September 19th, 2012

Origins modern world lie in the modern era. TO XVIII - XIX centuries from medieval world there is no trace left in Europe. A new industrial era has begun, giving birth to modern democracy. Of all the countries that have achieved positive success in the process of democratization, it is Great Britain that takes precedence.

The question arises: how small Island state within a couple of centuries it became powerful empire, “workshop of the world”?

The most seemingly simple answer was given by representatives of economic history (including Marxists): it was England that became the pioneer capitalist development in Europe. It was in this country that production of the capitalist type developed most (first manufacturing, then factory, industrial), then English trading companies, being more “progressive” than others, ousted all other competitors from world markets. This is how the British monopoly on the world economic space was formed XIX V. And in order to occupy a leading industrial position, Britain needed colonies around the world to supply raw materials. They became the islands of the West Indies, territories North America, Africa, India, etc. Some colonies were discovered by travelers, some were conquered. Anyway, back to the beginning XX V. The British Empire was the largest in the world in terms of territorial space.

Back in the 19th century For centuries, British historians have asked the question: how did it happen that it was in Britain that capitalism produced its most successful results? Liberal historiography proudly answered: parliamentary monarchy and “natural freedoms” are the main recipe English success. Subsequently, researchers supplemented these theses with the remark that it was in England of the New Age that civil society in its modern sense was first formed.

Indeed, modern parliamentarism also has its origins in England. IN XIII V. (1215) the barons, opposing the heavy tax burden on the part of the royal administration, forced King John the Landless to accept the Magna Carta - a petition demanding that the king observe law, order and guarantees of personal rights of the population in the country. Of course, basically the “Charter” reflected the interests of the feudal barons (who in the Middle Ages primarily had the right to the mentioned “personal rights”), but the historical significance of this document is that the monarchy was for the first time openly limited in its absolute power. To comply with the “Charter” by the king, an estate-representative body (parliament) was created, which was designed to help the monarch govern the state. IN XIV centenary King Edward III confirmed the exclusive right of parliament to taxation.

In the XVI V. The Tudor dynasty, no matter how much they were accused of absolutism, ruled the state based on parliament. American researcher R. Lachman correctly named political regime of that time “horizontal absolutism”, since the monarchy in many matters relied on the nobility represented in parliament, and a grateful parliament subsidized the monarchy with money to pursue an active foreign policy (especially under Elizabeth I).

In the XVII V. the situation is changing. The Scottish Stuart dynasty, which reigned in 1603, saw the relationship between the king and parliament differently. Yakov I and especially his son Karl I challenged parliamentarians, pulling the blanket of power over themselves. Charles I first announced the collection of taxes without the consent of parliament, and then in 1629 he completely dissolved this estate-representative body. Such a self-confident policy of the monarch could not go unanswered, and in 1640 a revolution broke out. The convened “Long” Parliament began a confident attack on the rights of the monarchy, which is why a civil war began in 1642 (1642-1646, 1648).

The revolution finally completed the long process of abolishing serfdom in England ( XV V. - 1646, abolition of knightly holdings). One of the main social results revolution has become noticeably stronger political role bourgeoisie (merchants, financiers, owners of factories). From the middle XVII V. this layer of society will have a significant place in political events (primarily related to the formation of trade, industrial, and financial interests of the state in the interests of bourgeois capitalists).

After the public execution of King Charles I in 1649 (which in itself was unique experience) in the history of England a unique historical situation arose - the victorious oppositionists proclaimed a republic headed by a unicameral parliament. However, the republic was destroyed after 4 years by one of the winners - the general and prominent political figure Oliver Cromwell, who created the dictatorial regime of the Protectorate. The military was the backbone of Cromwell's power. Main legislative document regime became the first and only written constitution of England - the “Instrument of Government”. The problem of the Protectorate regime was its shaky foundation, which was only the figure of the dictator himself. Cromwell's death in 1658 also ended the dictatorship.

But the position of the parliamentary opposition democrats also turned out to be precarious. Both before the Protectorate regime and after its fall, there was no single clear program among the parliamentary opposition further development countries. When is the main political goal- weakening the power of the king and strengthening the role of parliament - was achieved, a split occurred in the parliamentary opposition: some (Presbyterians) advocated a parliamentary monarchy, others (Independents and Levellers) - for a republic.

However, the significance of the English revolution in the middle XVII V. also in the fact that for the first time in the history of the country an influential political force the lower classes (soldiers, sailors, peasants, ordinary townspeople), who previously had no political power. Their political group - the Levellers ("equalizers") - went further in their demands than other revolutionaries, proposing the introduction of universal suffrage. This would mean complete democratization political structure state and a redistribution of socio-economic conditions, which had no equal anywhere else in the world. These, of course, were slogans XIX - XX centuries. In the middle XVII V. neither the nobility nor even the bourgeoisie were yet ready for such a turn of events, and the democratic movement of the Levellers was destroyed by the dictatorship of Cromwell. The fall of the dictatorship again raised the question of future political prospects, and English society, tired of the turbulent revolutionary 20th anniversary, supported the restoration of the Stuart monarchy, which promised stability.

Charles, who took the throne of his father II Stuart turned out to be more perspicacious than his parent. He didn't cancel social achievements revolution, continued England's foreign and trade policy in the interests of the national bourgeoisie. He also understood the fact that parliament no longer agreed to play only an advisory role in the state. Parliament claimed equal participation with the monarch in matters of government (which it justified in its “Two Treatises on Government” famous philosopher John Locke of that time). In 1673 the first political parties- supporters of strengthening the role of parliament in politics (Whigs, they wore green ribbons as a sign of distinction, in XIX V. transformed into the Liberal Party) and supporters of strengthening the role of the king in politics (Tories, later transformed into the Conservative Party). IN XVII - XVIII centuries The Whigs fought for the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, while the Tories advised not to rush into reforms. In 1679, thanks to the Whigs, an important document was adopted “ Habeas Corpus Act ”, which prohibited judging a person without investigation and proof of guilt. Thus, from now on the likelihood of prosecution of objectionable opposition politicians by the royal administration was reduced.

Youngest son of the executed Charles I James II Stewart nevertheless encroached on the claims of parliament. He made many major decisions (such as the introduction of the Declaration of Tolerance) without consulting Parliament. The king did not hide his desire to make parliament an advisory body again. A negative factor was the fact that Yakov II did not hide his affiliation with Catholicism (although official religion country was Anglicanism), and encouraged its development in England. As a result, both the Tories and the Whigs united and invited James's son-in-law to the English throne II Dutch Protestant Prince William of Orange, who during military intervention 1688 and deposed the king.

This event was called the “Glorious Revolution” (almost no one was injured during the military intervention). Its historical significance lies in the fact that political parties imposed a “Bill of Rights” on the monarch they invited, which William signed III Orange transferred full power to parliament. Since 1689, England has been a parliamentary (constitutional) monarchy. The king now reigned, but did not rule.

XVIII - XIX centuries - a time of almost unlimited control of the country by parties. Tories and Whigs alternately come to power, but often stay there for a long time (for example, the Whig party ruled England without interruption for 46 years (1714-1760), and then for almost another 70 years (with short breaks) the Tories ruled the country (1760-1832)) . It is important to understand that although democratic changes have occurred in England, they have not affected everyone. Possessed political rights until the middle XIX V. only 5% of citizens, the government was corrupt. Since a high property qualification was established, only the richest representatives of society could enter parliament. The paradox was that with the beginning of the industrial revolution in the second half XVIII V. it was the bourgeoisie, which was increasingly ousting the landowners from parliament. It was the bourgeoisie that provoked the struggle for parliamentary reform (the second half XVIII - first quarter XIX century), which ended with the reform of 1832. Subsequently, several more reforms were carried out, and by the beginning XX V. political rights Possessed by 100% of men, regardless of income and type of activity. Later, women will achieve their political rights.

The victorious march of the bourgeoisie to parliament led to the fact that merchants and industrialists actively promoted two ideas: a). Creation legal framework for conducting business and protecting property (“the right to life, liberty and property” by John Locke); b). non-interference of the state in business affairs (as Adam Smith wrote about). Strict observance by the state (represented by the king and parliament) of the first and second points created the most favorable conditions For Industrial Revolution. Businessmen invested in the development of trade and industry without fear of pressure from the state (represented by the royal government). This allowed the British economy to become the first in the world.

However, the rapid development of the economy (and the events of the Great French Revolution end XVIII c.) put another one on the agenda important question- social. From the middle XVIII V. appears in England middle class, which, in addition to political demands, also puts forward socio-economic ones - decent wages, quality medicine and education, legal development and so on. And the development of industry gives rise to another class - workers, who until the middle XIX V. worked in the most difficult conditions. It was in England at this time that Karl Marx developed his idea of ​​the proletarian revolution.

The situation required changes. It became clear that political democratization would not succeed, but would only worsen if only the rich elite of society had decent living conditions. The solution to this problem was the municipal reform of 1835 and labor legislation in subsequent years. Victorian era became the “Golden Age” of England also because it significantly improved social conditions life of all classes. The state delegated part of its powers to society (represented by municipalities), which led to the development of infrastructure, healthcare and education. Housing, transport, medicine, education have become accessible to ordinary resident Britain.

conclusions:

Great Britain XVIII - XIX centuries was based on:

1). Gradual democratization (from the Magna Carta of 1215 to the municipal reform of 1835)

2). The gradual withdrawal of the state from the economy;

3). The growth of legal awareness of society (the struggle for individual and property rights);

All this led to the emergence of civil society in Great Britain, where politicians responsible to their voters.

Optimistic conclusions for Russia :

The successful British experience has been studied in our country over the years. XIX - XX centuries To achieve similar success in Russia, you need to:

1). Provide a sufficient legal framework necessary to protect the individual rights and property of citizens.

2). Create real mechanisms that work to protect the individual rights and property of citizens (courts and prosecutors independent of administrative pressure).

3). Increase the legal awareness of citizens. Civil society cannot emerge under conditions of right-wing nihilism.

4). Eliminate administrative pressure on the country's economy as much as possible. State support only for large monopolies (as was the case in England on the eve of the mid-century revolution) XVII c.) leads to stagnation in the economy, the destruction of small and medium-sized businesses and the absolute impossibility of any innovative development.

5). Fight the paternalistic worldview Russian society. As long as the president and the government keep all the threads of control in their hands (whatever political forces are at the helm), society will place all responsibility and hopes on the state. Successes and failures will be associated only with the Kremlin, and society will not see the need to do anything on its own. At the same time, the conditions of the capitalist economy in which Russia finds itself today are aggravating economic situation states. For example, in times of crisis, the Kremlin distributes expenses not in favor of the social sector. Business could help with this problem, but it is also highly dependent on the state.

6). Carry out municipal reform and transfer some administrative functions (and comfortable economic conditions) municipalities. This could solve the problems of the social sector, develop small and medium-sized businesses, and make society more responsible.

Pessimistic conclusions for Russia :

Any successes are always based on a unique historical situation, which exists only at a specific time in specific country, and is never repeated exactly anywhere else.

1). In England, from the very formation of the state, the power of the king was not absolute. Monarchical dynasties (unlike Russia), as a rule, were foreign (the French Plantagenets, the Welsh Tudors, the Scots Stuarts, the Germans Hanover), and were forced to cooperate with the British. Cases of John the Landless, Charles I, James II represented exceptions, a departure from the tradition of the union of the monarchy and the nobility. In Russia, the power of the monarch (CPSU, president) starting from XVI V. was traditionally strong.

2). Capitalism came naturally to England. Serfdom was abolished for centuries by each landowner individually, and not in one day by decree of the tsar, as in Russia. The years of Soviet power destroyed the beginnings of capitalism that arose in Russia in the second half XIX V. Now we're going through it again First stage. Those. It may take Russia many more decades to create a strong, competitive capitalist economy.

We are so accustomed to the names Great Britain or GreatBritain that we don’t think about it - why, in fact, does this country call itself great? Maybe the fact is that the British arrogantly consider their state to be better than everyone else: all countries are ordinary, but ours is great? Or is it that the UK includes several countries - England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, so the word is added to the name great? Let's look into this issue.

GreatBritain - the history of the name

Name GreatBritain It was in this form that it was first used in official sources in 1474. It was a letter that voiced a proposal for marriage between the daughter of the English king Edward IV and the son of the Scottish king James III.

But this name was actually in use long before the 15th century. Back in 148 AD, the Greek geographer Claudius Ptolemy, in his work “Almagest”, called the island “Greater Britain”, contrasting it with Ireland - “Little Britain”. It is assumed that he came up with them himself, since he did not know the common names of these islands at that time. And although later, in another work “Geography”, he correctly calls Great Britain Alvion, this name later fell out of use. And the name “Great Britain” was preserved and began to be used after the Roman conquest.

During the Anglo-Saxon period, after the rule of Rome on the island, the name “Great Britain” began to be forgotten. It was only used as historical term, but in progress, in colloquial speech not used. One pseudo-historian of the time even claimed that "Greater Britain" was so named in comparison to the area on the continent where Celtic settlers settled in the 6th century, which he called "Little Britain".

Gradually the name began to be revived. After that letter from the 15th century, the expression “ GreatBritain” was heard again in 1604: King James I took the official title “King of Great Britain, France and Ireland.” And since then it has been fixed in the language until our times.

This means that Great Britain has become Great in historical reasons thanks to the Greek geographer. But perhaps pride in one's country also played a role in preserving this name over many centuries.

To the question Why did England become known as a parliamentary monarchy? Please help me, I will be very grateful! given by the author Sandal the best answer is History of the monarchy
The territory of modern Great Britain has been inhabited since ancient times by Britons, Scots and Celtic tribes. From the 1st to the 5th centuries, the territory of present-day England was part of the Roman Empire as the province of Britain. After the Romans left, the islands were conquered Germanic tribes Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
In 827, the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of England. From 1016 to 1042 England was under Danish rule. There followed a short period of independence, and in 1066, after the Battle of Hastings, the kingdom was conquered by the Normans led by William the Conqueror. The heirs of William the Conqueror lost power in 1154, and Henry II Plantagenet, who also owned part of modern France. The Plantagenet (Angevin) dynasty ruled England until 1399.
Under Henry II, Ireland was conquered, and the Scottish king recognized himself as a vassal of England. After Henry II, Richard the Lionheart ruled, who was replaced on the throne by John the Landless, under whom the English crown almost completely lost its possessions in France.
In 1265, under the king Henry III the English Parliament appeared. Edward I (r. 1272-1307) annexed Wales, and from that time on the title of the heir to the English throne, "Prince of Wales", was established. Edward III (1327-1377) began Hundred Years' War with France, during which a significant part of French territory came under the rule of the English king. Henry VI (1422-1461) was even entrusted with the French crown, but soon almost all territorial acquisitions on the continent were lost.
After the deposition of King Richard II (1377-1399), the throne was occupied by representatives of two side branches of the Plantagenet dynasty - first the Lancastrians ( White Rose, 1399-1461), then Yorkie (Scarlet Rose, 1461-1485). The struggle between these two families for power ended with the English crown going to Henry VII, the founder of the Tudor dynasty, in 1485. The House of Tudor ceased to exist with the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603. According to Elizabeth's will, the Scottish King James VI, the son of the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart, ascended the throne as King James I of England, Scotland and Ireland. This was the unification of the English and Scottish crowns.
James I's son Charles I was executed during bourgeois revolution in 1649, and England was declared a republic. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and the Stuarts returned to the British throne in the person of King Charles II. His successor James II was overthrown in 1688 as a result coup d'etat. The joint reign of William III of Orange and his wife, the daughter of James II, Mary Stuart, began. During the reign of Anne Stuart (1702-1714), another daughter of James II, England's possessions in western hemisphere, English territory Gibraltar became, and England and Scotland were united into a single kingdom of Great Britain.
With the death of Queen Anne, the era of Stuart rule ended. The throne was occupied by representatives of the Hanoverian dynasty, the first of whom was King George I (reigned 1714-1727), and the last of whom was Queen Victoria (1837-1901). It was during the reign of the Hanoverian dynasty that Britain became an empire on which “the sun never set.”
Windsor dynasty, to which it now belongs reigning queen Elizabeth II dates back to 1901. Its first representative on the throne was King Edward VII, the son of Queen Victoria of the Hanoverian dynasty and Prince Albert, who represented the German house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Until 1917, the dynasty bore the name Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, which was changed by King George V due to anti-German sentiment in English society during the First World War. Queen Elizabeth is the fifth representative of this dynasty on the British throne.

Answer from Eurovision[newbie]
wwww

Answer from generosity[guru]
This type of state is called constitutional monarchies. The power of the monarch is limited by the country's Constitution. But in Great Britain there is no Constitution as such (there is no single document that could be called the fundamental law of the country). Therefore - a parliamentary, or parliamentary monarchy.

Answer from Alexander Sorokin[guru]
Hm.. .
In general, they cut off the monarch’s head so as not to show off, and since then there has been no absolute monarchy, and parliament has power. .
And even more than the monarch...
Somewhere like this...

Answer from Yatyana Lektorovich[guru]
Who said that England began to be called a parliamentary monarchy? The form of government in England is a parliamentary monarchy!! !
A parliamentary monarchy is a constitutional monarchy in which the monarch does not have significant powers of power compared to the government and plays a primarily representative or ceremonial role.
That's why the Queen is shown wearing torn tights. If she had been Putin, this would not have happened to her...

In 1553, a close acquaintance between England and Russia took place, which opened up enormous prospects mutually beneficial cooperation. Then it seemed that nothing could interfere with the “eternal friendship and love” of the two countries.

Looking for new ways

IN mid-16th century centuries, England was not yet the mistress of the seas. The monopoly over trade routes was in the hands of Spain and Portugal, who had no intention of sharing it. However, desperate desire English merchants to reach the coveted treasures of the East prompted the navigators Sebastian Cabot, Richard Chancellor and Hugo Willoughby to create the Mystery company, whose main task was to find the unexplored northeastern route to China.
On May 10, 1553, the ships "Good Hope", "Good Trust" and "Edward the Good Deed" sailed into the unknown. The storm scattered the ships, two of them were forced to land on the shores of the Kola Peninsula for the winter. In May 1554, the Pomors found the ships, and there were 63 dead sailors, including Captain Willoughby.

The Venetian ambassador to Muscovy recorded the following: “Some of the dead were found sitting with a pen in their hands and paper in front of them, others at the table with plates in their hands and spoons in their mouths, others opening a cabinet, others in other positions, as if statues."

Ivan the Terrible, having learned about the incident, ordered all goods to be sealed on the ships and the bodies to be transported to Kholmogory.

Chancellor's fate turned out to be happier. On August 24, 1553, the ship “Eduard Good Deed”, led by him, entered the mouth of the Northern Dvina and approached the Nikolo-Karelian Monastery. Pomors who have never seen such large ships, took to flight. But, by encouraging signs and gestures, Chancellor managed to win over the local residents. Very quickly, news spread throughout the area about “kind and affectionate” foreigners who had arrived to trade with the king’s subjects.

Tempting prospects for England

During the first weeks of his stay in Muscovy, Richard Chancellor assessed the potential trade benefits of England with the keen eye of an entrepreneur. The country seemed to the Englishman to be abundant in “land and people.” On the way from Yaroslavl to Moscow, he noticed a large number of fields well sown with grain. Chancellor appreciated local furs, fish, honey, walrus ivory, blubber (liquid fat) - things that could be in demand in his homeland.
Ivan the Terrible English ambassador conveyed the wishes of King Edward VI, who expected to discover new countries and look for in them “what he does not have.” In return, the king promised to supply goods that were not available in these lands:

“May there be benefit to them and to us through this, and may there be eternal friendship between them and us.”

Chancellor stayed in Moscow for eight months. Upon returning to London to the new rulers, Mary Tudor and her husband Philip II of Spain, he handed over the letter handed over by Ivan the Terrible. In his response, the Russian Tsar assured that English ships could come as often as they could, and “no harm would be done to them.” The tsar promised “free trade with all freedom in all our possessions with all kinds of goods.”
The English monarchs showed keen interest in the new project, which promised great benefits to the state. As a result, in February 1555, the Moscow Company was established, which received a monopoly right to trade with Russia. The treaty was drawn up with the utmost care, in particular, it ordered “to study the character of the Russian population in all classes and to be careful that no law, civil or religious, was violated by any of the English.”

With great zeal, the agents got down to business. And now in a new way trade route sailing to the British Isles are timber, wax, lard, blubber, flax, furs, fish, and reverse direction- pewter, various fabrics and cloth, gloves, shoes, mirrors, combs, buttons and other small items. Ivan the Terrible allows the Company to build trading posts in Varvarka and Zaryadye, as well as open its representative offices in other cities: Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kholmogory, Nizhny Novgorod.

In 1562, the British were granted the right to visit Persia, which the founders of the Moscow Company so sought. The expedition reaches the Persian cities of Qazvin and Shamakhi, where the enterprising British extract privileges from the Persians for their merchants.

Mutual benefits

Having received the right to duty-free trade, English merchants extract enormous profits from their enterprise. According to the archives of Scotland, during the heyday of the Company in the 1660-1670s, the profits of English merchants reached 300-400%! What benefits did it have? Moscow State from trade with England? From the point of view of historian Olga Dmitrieva, “strong, mutually beneficial relations” were established between the two countries.
The situation in the country is such that intensively developing production, in particular foundry, weapons, money, as well as various industries metalworking and construction required raw materials. But under the conditions of the economic blockade from Lithuania, Poland and Sweden, Russian craft, deprived of imports, faded away. Emerging trade relations with England and became a kind of “window to Europe”, through which Moscow not only received much-needed raw materials, but could also sell goods of its own production.

During Livonian War(1558 - 1583) northern sea ​​route and completely became the “road of life” along which the Russian army was uninterruptedly supplied with weapons and military materials (gunpowder, lead, saltpeter). On ships English fleet Specialists sailed to Russia to help build fortifications, provide diplomatic support and share intelligence.

However, Ivan the Terrible did not just want a profitable trade partnership; he demanded that the English monarchs conclude a political and military alliance. But, as the king soon realized, England was pursuing exclusively commercial goals and did not consider it necessary to sign up for any political obligations. The idea of ​​a dynastic marriage between the Russian Tsar and Elizabeth I, which was delicately rejected by the Queen, did not continue either.

True goals

Unfortunately, the “eternal friendship and love” between Russia and England, which Grozny so desired, did not work out. On the contrary, the activities of the Moscow Company began to increasingly lead to conflicts. Historian Mikhail Alpatov notes that “England’s diplomatic relations with Russia at that time consisted of endless solicitations from the English side for privileges for its merchants, protests against any infringement of their privileges, and protection of errant merchants.”

Agents of the Moscow company did not always fulfill agreements in good faith. So, by 1587 total amount the debts of individual English merchants exceeded 10 thousand rubles - a huge amount of money at that time.
Ivan the Terrible and Fyodor Ioannovich repeatedly made claims to Queen Elizabeth that the “Moscow Company” was sending “unworthy people” to Russia who were not engaged in trade, but in “theft and spying.” Clerk Andrei Shchelkanov pointed out a specific fraud:

“Your guests will not allow our merchants to trade some goods past them, but in advance of ours, they themselves buy and exchange any goods, if only they were natives of Moscow.”

From the first steps of its activity, the Moscow Company tried to monopolize the trade of certain goods not only in Russia, but also in neighboring countries. This is confirmed by the British historian William Scott, reporting that the Moscow Trading Company had the exclusive right to export wax from Russia and supply it not only to England, but to the whole of Europe. The British approached the matter thoroughly, showing their intention to take control of all foreign trade Russia.
However, the interests of the British in Russia extended beyond the monopolization of trade. Modern historians We are sure that by seizing the levers of control of the country's economy, the British were going to subjugate the entire internal and foreign policy of the Moscow state, if not peacefully, then by force to force Russia to accept the British protectorate.

The end of the novel

The first cooling of relations between Moscow and London in 1571 led to the deprivation of the right of duty-free trade to English merchants. And, despite the quick return of trust and further patronage of the British by Fyodor Ioannovich and, especially Boris Godunov, relations between England and Russia were no longer the same.

The British behaved very ambiguously during the Time of Troubles. At first they helped Vasily Shuisky with the supply of weapons and mercenaries, but as soon as False Dmitry II was on the Moscow throne, they immediately defected to the new tsar. According to researcher Olga Dmitrieva, Polish intervention violated the plans of the Moscow Company, and the British seriously considered the option of inviting James I Stuart as a protectorate of the Russian state.
For many years, English businessmen bought Russian raw materials at low prices and, taking advantage of the cheapness of Russian life, did not want to let go of such a fat sum. The report provided by Captain Thomas Chamberlain to King James I stated:

“If His Majesty received an offer of sovereignty over that part of Muscovy, which is located between Arkhangelsk and the Volga, then the annual crown income of such an enterprise would reach 8 million pounds sterling.”

With the accession of Mikhail Romanov, Russia's contacts with other countries are intensifying. Western countries: France, Holland, Denmark. The role of the British in the trade turnover of the state is noticeably narrowing, and their search for new opportunities to regain their trading privileges does not lead to anything significant.
He was executed in 1649 English king Charles I. “They committed a great evil deed, they killed their sovereign Karlus to death,” - this is how Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich reacted to his death English monarch. The Russian Tsar did not forget to mention that “English merchants enjoyed great privileges, but did not appreciate them and behaved unworthily.”
On June 1, 1649, Alexei Mikhailovich, by his decree, demanded that the British be expelled from the Moscow state, allowing them to enter only Arkhangelsk. This meant one thing: the stormy romance between England and Russia came to an end.

We usually use the words “Great Britain” and “England” interchangeably. In rare moments, doubts creep in that there is still a difference between these words. Today we will try to dot the i's.

A combination of historical, geographical, political and cultural nuances have contributed significantly to the confusion around the concepts.In everyday conversation, in order not to go into details, we mean that England and Great Britain are one and the same. And there is some truth in this: England is the main part of Great Britain, but it does not exhaust it. In Tsarist Russia and the USSR it was customary to put an equal sign between names. The result was a kind of geographical synecdoche, where England acted as a kind of trope designating Great Britain.

Synecdoche is a trope, a subtype of metonymy, a style device that consists in transferring the name of the general to the particular.

A little history

From the first millennium BC, Celtic tribes (Cimbri and Gaels) lived on the territory of modern Britain. By the year 60 they were conquered by the Romans and successfully Romanized. One of the colonies of the Roman Empire began to be called Britain.

• From the beginning of the 5th century AD, Rome fell into a deep crisis, which also affected the colonies. Britain broke up into several parts, and was subsequently conquered by the tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. The first ones later gave the name to the country. Thus began the Anglo-Saxon stage.

It will last until Norman conquest islands in the 11th century. Then there was the period of the seven kingdoms (heptarchy).

They will then begin to unite around Wessex. And Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, will be the first to call himself King of England.

Origin of the words Britain and England

Britannia, Brittania... It has Latin roots and literally translates as “Land of the Britons”. Already in those distant times it extended to the entire British Isles. It can be found in the works of Roman historians.

In official English documents it was first used in 1474 at the marriage between the daughter of Edward IV and the son of the Scottish king James III. In the 17th century, James VI proclaimed himself "King of Britain, Ireland, France."

England, in turn, comes from the Old English Engaland, which means “land of the Angles,” that is, one of the most widespread tribes here in the 5th-6th centuries. The Angles themselves, according to one version of onomastics experts, come from the Angeln Peninsula (today a contiguous possession of Denmark and Germany. Another of the names used by the Romans is “Albion”. Remember the expression “Foggy Albion”?

It is usually applied to London, but at one time it could also be used to refer to the entire territory of the islands.

Some scientists believe that albion comes from the Latin "albus" (white), some that from the Celtic "alb" (mountain).

State names

Let's look a little at the names.

Officially, the state is called the “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland” ( The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) . The UK itself includes: England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales. The United Kingdom (UK) consists of Great Britain (GB) and Northern Ireland.

Thus, we can safely draw the first conclusion: England is part of Great Britain and it is also its historical core, from where it came and grew in the 19th century to become the most powerful colonial empire(which collapsed after the First World War).

What is Great Britain?

This is very large island, which occupies seventy-three percent of the archipelago's area and is home to ninety percent of the population. Its three historical “countries”, countries (or provinces), are part of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland, they are: England (over 57 percent of the area and 86 percent of the people), Scotland (about 34 percent of the area and 10 percent of the people), Wales .

What is England?

This is the most large part Great Britain, named after the “Angles” - one of the Germanic tribes. In the Middle Ages, during feudal fragmentation England was a separate kingdom, whose possessions either expanded or contracted (this depended on the military victories or defeats of the rulers).

Who should be called and what should it be called?

Accordingly, the British live in England, and the local population of England, Scotland, and Wales is correctly called “British”.And here Southern Ireland is an independent country, which is why its inhabitants are called Irish. By the way, it is also more appropriate to call the population of Northern Ireland Irish, despite the fact that it is part of the Northern Kingdom.

Where is Great Britain located?

British archipelago, Northwestern Europe.

Difference between England and Great Britain

England is the only part of Great Britain that does not have its own parliament and government (Government). The MPs of Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are authorized to take questions concerning England. Although initiatives concerning Scotland are entirely Scottish legislative bodies. In England there is even a movement advocating the creation of a separate English parliament. Labor believes that such a step would greatly weaken interaction between parts of the UK and threaten the disintegration of the United Kingdom.

Labor is one of the leading parties in Britain. It emerged at the very beginning of the 20th century as a committee representing the interests of workers.

England is not involved foreign policy, she does not have diplomatic relations. Great Britain has been part of many international organizations, including the European Union, from which it recently left. Also missing in England: its own currency unit and the army. But Britain has it. Well, you get the idea.

London

The capital and the most Big City in UK. By the way, from 1707 to 1999, the ruling center of government for the entire United Kingdom was located in London. But at the end of the 20th century, Scotland and Wales were granted self-government powers.

London remains a very important and influential city - the largest financial flows pass through it.

And this is what the City looks like - business center. Experts predict a decline in the City’s position due to the Brexit policy.

• Brexit is a neologism that refers to Britain's exit policy from the European Union.

By the way, London was founded by the Romans and was the capital city of the province of Britain. It is documented that the first mentions of the city date back to the year 117.

UK today

Modern Britain occupies only two percent globe. But not long ago (relatively recently), during the years of growth British Empire, she was the mistress of the fourth part of the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was the largest state that had ever existed on Earth. This is what the map of the empire looked like at the peak of its development - in the 30s.

In addition to the main territories of the crown, Great Britain then owned a number of countries that are now independent: from Canada to Cyprus. To be more precise, it included: The territory of Australia and a good part of the continent of Africa, Australia and New Zealand, Burma, New Guinea, India, Oman, Iraq, Honduras, as well as a number of small territories. The USA, before winning the war of its own independence from the British metropolis in 1776, was also under the British crown.

Rudyard Kipling, widely known as the author of The Jungle Book, is known as an ardent supporter of colonial policy, he outlined his views in famous poem"Burden white man” ( The White Man's Burden).

Carry this proud Burden -
You will be rewarded
The cavils of commanders
And the cries of wild tribes:

"What do you want, damn
Why are you confusing minds?
Don't bring us to the light
From the sweet Egyptian Darkness!"

It must be said that Great Britain was not humane towards its colonial possessions. The colonies also provided rapid the economic growth metropolis.

A little more history

England became Great Britain in 1707, when all countries in the British Isles, with the exception of Ireland, became subject to it. Having defeated Spain, she became the “Mistress of the Seas,” a powerful maritime power.

By the way, Peter I lived there for three months during his “Great Embassy”, studying marine science.Scotland became part of England in 1603 and became its top part Great Britain, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English crown. In 1707, the parliaments of these two countries united to form the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Wales and Ireland were under English control.

Wales, separated from Ireland by the Irish Sea, is located in the southwestern part of Great Britain.

Northern Ireland was created in 1920 and gained independence from Ireland. It is located in the western part of GB. By the way, British Isles also include the small islands of Wight, the Hebrides, Maine, Channel Islands, Orkney and others.

Having figured out why England is called Great Britain, we can clarify a little the structure of its government system, which, we admit, is not so simple. Everyone knows that in Britain there is a parliamentary monarchy, that is, the monarch performs a purely decorative role, personifying the inviolability of traditions. Today, Queen Elizabeth II sits in Buckingham Palace.

In addition to it, the country is governed by the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the Cabinet of Ministers, and the Prime Minister.