends and studies, most often almost in no way connected with each other. At one time, hopes were placed on general psychology, which was called upon to play a leading role in relation to specific psychological research, but these hopes were not justified.
Currently, within the framework of psychological science, there are general psychological theories, oriented towards various scientific ideals, and psychological practice, based on certain psychological theories or a whole series of them and developing special psychotechniques for influencing consciousness and controlling it.
The presence of incommensurable psychological theories has led to to the problem of the subject of psychology. For a behaviorist, the subject of study is behavior, for a supporter of the activity theory - mentally controlled activity, for a Christian psychologist - living knowledge about the genesis of sinful passions and the pastoral art of healing them, for a psychoanalyst - the unconscious, etc.
The question naturally arises: is it possible to talk about psychology as a single science with a common subject of research, or should we recognize the existence of many psychologies?
Some scientists believe that psychology is a single science, which, like any other science, has its own special subject. Psychology as a science deals with the study of factors of mental life, as well as the discovery of the laws to which mental phenomena are subject. And no matter how complex the paths that psychological thought has advanced over the centuries, mastering its subject, no matter how the knowledge about it has changed and been enriched, no matter what terms it has been designated, it is possible to identify features that characterize the actual subject of psychology, distinguishing it from other sciences .
Psychology is a science that studies the facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche.
Other scientists are inclined to think that psychology is science and practice in unity, but science and practice in psychology are understood differently. But this means that there are many psychologies: no less than real experiences in the construction of psychological science and practice.
The restoration of a single subject of psychology and the synthesis of psychological knowledge is possible only by returning psychology to recognition of reality and the primacy of the soul. And although the soul will remain primarily outside the framework of psychological research, its postulation, its reverent recognition, the constant need to correlate with the very fact and goals of its existence will inevitably change and transform the forms and essence of psychological research.
Many open-minded psychologists, both in the West and in Russia, have realized the deep gulf separating modern scientific psychology from the great religious systems. The wealth of deep knowledge about the human soul and consciousness accumulated in these systems over centuries and even millennia has not received adequate recognition and has not been studied until recently.
In recent years, there has been a convergence of spiritual-experiential and scientific-theoretical ways of understanding the world.
There is an increasing desire to go beyond the understanding of psychology as a science about the psyche—the properties of the brain. Many modern psychologists consider human psychology as psychological anthropology and talk about spirituality as the deepest essence of man. From the perspective of today, the concepts of soul and spirituality are no longer interpreted as purely figurative expressions. Spirituality includes the meaning of life, conscience, highest moral values and feelings, highest interests, ideas, beliefs. And although spirituality has no direct physical correlates other than energy, psychologists believe that spirituality can be studied within the framework of psychology.
By the end of the 20th century. the need to build a unified picture of the world is realized, in which both the results of scientific knowledge of nature and man, and the fruits of thousands of years of spiritual experience would be synthesized. The leaders in this process, as has always been the case in the history of scientific knowledge, are physicists. Following physics, scientific psychology also began to realize the need to restructure the worldview and reach a multidimensional understanding of man.
Taking into account all of the above, psychologists come to understand psychology as the science of man, his spiritual essence and psyche in their development and in all its diversity of forms.
The structure of psychology as a science
Psychology at the current level of development is a very branched system of scientific disciplines, divided into fundamental and applied.
Fundamental branches of psychology develop general problems and study general patterns of the psyche that manifest themselves in people, regardless of what activity they engage in. Due to its universality, knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology is combined with the term "general psychology".
General psychology studies the individual, highlighting his mental cognitive processes and personality. Psychology of cognitive processes studies such mental processes as sensations, perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. IN personality psychology the mental structure of the individual and the mental properties of the individual that determine the deeds and actions of a person are studied.
In addition to general psychology, psychological science includes a number of special psychological disciplines that are at different stages of formation, related to various areas of human life and activity.
Among the special branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of activity, there are: labor psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, trade psychology, psychology of scientific creativity, sports psychology, etc.
Psychological aspects of development are studied by developmental psychology and psychology of abnormal development.
Explores psychological aspects of the relationship between the individual and society social Psychology.
The theory and practice of teaching and educating the younger generation is closely related to both general psychology and special branches of psychology.
The scientific basis for understanding the laws of child mental development are genetic, differential And age-related psychology. Genetic psychology studies the hereditary mechanisms of a child’s psyche and behavior. Differential psychology identifies individual differences between people and explains the process of their formation. Developmental psychology studies the stages of mental development of an individual.
For a mentally competent organization of education, you need to know the psychological patterns of interaction between people in groups, such as a family, student groups. Relationships in groups are the subject of study of the social psyche.
The psychology of abnormal development deals with deviations from the norm in human behavior and psyche and is extremely necessary in pedagogical work with children lagging behind in mental development.
Educational psychology brings together all information related to teaching and education. The subject of educational psychology is the psychological patterns of human learning and education. The sections of educational psychology are:
- psychology of learning (psychological foundations of didactics, private methods, formation of mental actions);
- psychology of education (psychological foundations of education, psychological foundations of correctional labor pedagogy);
- psychology of educational work with difficult children;
- teacher psychology.
Modern psychology is characterized by both the process of differentiation, which gives rise to numerous special branches of psychology, and the process of integration, as a result of which psychology merges with other sciences, for example, through educational psychology and pedagogy.
Dictionary
Transpersonal psychology- a direction in psychology of the 20th century, founded by the American psychologist S. Grof and considering man as a cosmic and spiritual being, inextricably linked with all of humanity and the Universe, and his consciousness as part of the global information network.
Soviet psychology- a period in the development of Russian psychology when Marxist-Leninist philosophy served as the ideological basis for psychological research.
Spiritually oriented psychology- a direction in modern Russian psychology, based on traditional spiritual values and recognizing the reality of spiritual existence.
1.2. The place of psychology in the system of sciences. Branches of psychological science
1.3. Methodological principles of psychology. Methods of psychology
1.1. How to understand another person's behavior? Why do people have different abilities? What is the “soul” and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased.
A rational approach to understanding the world is based on the fact that the reality around us exists independently of our consciousness, can be studied experimentally, and the observed phenomena are completely understandable from a scientific point of view.
Modern science, firstly, studies man as a representative of a biological species; secondly, he is considered as a member of society; thirdly, the objective activity of a person is studied; fourthly, the patterns of development of a particular person are studied.
Psychology studies this inner world of human mental phenomena, whether conscious or unconscious by him.
The word “psychology” translated from ancient Greek literally means “the science of the soul” (psyche - "soul", logos - "concept", "teaching"). The term “psychology” first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that studied the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, that is, those that every person easily detects in his own consciousness as a result of introspection. Later, in the XVII-XIX centuries. the area studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious, but also unconscious phenomena.
Concept "psychology" has both scientific and everyday meaning. In the first case, it is used to designate the corresponding scientific discipline, in the second - to describe the behavior or mental characteristics of individuals and groups of people. Therefore, to one degree or another, every person becomes acquainted with “psychology” long before its systematic study.
Psychology - the science of the patterns of emergence, functioning and development of the psyche. The psyche cannot be reduced simply to the nervous system. Mental properties are the result of the neurophysiological activity of the brain, but they contain the characteristics of external objects, and not the internal physiological processes through which the mental arises. Signal transformations taking place in the brain are perceived by a person as events taking place outside him, in external space and the world. The brain secretes psyche, thought, just as the liver secretes bile. The disadvantage of this theory is that they identify the psyche with nervous processes and do not see the qualitative differences between them.
Hence,objects Russian psychology is currently represented by the system of mental phenomena of living beings (people and animals), as well as the psychology of large (social, ethnic, religious, etc.) and small (corporate, industrial, etc.) groups of people. In turn, hersubject are the patterns of formation, functioning and development of the named mental and psychological (socio-psychological) phenomena.
The objects and subject matter of psychology determine the list of scientific problems solved within its framework.
Thus,psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to construct a classification of mental phenomena. Animals also have mental phenomena (of course, at a different level of organization). Therefore, psychology, while studying humans, is also interested in the psyche of animals: how it arises and changes in the process of evolution of the animal world, what are the reasons for the difference between the human psyche and the psyche of other living beings.
In order to engage in any activity, communicate with other people, in order to navigate the world around us, a person first of all needs to know it. Psychology studies what properties of reality a person knows through mental processes - sensations, perception, thinking, imagination, etc. Psychology also examines the psychological characteristics of various types of activity and communication and their influence on the psyche.
Although mental phenomena are subject to general laws, they are individual for each person. Therefore, psychology studies the individual psychological characteristics of people, their personalities, motives of behavior, temperament and character. We will divide mental phenomena into three main classes: mental processes, mental states And mental properties of personality.
Z The goals of psychology basically boil down to the following:
Learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;
Learn to manage them;
Use the acquired knowledge in order to improve the efficiency of those branches of practice at the intersection of which already established sciences and industries lie.
The system of mental phenomena studied by modern psychology.
Mental phenomena are the totality of all phenomena and processes that reflect the basic content of the human psyche and which psychology studies as a science.
1 TO cognitive mental processes include mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. They are divided into: cognitive, emotional, volitional.
2. Under mental properties personality, it is customary to understand the most essential characteristics of a person, providing a certain quantitative and qualitative level of human activity and behavior. Mental properties include orientation, temperament, abilities and character.
3. Mental states are a certain level of performance and quality of functioning of the human psyche, characteristic at a specific point in time (exaltation, depression, fear, vigor, despondency, etc.)
The phenomena studied by psychology are associated not only with a specific person, but also with groups. Mental phenomena associated with the life of groups and collectives are studied in detail within the framework of social psychology.
All group mental phenomena can also be divided into mental processes, mental states and mental properties. In contrast to individual mental phenomena, mental phenomena of groups and collectives have a clearer division into internal and external.
Collective mental processes that act as the primary factor in regulating the existence of a collective or group include communication, interpersonal perception, interpersonal relationships, the formation of group norms, intergroup relationships, etc. Mental states of a group include conflict, cohesion, psychological climate, openness or closedness of the group , panic, etc. The most significant mental properties of a group include organization, leadership style, and efficiency.
1.2. So, for a long time, being one of the sections philosophy, psychology inevitably took from this science fundamentally important theoretical principles that determine the approach to solving problems. Thus, philosophy is the methodological basis of psychology.
The connection between psychology and natural sciences- biology, physiology, chemistry, physics, etc., with the help of which you can study the physiological and biological processes of the brain that underlie the psyche.
Psychology is being brought closer to humanities(sociology, history, linguistics, art history, etc.) study of the interaction of the individual and his immediate environment; interest in the peculiarities of the mental, spiritual makeup of a person in various historical eras; the role of language in the cultural and mental development of a person, the problem of creativity.
No less obvious is the connection between psychology and pedagogy. Effective training and education can only be based on knowledge of the patterns according to which the human psyche develops.
The connections between psychology and medicine. These sciences find common points of contact in the study of the problem of mental disorders, psychological substantiation of the peculiarities of interaction between doctor and patient, diagnosis and treatment of a number of diseases.
The relationship between psychology and technical sciences manifests itself, on the one hand, in identifying optimal psychological conditions for the interaction of man and machine, on the other hand, in the development of technical means and instruments for studying manifestations of the psyche.
Modern psychology is among the sciences, occupying an intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, the natural sciences, on the other, and the social sciences, on the third. This is explained by the fact that the center of her attention always remains a person, whom the above-mentioned sciences also study, but in other aspects. It is known that philosophy and its component - the theory of knowledge (epistemology) resolves the issue of the relationship of the psyche to the surrounding world and interprets the psyche as a reflection of the world, emphasizing that matter is primary and consciousness is secondary. Psychology clarifies the role that the psyche plays in human activity and its development.
According to the classification of sciences by Academician A. Kedrov, psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.
Rice. 1. Classification by A. Kedrov
The structure of modern psychology includes a wide range of branches of psychological science.
Thus, animal psychology studies the peculiarities of the psyche of animals. The human psyche is studied by other branches of psychology: child psychology studies the development of consciousness, mental processes, activity, the entire personality of a growing person, and the conditions for accelerating development. Social psychology studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person’s personality, his relationships with people, with a group, the psychological compatibility of people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (the effect of radio, press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people). Pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of personality development in the process of learning and upbringing. We can distinguish a number of branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of human activity: labor psychology examines the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, the patterns of development of labor skills. Engineering psychology studies the patterns of processes of interaction between humans and modern technology with the aim of using them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated control systems and new types of technology. Aviation and space psychology analyzes the psychological characteristics of the activities of a pilot and cosmonaut. Medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor’s activities and the patient’s behavior, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy. Pathopsychology studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the breakdown of the psyche in various forms of brain pathology. Legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in criminal proceedings (psychology of testimony, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.), psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the personality of the criminal. Military psychology studies human behavior in combat conditions.
1.3. Generally methodology determines the principles and techniques that guide a person in his activities.
Domestic psychology identifies the following as methodological principles of materialistic psychology:
1. Principle determinism, which is used to analyze the nature and essence of mental phenomena when considering the latter in connection with phenomena of the external world. According to this principle, the psyche is determined by the way of life and changes with changes in external conditions, while being a determinant of human behavior and activity.
2. Principle unity of consciousness and activity, asserting that consciousness and activity are in an inextricable unity, which is expressed in the fact that consciousness and, in general, all mental properties of a person are not only manifested, but also formed in activity. This principle allows, when studying an activity, to identify those psychological patterns that ensure the success of achieving its goal.
3.Principle development means that manifestations of the psyche can be correctly understood if they are considered in continuous development as a process and a result of activity.
Methodological principles are embodied in special empirical methods of psychology, with the help of which essential facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche are revealed.
TO basic methods Psychological research includes observation and experiment.
Observation as a method of psychology is to record the manifestations of mental phenomena in behavior on the basis of their direct perception.
Scientific observation is undertaken with a strictly defined goal, predetermined situations and behavioral characteristics that should become the object of study, as well as a developed system for recording and recording the results. It is important that several people participate in the observation, and the final assessment should be the average of the observations. These measures are taken to reduce the influence of observer characteristics on the perceptual process.
The following types of observation are distinguished:
non-standardized when the researcher uses a general observation plan;
standardized, in which the registration of facts is based on detailed observation schemes and predetermined patterns of behavior.
Depending on the position of the observer, observation is distinguished:
- included, when the researcher is a member of the group he is observing;
- simple, when behavioral characteristics are recorded from the outside. This is a passive method of obtaining psychological facts, since the researcher cannot influence the course of events or repeat them. Using this method, it is difficult to establish the exact cause of an action, since only their external manifestations are recorded. At the same time, the passivity of the observer allows one to study behavior in natural conditions without distorting the natural course of events as a result of intervention, as can happen in an experiment.
Experiment differs from observation primarily in that it involves the purposeful organization of a research situation by a psychologist; this makes it possible to relatively strictly control the conditions for its implementation, not only to describe psychological facts, but also to explain the reasons for their appearance.
This advantage of the experiment often turns into a disadvantage: it is difficult to organize an experimental study without the subject being aware of it. A person’s knowledge that he is the subject of study, as a rule, causes constraint in the subject, anxiety, etc., especially if the research is carried out in special conditions, for example, in an equipped laboratory (laboratory experiment).
Therefore, a natural experiment is often used, in which the researcher actively influences the situation, but in forms that do not violate its naturalness, for example, in the process of human labor activity.
In stating An experiment checks for a connection between certain facts or phenomena. Formative the experiment presupposes the active, purposeful influence of the experimenter on the subject with the aim of shaping his psyche.
In addition to the main ones, auxiliary methods are distinguished in psychology:
survey-collection of primary verbal information using a pre-compiled set of questions in the process of direct (interview) or indirect (questionnaire) contact between the researcher and the subject;
tests- a system of standardized tasks that allows you to measure the level of development of a certain human characteristic - intelligence, creativity, etc.;
study of activity products- quantitative and qualitative analysis of various documentary sources (diaries, videos, newspapers, magazines, etc.).
Depending on the objectives of a particular study, psychological methods are embodied in private techniques (for example, the observation method is implemented in different ways during the study of a work collective and a study group).
The degree of reliability of the results of applying the technique largely depends on the conditions in which the study is organized (time of day, presence or absence of extraneous noise, behavior of the researcher, well-being of the subject, etc.).
Introduction
.The subject of psychology as a science and its main categories
1Psychology as a science
2Object and subject of psychology
1The place of psychology in modern scientific knowledge
2General psychology
3Industrial psychology
.Test
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Psychology dates back thousands of years. The term "psychology" - (from Greek. psyche- soul, and logos-science) means “the study of the soul.” It arose in ancient times, at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e, when people first began to ask questions about the meaning of the soul, about the differences in the souls of animals and humans, about the functions and abilities of the soul.
The study of psychology cannot be reduced to a simple listing of the problems, ideas and ideas of various psychological schools. In order to understand them, you need to understand their internal connection, the unified logic of the formation of psychology as a science.
Why study psychology? We all live among people and, by the will of circumstances, we must understand and take into account the psychology of people, take into account our individual characteristics of the psyche and personality. We are all psychologists to one degree or another. But our everyday psychology will only benefit and be enriched if we supplement it with scientific psychological knowledge.
Psychology has come a long way in development; there has been a change in the understanding of the object, subject and goals of psychology. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and internal mental processes and the practical application of the knowledge gained. Psychology is very closely related to many other sciences: exact, natural, medical, philosophical, etc. It is a very extensive system of sciences, which includes both fundamental branches of psychology, united by the term “general psychology,” which actually studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed. It also summarizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts, as well as special psychological sciences.
1. The subject of psychology as a science and its main categories
.1 Psychology as a science
Psychology, as a science, has special qualities that distinguish it from other disciplines. Few people know psychology as a system of proven knowledge, mainly only those who specifically study it, solving scientific and practical problems. At the same time, as a system of life phenomena, psychology is familiar to every person. It is presented to him in the form of his own sensations, images, ideas, phenomena of memory, thinking, speech, will, imagination, interests, motives, needs, emotions, feelings and much more. We can directly detect basic mental phenomena in ourselves and indirectly observe them in other people. In scientific usage the term " psychology"appeared for the first time in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that dealt with the study of so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, i.e., those that every person easily detects in his own consciousnessas a result introspection. Later, in the 17th-19th centuries, the scope of research by psychologists expanded significantly, including unconscious mental processes (the unconscious) and activityhuman.In the 20th century, psychological research went beyond the phenomena around which it had been concentrated for centuries. In this regard, the name “psychology” has partly lost its original, rather narrow meaning, when it applied only to subjective, phenomena directly perceived and experienced by humans consciousness. However, according to the centuries-old tradition, this science still retains its former name.
Since the 19th century psychology becomes an independent and experimental field of scientific knowledge.
1.2 Object and subject of psychology
To begin with, it is worth introducing the definitions of “subject” and “object”.
An object- part of the surrounding reality towards which human activity is directed.
Item- part of the object of interest to the researcher.
Object of psychologyis the psyche.
In psychology, as a science, there have been two approaches to understanding the psyche.
· Idealistic, in which the psyche is viewed as primary reality, existing independently of the material world.
· Materialistic, it says that the psyche is property of the brainprovide the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
Subject of psychologyis multifaceted, as it includes many processes, phenomena, and patterns.
Under subjectGeneral psychology assumes a pattern of development and functioning of the psyche, as well as individual characteristics of its manifestation.
What is the subject of studying psychology? First of all, psychehumans and animals, which includes many subjective phenomena.
With the help of some, such as, for example, sensations and perception, attentionand memory, imagination, thinking and speech, a person understands the world. Therefore, they are often called cognitive processes. Other phenomena regulate it communicationwith people, directly control actions and actions.
They are called mental properties and states of personality, including needs, motives, goals, interests, will, feelings and emotions, inclinations and abilities, knowledge and consciousness. In addition, psychology studies human communication and behavior, their dependence on mental phenomena and, in turn, the dependence of the formation and development of mental phenomena on them.
1. Psyche - a subjective image of the objective world, forms in the process of cognition, activity and communication.
In the psyche, phenomena such as (Figure 1) are distinguished:
Rice. 1 Types of mental phenomena.
v Mental processes- these are elementary units that we can distinguish in mental activity, its “atoms”.
)Cognitive:
Ø Feeling(mental reflection of individual properties and states of the external environment that directly affect our senses)
Ø Perception(mental process of forming an image of objects and phenomena of the external world.)
Ø Thinking(the ability to solve new, urgent problems in situations where previous, already known solutions do not work.)
Ø Performance(the process of mentally recreating images of objects and phenomena that currently do not affect the human senses.)
Ø Imagination(this is a reflection of reality in new, unusual, unexpected combinations and connections.)
)Integrative:
Ø Speech(this is the ability to communicate using words, sounds and other elements of language.)
Ø Memory(the ability to remember, save and at the right time retrieve (reproduce) the necessary information.)
)Emotional:
Ø Emotions(quick and short elements of feelings, their situational manifestation.)
4) Regulatory
Ø Will(the ability to maintain the direction of one’s activities despite difficulties, obstacles, and distractions.)
Ø Attention(concentrated energy of consciousness directed at a particular object.)
v Mental conditions
Ø Mood(a fairly long-lasting emotional process of low intensity, forming an emotional background for ongoing mental processes.)
Ø Frustration(a mental state that arises in a situation of real or perceived impossibility of satisfying certain needs, or, more simply, in a situation of a discrepancy between desires and available capabilities.)
Ø Affect(an emotional process characterized by short duration and high intensity, accompanied by pronounced motor manifestations and changes in the functioning of internal organs.)
Ø Stress(a state of mental stress that occurs in a person in the process of activity in the most complex, difficult conditions, both in everyday life and under special circumstances.)
v Mental properties
Ø Temperament(stable combination of individual personality characteristics associated with dynamic rather than meaningful aspects of activity.)
Ø Character(this is a set of basic personality traits on which forms of social behavior and human actions that are designed to influence others depend.)
Ø Focus(attitudes that have become personality traits.)
Ø Capabilities(these are personality traits that are conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity.)
2. Consciousness - the highest stage of mental development, the result of the comprehensive development of a person in the process of communication and work.
. Unconscious - a form reflecting reality in which a person is not aware of its sources, and the reflected reality merges with experiences (dreams).
. Behavior - external manifestation of a person’s mental activity, his actions and actions.
. Activity - a system of goals, objectives, actions and operations aimed at realizing human needs and interests.
2. Psychology, its main branches and place in the system of sciences
.1 The place of psychology in modern scientific knowledge
Sciences related to psychology:
Ø Philosophyis the ideological and methodological basis of psychology
Ø Natural sciences (biology, physics)help to study the physiological processes occurring in the nervous system and brain and reveal the processes, mechanisms and functions of the psyche.
Ø Medical Sciencesallow us to understand the pathologies of mental development and find ways to solve them (psychotherapy).
Ø Historical Sciences,show how the psyche developed at various stages of the evolution of society.
Ø Sociology,helps solve problems of social psychology.
Ø Pedagogical Sciences,help in training, education, personality formation.
Ø Exact sciences (mathematical),provide quantitative methods for collecting and processing data.
Ø Technical science,help in the development of technical means for studying the development and correction of the psyche.
Ø Cybernetics,helps to study the processes of mental self-regulation.
.2 General psychology
General psychologyis a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed, and also generalizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.
The main subject of study of general psychology is such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will touch on in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with human life and activity, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Cognitive processes, human personality and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people are subject to detailed study. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.
Methods for studying general psychology.
v Observation - This is the most ancient way of knowledge. Its simplest form is everyday observations. Every person uses it in their daily life. In general psychology, there are such types of observation as short-term, long-term, selective, continuous and special.
The standard observation procedure consists of several stages:
Ø Setting goals and objectives;
Ø Definition of the situation, subject and object;
Ø Determining the methods that will have the least impact on the object under study and ensure that the necessary data is obtained;
Ø Determining how data is maintained;
Ø Processing of received data.
External surveillance(by an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. There is also introspection. It can be either immediate, in the current moment, or delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.
Observation is an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.
v Conversation As a psychological method, it involves direct/indirect, oral/written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life, interviews, questionnaires and different types of questionnaires.
A personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined works best. A two-way conversation produces the best results and provides more information than just answering questions.
But the main method of research is experiment.
v Experiment - this is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of activity of the subject in order to create certain conditions under which a psychological fact will be revealed.
There is a laboratory experiment taking place under special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are guided by instructions.
v Another method - tests . These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. Tests are short-term tasks that are similar for everyone, the results of which determine whether the test subjects have certain mental qualities and the level of their development. Various tests are created in order to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.
Subject of general psychology- this is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction of living beings with the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world on the basis of available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view of modern science, serves as a mediator between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person’s ideas about the external and internal, bodily and mental.
Object of general psychology- these are the laws of the psyche, as forms of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to research in completely different aspects, which are studied by different branches of psychological science. The object is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.
Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to identify many objects for research within it, there are currently general theories of psychology in psychological science that are oriented towards different scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psychotechniques to influence consciousness and control it.
2.3 Industrial psychology
Industrial psychology -individual branches of psychology that arose in the process of solving specific practical and theoretical problems.
Branches of psychology can be divided into:
v Development principle
ØAge
ØComparative
ØPedagogical
Ø Special (pathopsychological)
v Attitude to the individual and society
Ø Social Psychology
Ø Psychology of Personality
v Types of activities
ØThe psyche of work
ØThe psyche of communication
Ø Psychology of sports
Ø Medical psychology
Ø Military psychology
Ø Legal psychology, etc.
Examples of some branches of psychology
Pedagogical psychologystudies the human psyche in the process of his training and education, establishes and uses the laws of the psyche as he masters knowledge, skills and abilities. This science studies psychological problems and management of the educational process. In addition, the main problems of educational psychology are the study of factors influencing student performance, features of interaction and communication between teacher and student. Pedagogical psychology is divided into the psychology of education, which studies the patterns of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, and the psychology of education, which studies the patterns of active, purposeful personality formation. psychology observation conversation test
Age-related psychologyClosely related to pedagogy, it studies the characteristics of the human psyche at different stages of its development - from birth to death. It is divided into child psychology, psychology of adolescence, psychology of adulthood, geront psychology, etc. The central problems of developmental psychology are the creation of a methodological basis for monitoring the progress, usefulness of the content and conditions of the elements of a child’s mental development, as well as the organization of optimal forms of children’s activities and communication, psychological assistance during periods of age-related crises, in adulthood and old age.
Social Psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of behavior and activity of people determined by the fact of their association into social groups. It reveals the psychological patterns of relationships between the individual and the team, determines the psychological compatibility of people in the group; studies such phenomena as leadership, cohesion, the process of making group decisions, problems of social development of the individual, his assessment, stability, suggestibility; the effectiveness of the influence of the media on the individual, especially the spread of rumors, fashion, bad habits and rituals.
Psychology of Personality- a branch of psychology that studies the mental properties of a person as a holistic entity, as a certain system of mental qualities, has an appropriate structure, internal relationships, is characterized by individuality and is interconnected with the surrounding natural and social environment.
3. Test task
The subject of psychology is:
a) behavioral science;
b) science of the soul;
c) scientific research of behavior and mental processes in order to apply the acquired knowledge in practice;
d) science of consciousness;
e) the science of the general laws of evolution and functioning of the psyche, mental processes as specific forms of life activity of animals and humans.
Choose the correct answer. Justify your choice.
Answer: D, because.
Psychology, as a science, is very multifaceted and affects many aspects of study (soul, behavior, consciousness, psyche, etc.). Definition subject of psychologysays that the subject of general psychology assumes the pattern of development and functioning of the psyche, as well as the individual characteristics of its manifestation. Referring to quotes from P.V. Dobroselsky: “Psychology is the science of the patterns, mechanisms and facts of the mental life of humans and animals”; “Psychology is the science of the patterns of functioning and development of the psyche, based on the representation of introspection of special experiences that are not attributable to the outside world,” we can assume that the answer I have chosen is correct.
Conclusion
The science of psychology is multifaceted, it is closely connected and intertwined with many other sciences, and covers different areas of studied activity.
Psychology studies the human psyche, character, heredity, human activity, relationships in society, a person’s attitude towards himself, features of cognition and consciousness, methods of perception and understanding.
In connection with all this variety of subjects of psychology, and its connections with other sciences, essentially sterile questions arose about whether it is a natural science or a humanitarian one, and what should be its methodology - biology or philosophy.
An analysis of the historical path of development of psychology shows that its uniqueness and value as a science lies precisely in its interdisciplinary nature, in the fact that it is built both as a natural science (objective and experimental), and at the same time, as a humanities science. Its issues include issues of moral development, the formation of a worldview, and human value orientations. We can say that psychology borrows the experimental basis, approach to material and its processing from natural science, while the approach to interpreting the received material and methodological principles - from philosophy.
psychology observation conversation test
Bibliography
Tutorials:
Ostrovsky E.V. Basics of psychology. - M.: INFRA-M: University textbook, 2012.
Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012.
Psychology. Course of lectures: Textbook / V.G. Krysko-M.: University textbook: SRC INFRA-M, 2013.-251 p.
Internet resources:://4brain.ru/psy/obshhaja-psihologija.php
"Psychologos" Encyclopedia of practical psychology"
http://www.psychologos.ru/articles/view/voobrazhenie
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a) a group of people
b) an individual
c) mental illness
d) the regularity of the flow of all mental processes.
2. Based on specific human activities, the following branches of psychological science are distinguished:
a) medical psychology;
b) work psychology;
c) comparative psychology;
d) social psychology;
e) military psychology;
e) legal psychology.
3. The task of general psychology is:
a) development of problems of methodology and history of psychology, theory and research methods of the most general laws of the emergence, development and existence of mental phenomena;
b) systematization of scientific knowledge of psychology, formulation of the most general principles of science;
c) development of methods for studying the emergence, development and existence of mental processes, states, properties;
d) the study of cognitive and practical human activity.
4. The results of research in the field of general psychology are:
a) a factor that unites the categorical apparatus into 3 groups: mental processes, mental states, mental properties (personality characteristics);
b) the fundamental basis for the development of all branches of psychological science;
c) the basis of theoretical and experimental psychology;
d) in the form of theoretical principles adhered to by psychological science.
5. Indicate the most significant indicator of the relationship between psychological science and psychological practice:
a) applied science shapes academic psychology;
b) academic psychology creates applied branches of psychology, psychological practice;
c) applied branches borrow objective scientific methods from academic psychology;
d) academic psychology borrows experience in working with clients from applied industries.
· Situational tasks
1. How would you explain the following facts of everyday and scientific psychology:
Graduates of psychological faculties note that they do not differ from non-psychologists in the ability to understand other people, the ability to build, maintain and develop interpersonal relationships;
Medical psychologists and psychiatrists claim that a stable percentage of young patients in psychiatric clinics are psychology students;
The negative attitude of F.M. Dostoevsky and A.S. Makarenko to psychology has become a textbook fact; at the same time, one is called a brilliant writer-psychologist, and the other is called a brilliant educational psychologist.
2. The outstanding humanistic psychologist K. Rogers stated the following: “Words and symbols relate to the world of reality as a map relates to the territory it represents. We live according to a perceived “map” that is never reality itself.” Does this statement relate to the problem of the object and subject of science? Is it possible to unconditionally agree with this statement of K. Rogers?
· Methods of the type of activity
- Build a series of these concepts so that each previous concept is generic (more general) in relation to the next one:
Psyche, knowledge, reflection, consciousness, psychological science, general psychology.
- Choose words that denote mental phenomena:
Tears, nervous process, thinking, memory, sleep, laughter, running, information, breathing, will, fear, love, faith, knowledge, sensation, heartbeat, instinct, brain biocurrents, analyzer, hearing, mind, perception, mood, interest, pain, sympathy, envy, irritation, sensitivity.
- Write an essay on the topic “Why does psychology need connections with other sciences?”
7. List of topics on UIRS offered by the department:
Specifics of branches of psychological science.
Specifics of modern scientific and psychological knowledge.
The relationship between psychological science and psychological practice.
Classics of psychology on the role and place of general psychology in the system of psychological sciences.
- main:
1. 1. Nemov R.S. Psychology. In 3 books. Book 1 (general fundamentals of psychology). - M.: VLADOS, 2005.
2. Rubinstein, S.L.. Fundamentals of general psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
3. Luria, A. R. Lectures on general psychology. Tutorial. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007.
- additional:
1.DB "MedArt"
2. DB “Medicine”
3. EC KrasSMU
Annex 1
1. All problems of psychology are considered in the context of the conditions and factors of the formation of mental new formations under the influence of education. This determined its place among other sciences, the borderline and complex nature of knowledge, which ensures the study of the mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by a person in the educational process.
2. This area of psychology is designed to study those psychological phenomena and laws that arise as a result of people communicating with each other, the mechanisms of behavior, communication and activity of individuals due to their inclusion in social communities, as well as the psychological characteristics of these communities.
3. This branch studies the psychological patterns underlying specific forms of work activity. The object is the individual’s labor activity.
4. ...is studying how people's behavior and experiences change as they age. Although most theories focus on childhood, their ultimate goal is to uncover patterns of development throughout a person's life. It is nourished by two sources: on the one hand, the explanatory principles of biology and evolutionary theory, on the other, methods of socio-cultural influence on the course of development.
5. She studies the psychological patterns of human management. Its main task is to analyze the psychological conditions and characteristics of management activities in order to improve the efficiency of the quality of work in the management system.
Appendix 2
1. ...the method is the research and development of the subject of labor. The problem is to ensure that the subject itself does not get lost, i.e. Every psychologist inevitably faces the most difficult question: should the method be only objective or is such a method a combination of objective and subjective means and approaches. This problem faces all of modern psychology, which is increasingly moving away from the traditional (natural science) foundations of the organization and production of new knowledge. The problem of the method is associated with the problem of inevitable manipulation of the client’s consciousness in some cases. The following options for such manipulation are possible: 1) the client is in a state of passion and is not able to independently, and therefore responsibly, make important life decisions regarding his work or career; 2) the client is a socially immature being. Hence the problem of the method comes down not to the question of whether manipulation should be abandoned altogether, but to the question of reducing this manipulation to a reasonable minimum. And the main criterion for the admissibility or inadmissibility of even partial manipulation is the preservation of the personal dignity of those people with whom the psychologist works, as well as the preservation of the dignity of the psychologist himself.
2. The problem of human psychology, and even more so the psychology of human development, is not as obvious and simple as it sometimes seems. The main thing is that it is not reduced either to the problems of the origin and development of the psyche, or to the problems of the formation of its structures and functions, which classical general psychology has always studied as a natural science discipline. A simple thought is that if the human psyche is one of the properties of human reality in general, then by the very logic of reasoning, in order to understand this property (express it in concepts), it is necessary to have at least a minimal idea of the essence of what it is a property of. In other words, psychology must have (or build) its own idea of the essence of a person in order to be able to say something about his properties, including mental ones. But this is precisely what psychology does not do, leaving the question of the essence of, at best, one of the fashionable philosophies, and at worst, the dominant ideology.
3. “...psychology is born on the borders of the social and natural sciences, and only the recognition of this fact in all its complexity determines both the main subject of this science and its true content” (Luria A.R., 1977, pp. 68, 73). In agreement with the idea of the “borderline” position of psychology, there are points of view that psychology, being the most important link between the main three groups of sciences: social and humanitarian, natural and technical, synthesizes the achievements of a number of other areas of scientific knowledge, acting as an integrator of scientific disciplines. The traditionally understood specific subtask of this section of psychology is to ensure contact with “interested” natural science disciplines (physiology, neuroscience), fixed in the very name of the discipline. It has long been obvious to many outstanding psychologists that “it is absurd to support the outdated opinion about the separation of “spiritual life” and the brain” (Luria A.R., 1982, p. 113) and that attempts made by both psychologists and sometimes physiologists to emancipate psychology from physiology is completely wrong. Inappropriate, since the subject of psychology is the neuropsychic process (Bekhterev V.M., 1991), an integral psychophysiological reality (Vygotsky L.S., 1982), which underlies all mental processes without exception, including the highest (Rubinstein S.L. ., 1973). From the side of psychophysiology, strong arguments have also been given in favor of the fact that independent physiology, separated from psychology, cannot put forward a substantiated concept of holistic brain activity (Shvyrkov V.B., 1995).
Appendix 3
L.S. Vygotsky “Historical meaning of psychological crisis”:
General psychology is to particular disciplines in the same way as algebra is to arithmetic. Arithmetic operates with definite, concrete quantities; algebra studies all possible general forms of relations between qualities; therefore, each arithmetic operation can be considered as a special case of an algebraic formula. From here, obviously, it follows that for each particular discipline and for each law in it it is far from indifferent, a special case of what general formula they are. The fundamentally determining and, as it were, supreme role of general science stems not from the fact that it stands above the sciences, not from above - from logic, i.e. from the last foundations of scientific knowledge, but from below - from the sciences themselves, which delegate their sanction of truth to general science. General science arises, therefore, from the special position it occupies in relation to particular ones: it sums up their sovereignties, is their bearer. If we imagine the system of knowledge covered by all psychological disciplines graphically in the form of a circle, then general science will correspond to the center of the circle.
Now suppose we have several different centers, as in the case of a dispute between separate disciplines claiming to be the center, or in the case of different ideas claiming the meaning of a central explanatory principle. It is absolutely clear that various circles will correspond to them; Moreover, each new center is at the same time a peripheral point of the previous circle, therefore, we get several circles that intersect each other. This new arrangement of each circle will graphically represent in our example a special area of knowledge covered by psychology depending on the center, i.e., on the general discipline.
Whoever takes the point of view of a general discipline, that is, approaches the facts of particular disciplines not as equals to equals, but as scientific material, as these disciplines themselves approach the facts of reality, will immediately change the point of view of criticism to the point of view of research. Criticism lies on the same plane as what is criticized; it takes place entirely within a given discipline; its purpose is exclusively critical and not positive; she only wants to know whether this or that theory is true or false, and to what extent; it evaluates and judges, but does not investigate. A criticizes IN, but they both take the same position in relation to the facts. Things change when A starts to relate to IN because IN himself relates to the facts, i.e. not to criticize, but to investigate IN. Research already belongs to general science; its tasks are not critical, but positive; it does not want to evaluate this or that teaching, but to learn something new about the very facts presented in the teaching. If science uses criticism as a means, then both the course of the research and the result of its process are still fundamentally different from critical discussion. Criticism, after all, formulates an opinion about an opinion, albeit a very weighty and solidly grounded opinion; general research ultimately establishes objective laws and facts.
Only the one who raises his analysis from the plane of critical discussion of this or that system of views to the height of fundamental research by means of general science, only he will understand the objective meaning of the crisis occurring in psychology; he will discover the pattern of the ongoing clash of ideas and opinions, conditioned by the very development of science and the nature of the reality being studied at a given stage of its knowledge. Instead of the chaos of heterogeneous opinions, the motley discord of subjective statements, a harmonious diagram of the main opinions of the development of science will be revealed to him, a system of objective trends necessarily embedded in historical tasks put forward by the course of the development of science and acting behind the backs of individual researchers and theorists with the force of a steel spring. Instead of critically discussing and evaluating this or that author, instead of incriminating him in inconsistency and contradictions, he will engage in a positive study of what the objective tendencies of science require; and instead of an opinion about an opinion, he will receive as a result of the drawing the skeleton of a general science as a system of defining laws, principles and facts.
Only such a researcher will master the real and true meaning of the ongoing catastrophe and form a clear idea of the role, place and significance of each individual theory or school. Instead of impressionism and subjectivity, which is inevitable in any criticism, he will be guided by scientific reliability and truth. For him, individual differences will disappear (and this will be the first result of the new point of view) - he will understand the role of the individual in history; will understand that reflexology’s claims to universalism cannot be explained by personal mistakes, opinions, peculiarities, or ignorance of its creators, just as the French Revolution cannot be explained by the depravity of kings and the court. He will see what and how much in the development of science depends on the good and evil will of its leaders, what can be explained from this will and what, on the contrary, in this will itself must be explained from the objective tendencies operating behind the backs of these figures. Of course, the peculiarities of personal creativity and the entire structure of scientific experience determined the form of universalism that the idea of reflexology received from Bekhterev; but also for Pavlov, whose personal make-up and scientific experience are completely different, reflexology is “the last science,” “almighty natural science,” which will bring “true, complete and lasting human happiness” (1950, p. 17). And in different forms, both behaviorism and Gestalt theory follow the same path. Obviously, instead of a mosaic of good and evil wills of researchers, it is necessary to study the unity of the processes of degeneration of the scientific fabric in psychology, which determines the will of all researchers.
This is - in a single example - the path to mastering scientific ideas: one must rise above their factual content and experience their fundamental nature. But for this you need to have a foothold outside of these ideas. Standing on the basis of these same ideas with both feet, operating with the concepts obtained with their help, it is impossible to stand outside them. In order to be critical of someone else's system, you must first of all have your own psychological system of principles. To judge Freud in the light of the principles obtained from Freud means to justify him in advance.
State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Krasnoyarsk State Medical University"
Them. Professor V.F. Voino-Yasenetsky of the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation"