Glossary – dictionary of terms
Absolutism(from Latin - unlimited, unconditional) - a form of government in which the importance of the aristocracy and class-representative institutions is reduced, the church is subordinate to the state, supreme power belongs to the monarch, who relies on the bureaucratic apparatus and the bureaucratic system of government.
Autonomy ( from Greek – self-government, independence) – the right to independently resolve internal issues by any part of the state. An autonomous territory does not have state sovereignty and the right to freely secede from the state of which it is a part. It is called upon to independently resolve various issues of its region within the framework of existing national laws.
Autonomation- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin’s proposal to include independent Soviet republics into the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy.
Aggression– military violation of the sovereignty of the state, its independence and territorial integrity.
Excise tax– a type of indirect tax on consumer goods and services.
Alternative(from French - one of two) - the need to choose between two mutually exclusive options.
Alliance(from French - union) - an association to achieve a common goal based on contractual obligations.
Analogy– similarity in any respect between objects, phenomena or concepts.
Anarchism(from the Greek - anarchy) - the doctrine of society, which is based on the idea of anarchy, a stateless structure.
Annexation(from Latin - annexation) - a type of aggression, forcible annexation, the seizure by one state of the territory of another state.
Antagonism ( from Greek – struggle) is a type of social contradiction, which is characterized by an acute, irreconcilable struggle.
Entente(accord, unification) - an alliance of Great Britain, France and Russia, formed in 1904-1907. During the First World War 1914-1918. The Entente began to refer to all parties that fought against Germany and its allies.
Antisemitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.
Aristocracy– 1) the highest noble layer of the nobility, whose representatives trace their origins to the nobility of the period of the birth of class society; 2) a form of government in which power belongs to the clan nobility.
Assembly- a new form of leisure for nobles, introduced by Peter I - ceremonial receptions of guests in noble houses. The seclusion of women in towers was over.
Note- paper money issued in Russia under Catherine II since 1769. Suppressed by silver coins and canceled in 1849.
Assimilation- the process by which members of one ethnic group lose their original culture and adopt the culture of another ethnic group with which they are in direct contact.
Atheism(from Greek - godless) - a belief system that rejects religious ideas: faith in God, the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the dead, etc.
Corvee- the labor of a serf peasant on the farm of a feudal lord, usually using the tools of the peasant himself, one of the forms of payment for the right to use land that belonged to the feudal landowner.
Baskak- a khan official who was in charge of collecting tribute and accounting for the population in conquered countries.
Farmhand- a hired agricultural worker, a native of poor peasants.
Bironovschina- the dominance of the Germans in the middle of the 18th century. under Anna Ivanovna.
Bolshevism- an ideological and political movement in Russian Social Democracy, which took shape in 1903 at the Second Congress of the RSDLP. Leader: V.I. Lenin. Bolshevism saw the possibility of transforming society only with the help of revolution, denying the reformist path of development. Bolshevism proceeded from the fact that capitalism in Russia led to a high degree of capitalist differentiation of the population and prepared the transition to socialism.
Bonapartism- one of the forms of military-political dictatorship, pursuing a policy of maneuvering between classes.
Boyars- the highest stratum of society in Russia in the 10th – 17th centuries.
Boyar Duma- administrative and advisory body of the feudal nobility under the Grand Duke or Tsar.
Bulyginskaya Duma- named after the creator of the electoral law, Minister of Internal Affairs A.G. Bulygina. Its convening was announced in the Manifesto on August 6, 1905. The Duma received advisory rights, which preserved the autocratic power of the monarch.
Riot- a spontaneous reaction of part of the population, which is the result of a hidden accumulation of discontent and anger.
Bourgeoisie- the class of owners of the means of production in a capitalist society.
Bourgeois revolution– the main objectives of such a revolution are the destruction of the feudal system or its remnants, the creation of conditions for free capitalist development, and the establishment of the power of the bourgeoisie.
Bourgeois-democratic revolution- a type of bourgeois revolution, in which not only the political power of the bourgeoisie is established, but also broad democratic changes are carried out.
Bureaucracy(from French - bureau + from Greek - power, domination) - a layer of people (officials) serving in various levels of the state apparatus and inextricably linked with the public administration system.
Varangians– Old Russian name for the inhabitants of Scandinavia - Swedes, Norwegians
Vertical of power- a set of measures taken to centralize and strengthen power.
Military settlements- a special organization of troops in order to reduce the cost of armies, which combined military service and agricultural activities of the villagers
War communism– the socio-economic policy of the Soviet state in the conditions of the civil war, which is characterized by a distribution system instead of trade, the abolition of payments for certain services to the population, etc. Due to insolvency, it was replaced by NEP.
Veche- People's Assembly in Rus'.
Military democracy- a form of statehood at the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system.
War communism– economic policy of the Soviet state in conditions of economic ruin and the Civil War (1918-1920) – mobilization of all forces and resources for defense. The most important elements: nationalization of all large and medium-sized industries; maximum centralization of management of industrial production and distribution; surplus appropriation; prohibition of private trade, planned supply of goods to the population (card system); universal labor conscription; equalization of wages.
Parish- an administrative-territorial unit used in Russia since the 11th century. It existed until 1928-1930.
Voluntarism– (from Latin – will) – activity carried out without taking into account the objective laws of the historical process, real conditions and possibilities on the basis of subjective desires and arbitrary decisions.
East Slavs- an ethnic group that settled at the beginning of the new era in the region between Lake Ladoga and the middle reaches of the Dnieper River. They formed the basis of Kievan Rus and the Moscow State.
Vote – decision, opinion expressed in the form of voting.
Patrimony- one of the forms of feudal land tenure in Russia.
Provisional government(March 3 (16), 1917 - October 26 (November 8), 1917) - the highest legislative and executive body of state power in Russia during the period between the February and October revolutions.
Temporary peasants- former serfs freed by the “Regulation of February 19, 1861”, but not transferred to ransom. The right to use land was granted to them for established duties and payments.
All-Russian Central Executive Committee– All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets – the highest legislative, administrative and supervisory body of state power of the RSFSR in 1917-1937. between the All-Russian Congresses of Soviets.
VChK – All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage under the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (1917-1922). Formed on December 7 (20), 1917. Liquidated with the transfer of powers to the State Political Administration (GPU NKVD RSFSR) under the NKVD RSFSR on February 6, 1922.
Ransom- a credit operation that gives the serf the opportunity to redeem himself. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, peasants paid for land received as property.
Hegemony– dominant position, the use of political force to obtain a leading role in the movement, struggle, etc. In achieving hegemony, various forces compete with each other.
Genesis(from Greek - origin, formation) - the moment of origin and the subsequent period of development, leading to a certain state, type.
Genocide– extermination of certain population groups for racial, national or religious reasons.
Geopolitics – political direction based on taking into account geophysical factors in the life of society.
Arms race- a confrontation between two or more countries for superiority in the field of armed forces
Publicity– softening of censorship over the media, controlled by the ruling circles, publication of previously unpublished books, etc.
Settlement- an ancient fortified settlement with a moat and ramparts.
The State Duma– 1) – the name of the first Russian parliament, which existed in the period 1906 – 1917. Ceased to exist during the events of 1917. 2) - The name of the lower house of the Federal Assembly - the current Russian parliament.
State Council- a legislative body created in Russia in 1810. Members of the State Council were appointed by the king.
Civil War– an armed clash of opposing forces (social groups, nations, nationalities, parties). During the war, the problem of power is solved.
Province- administrative-territorial unit of Russia since December 18, 1708. It consisted of an administrative center - the provincial city and the cities assigned to it. The division into provinces remained until the 1920s.
GULAG– Main Directorate of Camps, later – Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps and Colonies. This was the name of one of the departments of the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR, which was involved in the organization of places of deprivation of liberty. In the Gulag system, political prisoners also served their sentences along with criminals. Existed until 1956.
Tribute– 1) – collection in kind or cash from conquered tribes and peoples; 2) - in early feudal state formations, including Kievan Rus, it had the meaning of a tax.
Decembrists- revolutionary nobles who advocated bourgeois-democratic transformations, against autocracy and serfdom
Twenty-five thousand meters- in the USSR, workers from among party members and Komsomol members were sent to the villages at the beginning of 1930 to carry out collectivization and dispossession.
Dual power- a peculiar political situation that existed in Russia after the February Revolution from March 2 to July 4, 1917. One government was represented by the provisional government, the other by the Petrograd Council of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.
Nobility- until the beginning of the 18th century, this term denoted a class group of secular feudal lords in Russia, which owned land under local law. The nobility was endowed by the state with land (estate) subject to personal military and other service in favor of the state. Since the reign of Peter I, this term has denoted representatives of the privileged class of Russia, which was divided into personal and hereditary. They were obliged to serve the state for life, but gradually their service life began to be reduced. The Manifesto of February 18, 1762 on the freedom of the nobility abolished the compulsory service of nobles. The charter granted to the nobility (1785) consolidated this position.
Palace coup- a change of power as a result of the struggle of factions within the ruling class, relying on the army (its privileged part - the guard).
decadence(from French - decline) - a collective designation for the crisis phenomena of European culture, including Russian, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Characteristic features are a mood of decline, hopelessness, rejection of life, the cult of beauty, unlimited personal freedom and freedom of creativity, independence from real life.
Decree(from Latin - decree) - one of the names of an act issued by the highest body of state power.
Detinets– the ancient name of a fortified city center or fortress.
Denationalization– return to private ownership of state property previously nationalized by the state.
Democracy– democracy, a form of state-political structure based on the recognition of the people as the source of power, their right to participate in solving public affairs in combination with a wide range of civil rights and freedoms.
Deportation(from Latin - expulsion) - expulsion from places of residence as a measure of criminal or administrative punishment.
Tithe- a measure of area in Russia, approximately equal to 1.1 hectares.
Dictatorship(from Latin - unlimited power) a way of exercising state power, a political regime of absolute, unlimited domination of a person, social group, clan.
Dictatorship of the proletariat– establishing the political power of workers to build socialism and a classless society.
Dissidence– disagreement with the dominant worldview, dissent.
Differentiation(from Latin - differences) - division, dismemberment, stratification from a separate part, form, stage. In society there is stratification into separate groups and classes.
Druzhina- in ancient Rus', a social group close to the prince, participating in wars, the process of collecting tribute, managing the principality and the prince’s personal household.
Strike(from Italian and Spanish basta! - enough! enough!) or strike - collective organized cessation of work in an organization or enterprise in order to obtain from the employer or government the fulfillment of any demands
Legislature– bodies with the power to discuss and make laws.
Westernism- the direction of Russian social thought of the 30-60s of the 19th century. He defended the idea of Russia's development along the Western European path, advocated the abolition of serfdom, the restriction of autocracy, the development of private property, etc. Representatives: P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Kavelin et al.
Reserved summers– prohibition for peasants to leave the feudal lords even on St. George’s Day (November 26) Introduced in the early 60s of the 16th century by Ivan the Terrible as a temporary measure for the period of the census, but were entrenched in the practice of feudal relations by subsequent decrees.
Purchase- a dependent peasant who took on a debt (kupa) from the feudal lord.
Zemstvos- all-class elected bodies of local self-government in Russia, introduced in 1864.
Zemsky Sobors- the highest estate-representative institution in Russia in the mid-16th-17th centuries, which had advisory and legislative functions.
Clergy- a special class engaged in the performance of religious rites.
Yoke- an ancient Russian term that reflected the nature of Rus'’s dependence on the Golden Horde of the 13th-15th centuries.
Ideology(from Greek - thought, word, concept) - a system of views and ideas that express the attitude to reality, the interests of social groups and layers, classes and parties.
Hierarchy– (from Greek – sacred + power) – arrangement of parts, elements of the whole in order from highest to lowest.
Immigration(from Lat. - inspiring) - entry into the country for temporary or permanent residence of citizens of other states.
Impeachment(from English - censure, accusation) - a special procedure for holding senior officials accountable (through the lower house of parliament).
Industrialization– the process of creating large-scale machine production, introducing machine production into all sectors of the economy.
Integration (political)(from Latin - holistic) - cohesion, merging of public and government structures for joint activities in the field of politics.
Intervention(from Latin - invasion) - violent intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another, violation of its sovereignty.
Imperialism– in Marxism – the stage of capitalism, which is characterized by the dominance of monopolies and the policy of colonial expansion
Executive branch– 1) – one of the forms of state activity that ensures the execution of state laws; 2) – a system of government institutions that ensures the implementation of laws.
Historiography– 1) – the history of the development of ideas about the past; 2) – a historical discipline that studies the development of ideas about the past; 3) – a set of scientific works on any issue.
Historical sources– preserved remnants of the culture of the past. Used to obtain information about the past of humanity.
Historical fact– 1) – an event or phenomenon of historical reality; 2) – an element in historical research.
Story- a science that studies the past of human society in its development.
Cadets- a party of the liberal-monarchist bourgeoisie, which emerged in October 1905.
Capitalism– according to Marxism, one of the socio-economic formations: a society based on developed private property, market relations, and wage labor.
Surrender– cessation of armed struggle and surrender of the armed forces of one of the warring states.
Cartel- a form of monopoly in which participants retain production independence, but at the same time jointly resolve issues of production volume, product sales, etc.
Classification– dividing objects of study into groups, grouping them according to the commonality of certain characteristics.
Prince- the head of state formations of the Slavs and some other peoples at an early stage of their development, later - a noble title.
Coalition(from Latin - union) - an association, union of states, parties, people to achieve common goals.
Codification– systematization of state laws into individual branches of law, usually with the revision of existing legislation and the repeal of outdated legislation.
Collectivization– the policy of forced transformation of Russian agriculture in the late 20-30s of the twentieth century. It was accompanied by the “dekulakization” of wealthy peasant farms, confiscation of their property, deportation to Siberia and other repressions, and the introduction of collective forms of farming, i.e. the unification of individual peasant farms into large public farms (collective farms).
Kolkhoz- a production association of peasants for collective farming on the basis of socialized means of production.
Colonization– 1) – internal: aimed at developing the outlying lands of one’s state; 2) – external: settlements outside the country.
Collegiums- central institutions for the management of branches of management, introduced by Peter I in 1717 - 1721. instead of orders, they were headed by the presidents of the colleges. Replaced by ministries in 1802
Communism– (from Latin – general) – the ideal of society based on general well-being and equality of people. According to Marxist theory, the communist formation has socialism as its first stage, which then directly passes into communism: a classless society with a high level of development of the productive forces, consciousness and culture.
Compromise(from Latin - agreement) - an agreement reached as a result of mutual concessions.
Consensus(from Latin - agreement) - general agreement on a controversial issue, achieved as a result of discussion and convergence of the positions of the participants in any negotiations.
Conservatism(from Lat - to preserve) - various forms of adherence to everything old and opposition to everything new. A direction of social thought and a political movement focused on protecting the traditional foundations of the economic and political system.
Consolidation(from Latin - together, to grow together) - strengthening, strengthening something; association, unity of individuals, groups. Parties to strengthen activities for common goals.
A constitutional monarchy- a government system in which the absolute power of the monarch is limited by a system of elected representative institutions.
Constitution(from Latin - structure, establishment) - the fundamental law of the state, which has the highest legal force, enshrining its political and economic system, establishing the principles and system of organization, activity and accountability of legislative, executive and judicial authorities, fundamental rights, responsibilities and freedoms of citizens .
Contribution(from Latin - to collect) - money or other material assets collected from a defeated state by the victorious state after the war; forced monetary levies levied by the authorities on the population in the occupied territory.
Confrontation(from Latin - opposition) - confrontation, clash of social systems and interests, ideological and political principles.
Concern- one of the forms of monopolies in the form of a diversified association with maintaining independence in management, but with complete financial dependence of the enterprises included in the concern from the dominant group of monopolists.
Concession(from Latin - assignment) - transfer of state-owned enterprises, natural resources, etc. for use for a certain period of time to foreign states or private enterprises.
Cooperation ( from lat. – cooperation) – a voluntary association for joint farming and intermediary activities. There are the following main forms of cooperation: consumer, credit, supply and marketing, production.
Kremlin– central, fortified part of the city
Serfdom- a form of dependence of peasants on the feudal landowner. It was expressed in the attachment of the peasant to the land of the feudal lord, subordination to the administrative and judicial power of the feudal landowner, etc. The first forms of dependence of workers are mentioned in the “Russian Truth” of 1019. Serfdom was abolished in 1861 under Alexander II. Remnants of serfdom (landownership, community, labor system) persisted until 1917.
Peasants' War- a well-organized large anti-feudal popular movement with a wide range of participants, which puts forward a program to combat serfdom and advocates the elimination of feudal duties and the power of unjust monarchs. In Russia it often took the form of imposture.
A crisis– a set of irreversible changes that lead the system to a qualitatively new state. In such eras, either the conservative or reformist course of public policy triumphs. Their constructiveness depends on the authorities’ deep understanding of the real needs of society. In Russia, the situation was aggravated by the need to accelerate movement to catch up with advanced countries and the schematic thinking of reformers.
Fists- at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. - owners of rural shops who sold goods on credit and at interest, as well as wealthy peasants who used hired labor.
Cult of personality(from Latin - worship) - admiration for someone, exaltation of someone.
Curia– category of voters (by property, nationality and other characteristics). The curial system is a system of elections based on electoral curiae. Allows you to regulate the representation of various social or national groups of elected authorities.
Legitimation– recognition or confirmation of the legality of any right, authority or action.
Lend-Lease– a system for the United States to loan or lease weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food, etc. countries allies in the anti-Hitler coalition during World War II.
Chronicles– historical works compiled in Rus' in the 11th–18th centuries. Entries in them were mainly made chronologically and reported on events that had occurred.
Liberalism(from Latin - free) - a movement in politics, a political worldview, which is based on the recognition of the most important natural human rights as the fundamental, unshakable foundations of all social life.
Manufactory(from Latin – hand + production) – a capitalist enterprise based on the division of labor and manual equipment.
Mentality(from Latin - mind, thinking, way of thinking) - is often interpreted as a spiritual atmosphere, the spiritual makeup of society, a state of mind, a thinking style and even a worldview.
Mensheviks– reformist direction in Russian social democracy. It was formed at the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903. Leaders: G.V. Plekhanov, Yu.O. Martov and others. The political strategy of the Mensheviks was determined by socialist orientation. Socialism in their view could be achieved with the creation of material prerequisites and the presence of a high degree of socialization of production. Hence their calculation for a long era of capitalist development. In political demands, democratic objectives were put in first place. Leadership in the democratic movement was given to the bourgeoisie and the democratic intelligentsia.
Mercantilism(from Italian - merchant, merchant) - economic policy during the formation of industrial society. It represented active government intervention in economic life. It was based on the predominance of export of goods over import, on encouraging the development of domestic industry, protecting it from foreign competition.
Localism– the procedure for hereditary assignment of government positions to members of noble families.
Methodology of history– a system of principles and methods used in the process of historical knowledge.
Metropolis(from Greek - mother and city) - a state that owns colonies.
Absolute monarchy- autocracy, a state in which the monarch has unlimited power. At the same time, a powerful bureaucratic apparatus, army and police are created, and the activities of government bodies are stopped.
Autocracy- uncontrolled autocracy of one person.
Autonomy- the right to independently exercise power (within certain pre-specified limits) for part of the state entity on its territory.
Authoritarianism- an anti-democratic system of political power, usually combined with elements of personal dictatorship.
Agora- a square where free citizens gathered - a popular assembly in the ancient Greek city-state.
Aggressor- a state carrying out an armed attack on the sovereignty, territory or political system of another state.
Administration- a set of governing bodies.
Administrative division- dividing the country's territory into smaller units with their own governing bodies.
Acropolis- a fortified part of the ancient city.
Amnesty- exemption from criminal or other liability.
Anarchy- anarchy, disobedience to laws, permissiveness.
Entente- the alliance of England, Russia and France against Germany in the First World War;
Anti-Hitler coalition- an alliance of countries that fought against Nazi Germany and other Axis powers - the USSR, Great Britain, the USA, France, China, Yugoslavia, Poland, etc.
Aristocracy- clan nobility, upper class.
Auto-da-fe- public execution of heretics according to the verdict of the Inquisition.
Balance of power (equilibrium, balancing)- approximate equality of the military potentials of the opposing sides.
Corvee- forced labor of a serf on the farm of a feudal lord.
Blockade- a system of political and economic measures aimed at disrupting the external relations of a state. Used to isolate the blocked object.
Bourgeoisie- the class of owners who use hired labor. Income is ensured by the appropriation of surplus value - the difference between the entrepreneur’s costs and his profit.
Buffer states- countries located between warring states, dividing them and thus ensuring the absence of common borders and contact of armies hostile to each other.
Bureaucracy- the dominance of bureaucracy, the power of papers, when the centers of executive power are practically independent of the people. Characterized by formalism and arbitrariness.
Vandals- An ancient Germanic tribe that captured and plundered Rome. In a figurative sense - savages, enemies of culture.
Vassal- a feudal lord dependent on his lord. He carried out certain duties and fought on the side of the lord.
Great Migration- movement of Germans, Slavs, Huns, etc. in the territory of the former. Roman Empire in the IV-VII centuries.
Note verbale- form of current interstate correspondence.
Veche- national assembly in Ancient Rus' (Novgorod, Pskov)
Vote- opinion expressed by voting.
Hague Conventions- international agreements on the laws and customs of warfare (adopted in The Hague in 1899 and 1907), on the protection of cultural property (1954), on private international law, etc.
Coat of arms- a distinctive sign of a country, region, noble family.
Hetman- military leader, head of the “registered” Cossacks in the 16th-18th centuries. in Ukraine.
Guild- union of merchants, traders, artisans in the Middle Ages.
National anthem- a solemn song, the official symbol of the state.
State- an association of people (population) living in the same territory and subject to the same laws and orders of a common authority for all.
Democracy- a form of state and society based on the recognition of the people as a source of power and a participant in governance.
Demonstration- a procession, rally or other form of mass expression of sentiment in society.
Denunciation- refusal of one of the parties to further comply with previously concluded agreements, contracts, etc.
Depression- the phase of economic development following the crisis of overproduction. Synonym: stagnation. The Great Depression - economic and political crisis of 1929-1933. in USA.
Despot- a ruler who oppresses his subjects autocratically and uncontrollably.
Dictatorship- a political regime that means the complete dominance of an individual or social group.
Dynasty- a successive series of relatives - rulers of the state.
Doge- head of the Venetian and Genoese republics in the Middle Ages.
Druzhina- a permanent armed detachment, the army of the prince,
Heresy- deviation from the views prescribed by religion.
EEC (European Economic Community, “Common Market”)-an organization founded in 1957 with the aim of eliminating all restrictions on trade between its members.
Iron curtain- this is how the West called the border between the Warsaw Pact (“communist”) countries and the rest of the world.
Law- a set of rules, the implementation of which is mandatory for everyone.
Zaporizhzhya Sich- organization of the Ukrainian Cossacks, a military republic led by the Kosh chieftain in the 16th-18th centuries. with the center behind the Dnieper rapids, on the islands.
Insulation- creation of insurmountable barriers between states or social groups.
Imperialism-. the phase of development of society when competing financial and industrial groups, with a monopoly on the market, control all areas of life and merge with state power.
Empire- a monarchy or despotism that has colonial possessions or includes heterogeneous elements.
Industrial revolution- transition to a qualitatively new level of technology and technology, leading to a sharp increase in labor productivity and product output.
Inquisition- in the XIII-XIX centuries. system of courts in the Catholic Church, independent of secular authorities. She persecuted dissidents and heretics, used torture and executions.
Cossacks- military class in Russia in the 16th-20th centuries. It arose on the Dnieper, Don, Volga, Ural, Terek in the form of free communities, and was the main driving force of popular uprisings in Ukraine and Russia. In the 18th century turned into a privileged military class. At the beginning of the 20th century. there were 11 Cossack troops (Don, Kuban, Orenburg, Transbaikal, Tersk, Semirechenskoe, Ural, Ussuriysk, Siberian, Astrakhan, Amur), numbering a total of 4.4 million people, over 53 million acres of land. Since 1920, the class has been abolished. In 1936, Cossack formations were created that took part in the war; in the 40s disbanded. Since the late 80s. the revival of the Cossacks began; the total number in the CIS is over 5 million people.
Capitalism-a social formation based on private ownership of tools and means of production, a system of free enterprise and wage labor.
Class- a large group of people whose role in the economic system of society and in relation to property is similar.
Communism- a social system that rejects private ownership of the means of production. The theory was developed by K. Marx, f. Engels, V.I. Lenin. An attempt to build such a system was made in 1917-1991. in USSR.
Conservatism- commitment to the old, established, distrust of everything new and rejection of changes in society.
A constitutional monarchy- a system of government in which the power of the monarch is limited by law (usually a constitution).
Constitution- the fundamental law of the state.
Counterintelligence - activities of special services to suppress intelligence (espionage) activities of relevant authorities of other countries on their own territory.
Confederation- a form of unification of countries in which they completely retain their independence, but have common (united) bodies to coordinate certain actions. As a rule, these are foreign policy, communications, transport, and the armed forces. An example is the Swiss Confederation.
A crisis- a period of acute difficulties in the economy. Characterized by increased unemployment, mass bankruptcies, impoverishment of the population, etc.
Cro-Magnon- primitive; an ancient representative of the modern human species (Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens). He was preceded by a Neanderthal.
Liberal - supporter of individual freedom and freedom of enterprise.
Matriarchy- a structure of society characterized by the dominant position of women. Kinship and inheritance were considered through the maternal line. It was widespread in the initial period of the tribal system.
Monarchy - a state headed by a king, czar, emperor, etc., whose power is usually inherited.
People- the entire population of one country (less often - a part of the population that is homogeneous in national composition).
NATO- The North Atlantic Alliance, a military-political bloc of European states, as well as the USA and Canada.
National Socialism - ideology of the German Nazis. It is characterized by blind submission to the “Führer”, a sense of superiority over other peoples, permissiveness towards the “inferior”, and the desire for world domination.
National symbols are a set of symbols, images, color combinations inherent in certain national, ethnic or territorial communities. Used in the coats of arms and flags of states and other entities.
The national liberation movement is the struggle for the independence of an ethnic group or the entire population of a colony, as well as the struggle for the economic and political independence of part of the population of a multinational country.
Nation - a historical community of people, formed due to the commonality of their territory, economic ties, literature, language, cultural characteristics and character.
quitrent - natural or monetary contribution of peasants to the feudal lord.
Common market - the same as the EEC (an organization founded in 1957 with the aim of eliminating all restrictions on trade between its members).
Oprichnina - system of measures of Ivan IV the Terrible to combat the boyar opposition (mass repressions, executions, land confiscations, etc.).
Axis (“Berlin-Rome axis”)- a military alliance of aggressive fascist regimes (1936) to prepare and wage a war for world domination. Soon Japan joined the Axis.
Patriarchy - structure of a society dominated by men. It arose during the period of decomposition of the tribal system.
Parliament - representative (elected) government body in the state. First formed in the 13th century. in England.
Plebiscite- a survey of the population on the most important issues: Integrity of the state, form of government, reforms, etc. As a rule, it does not have legislative force.
Tribe- the unification of several clans under the control of a leader.
The president- the elected head of state or organization.
Policy- city-state in the ancient world.
Slave - a person whose life and labor belong to the slave owner.
Radical- a supporter of decisive, extreme, cardinal measures in matters of transforming society.
Intelligence service - a set of measures to collect data about an actual or potential enemy.
Racism- a theory about the inherent superiority of people with a certain color of skin, eyes and other external differences. In practice, it leads to humiliation, conflicts, pogroms, bloody wars, etc.
Reactionary- resisting social progress, striving to preserve outdated social orders.
Republic - a form of government in which ultimate power rests with an elected representative body (parliamentary) or an elected president (presidential republic).
Revolution- a qualitative leap; violent change of social relations.
Referendum - popular vote on the most important issues in the life of the country. Has legislative force.
Genus - a group of people related by blood (descending from a common ancestor) and having common property.
Free enterprise- a system for encouraging private initiative in organizing enterprises, banks, trade, etc.
Slavs - the largest group of peoples in Europe: eastern (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians), western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.), southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.).
Smerda- peasants in Ancient Rus'.
Socialism- a social system based on state or public ownership of tools and means of production and the absence of exploitation of man by man (in accordance with the theory of Marxism-Leninism).
Social protection- support by the state or society for low-income segments of the population (old people, children, etc.).
State sovereignty- its independence in external affairs and supremacy in internal affairs.
Suzerain- a feudal lord to whom other, smaller feudal lords (vassals) are subordinate. The king is always a suzerain.
Terrorism- criminal attack on the lives of innocent people in order to achieve political or other goals.
Fascism- terrorist dictatorship using extreme forms of violence. Combined with nationalism and racism.
Federation- a structure of the state in which the entire territory is divided into administrative units, and part of the powers of the supreme power is delegated to local authorities (local laws are issued, local taxes are levied, etc.).
Forum- a square in Ancient Rome, the center of political life. Currently - a representative meeting, congress.
Tsar- monarch, king. The title comes from the name of Gaius Julius Caesar. The title of sovereigns of all Rus', starting with Ivan IV the Terrible.
Official- executor of state regulations and laws of the state, civil servant. Evolution is a gradual, smooth (as opposed to revolution) transition to a new quality, a new social formation.
Absolute monarchy, absolutism- a type of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. With absolutism, the highest degree of centralization is achieved, a standing army and police, and an extensive bureaucratic apparatus are created. The activities of estate representative bodies, as a rule, cease. The heyday of absolutism in Russia occurred in the 18th-19th centuries.
Autonomation- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin’s proposal to include independent Soviet republics into the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy.
Excise tax (lat. trim)- a type of indirect tax on the consumption of goods produced by domestic private enterprises. Included in the price of the product. It existed in Russia until 1917.
Anarchism (Greek anarchy)- a socio-political movement that advocates the destruction of all state power. In the 19th century the ideas of anarchism were adopted by revolutionary populism. Russian anarchism later emerged during the revolution of 1905-1907. and during the Civil War.
Annexation (Latin annexation)- the violent seizure by one state of all or part of the territory belonging to another state or nationality.
Antisemitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.
“Arakcheevshchina”- the internal political course of the autocracy in the last decade (1815-1825) of the reign of Alexander I. Named after the emperor’s confidant, A. A. Arakcheeva. This period is characterized by the desire to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of life of Russian society: planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, increasing persecution of education and the press. Assemblies (French assembly) - meetings-balls in the houses of the Russian nobility, introduced in 1718 Peter I. Women also took part in the assemblies.
Corvee- free forced labor of a dependent peasant who worked with his own equipment on the feudal lord's farm for a plot of land received for use. In Russia, the existence of corvee was already recorded in “Russkaya Pravda”. It became widespread in the European part of Russia in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 19th centuries. It actually existed until 1917 in the form of a development system.
Baskak- representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Controlled local authorities. In the Russian principalities in the second half of the XIII - early XIV centuries. - Horde tribute collector.
White Guard- military formations that acted after the October Revolution against the power of the Bolsheviks. The color white was considered a symbol of “legal order.” The military force of the white movement is the White Guard - an association of opponents of the Soviet regime (the opposite of the Red Guard). It consisted mainly of officers of the Russian army led by L.G. Kornilov, M.V. Alekseev, A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and others.
White matter- ideology and policy of the White Guard. It was an independent movement in the anti-Bolshevik movement. The movement began in the spring and summer of 1917, when there was a unification of forces that advocated “restoring order” in the country, and then the restoration of the monarchy in Russia. L.G. was nominated for the role of dictator. Kornilov. After the victory of the October Revolution, the white movement formalized its political program, which included the national idea of a “united and indivisible” Russia, the primacy of the Orthodox Church, loyalty to historical “principles,” but without a clear definition of the future state structure. At the first stage, the “democratic counter-revolution” in the person of the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks took part in the white movement, but later the monarchical tendency with the idea of restoring the monarchy became more and more clear. The White movement was unable to propose a program that would suit all the forces dissatisfied with the Bolshevik regime. The disunity of forces within the white movement itself and the curtailment of foreign aid marked its end.
“Bironovschina”- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features of “Bironovism”: political terror, the omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, disrespect for Russian customs, harsh tax collection, drill in the army.
Neighborhood Council- advice from those close to the Grand Duke, and then to the Tsar. Under Vasily III, the Near Duma included 8-10 boyars. In the middle of the 16th century. The Middle Duma was actually the government of Ivan IV (the Elected Rada). From the second half of the 17th century. especially trusted persons began to be invited “to the room” (hence the name - Secret Duma, Room Duma). At this time, the Middle Duma was the support of the tsar and in many ways opposed the Boyar Duma.
Bolshevism- an ideological and political movement in Russian social democracy (Marxism), which took shape in 1903. Bolshevism was a continuation of the radical line in the revolutionary movement of Russia. The Bolsheviks advocated the transformation of society only through revolution, denying the reformist path of development. At the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, during the elections of governing bodies, supporters of V.I. Lenin received a majority and began to be called Bolsheviks. Their opponents, led by L. Martov, who received a minority of votes, became Mensheviks. Bolshevism advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism. Revolutionary practice of the 20th century. rejected many of the provisions of Bolshevism as utopian.
Boyars- 1) the highest stratum of society in Russia in the X-XVII centuries. They occupied a leading place after the Grand Duke in public administration. 2) From the 15th century. - the highest rank among service people “in the fatherland” in the Russian state. Boyars occupied the highest positions, headed orders, and were governors. The rank was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the liquidation of the Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma is the highest council in Russia under the prince (from 1547 under the tsar) in the 10th-18th centuries. The legislative body discussed important issues of domestic and foreign policy.
“Bulyginskaya Duma”- developed in July 1905 by the Minister of Internal Affairs A.G. Bulygin (hence its name) the law on the establishment of the Duma - the highest legislative advisory representative body - and the regulation on elections to it, according to which the majority of the population (workers, military personnel, women, etc.) did not have voting rights. The convening of the “Bulygin Duma” was disrupted by revolutionary events in October 1905.
Bureaucracy (Greek: dominance of the office)- 1) A system of control carried out with the help of an apparatus of power that had specific functions. 2) A layer of people, officials associated with this system.
Varangians (Normans, Vikings)- this is how in Rus' they called participants in predatory campaigns - immigrants from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes).
“Great Fourth Menaion” (monthly readings)- Russian church and literary monument of the 30-40s of the 16th century; a month-by-month collection of biblical books, translated and original Russian lives, works of the “church fathers,” as well as literary works, including secular authors. The purpose of this meeting is to centralize the cult of Russian saints and expand the circle of reading church and secular literature.
Rope- territorial community in Ancient Rus' and among the southern Slavs.
Supreme Privy Council- the highest state institution in Russia in 1726-1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body under the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.
Veche (old school Bern - advice)- national assembly among the Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Rus'. The first chronicle mentions of the veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development occurred in Russian cities of the second half of the 11th-12th centuries. In Novgorod, Pskov, and Vyatka land it remained until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The Veche decided issues of war and peace, summoned princes, adopted laws, concluded treaties with other lands, etc.
Voivode- military leader, ruler of the Slavic peoples. In the Russian state, the term “voevoda” meant the head of the princely squad or the head of the people’s militia. Mentioned in Russian chronicles from the 10th century. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries. Each of the regiments of the Russian army had one or more governors. The regimental governors were liquidated by Peter I. In the middle of the 16th century. The position of city governor appeared, heading the military and civil administration of the city and district. From the beginning of the 17th century. Voivodes were introduced in all cities of Russia instead of city clerks and governors. In 1719. governors were placed at the head of the provinces. In 1775, the position of voivode was abolished.
Military courts- emergency military judicial bodies introduced in Russia during the revolution of 1905-1907. and carried out speedy trials and immediate execution for anti-state activities. They also operated during the First World War.
Military-industrial committees- public organizations created in Russia during the First World War to assist the government in mobilizing industry for military needs.
Military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and create a reserve of trained troops. Ultimately, the establishment of military settlements was supposed to lead to the elimination of recruitment. “Settled troops” were settled on state-owned (state) lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, and Kherson provinces. Those who lived in military settlements were engaged in both combat service and agricultural work. In 1817-1826 The leadership of military settlements was carried out by Count Arakcheev. Strict regulation of life, drill - all this made the life of the settlers very difficult and was the cause of armed uprisings: Chuguev (1819), Novgorod (1831), etc. In 1857, military settlements were abolished.
“War communism”- a unique economic and political system that developed in the Soviet state during the Civil War (1918-1920). It was aimed at concentrating all the country's resources in the hands of the state. “War communism” was associated with the elimination of all market relations. Its main features: the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the transfer to martial law of defense factories and transport, the implementation of the principle of food dictatorship through the introduction of surplus appropriation and the prohibition of free trade, the naturalization of economic relations in the conditions of the depreciation of money, the introduction of labor conscription (from 1920 - universal) and the creation labor armies. Some features of this policy were reminiscent of the classless, commodity-money-free society that Marxists dreamed of. In 1921, “war communism” showed its inconsistency in the conditions of the peaceful development of the country, which led to the abandonment of this policy and the transition to the NEP.
Volosteli- in Russian principalities from the 11th century. and in the Russian state until the middle of the 16th century. official in rural areas - volosts. The volostels exercised administrative, financial and judicial power.
“Free tillers”- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803. The conditions for liberation could be: a one-time ransom, ransom with installment payment, working off corvée. Landowners could free peasants without ransom. By the middle of the 19th century. About 100 thousand male souls were freed. In 1848, free cultivators were renamed state peasants, settled on their own lands.
Eastern Question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations of the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the rise of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples, and the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region. Russia managed to win a number of victories in the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th - early 19th centuries. England tried to weaken the influence of Russia and France in the eastern question. The Eastern Question intensified during the Crimean War (1853-1856). Russia was losing its position in the division of the Turkish inheritance, and England and France secured their dominant position in Turkey. As for Russia, despite its military successes in the Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878) and the signing of the victorious peace in San Stefano, it was forced to make concessions to the Western powers at the Berlin Congress. Since the end of the 19th century. and before Turkey’s participation in the First World War on the side of Germany, the Eastern question was an integral part of international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. After Turkey's surrender in World War I, the Eastern Question entered its final phase. The Ottoman Empire collapsed, the Lausanne Peace Treaty between Turkey and the Entente powers established new borders of the Turkish state.
Votchina (fatherland - passed down from the father, sometimes from the grandfather)- the oldest type of feudal land ownership. It arose in the Old Russian state as a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIV-XV centuries. was the dominant type of land tenure. Since the 15th century existed along with the estate. Differences between patrimony and estate in the 17th century. gradually wore off. The final merger into one type of land ownership - the estate - was formalized by the decree of 1714 on single inheritance. Most of the monastic and church estates were liquidated during the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries.
Temporary peasants- a category of former landowner peasants freed from serfdom as a result of the reform of 1861, but not transferred to redemption. For the use of land, these peasants bore duties (sharecropping or quitrent) or paid payments established by law. The duration of the temporary relationship was not established. Having bought the allotment, those temporarily obliged became landowners. But until this moment, the landowner was the trustee of the rural society. In 1881, a law was passed on the compulsory purchase of plots of temporarily obliged peasants. In certain regions of Russia, temporary-obligation relations remained until 1917.
All-Russian market- an economic system that has developed as a result of the specialization of farms in individual regions of the country in the production of certain types of products and the strengthening of trade between them. The All-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century. Fairs played a huge role in the formation of the single market.
Second front- during the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the USSR allies in the anti-Hitler coalition in June 1944 with the landing in Normandy.
Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861. To purchase land plots from landowners, peasants were provided with a loan, which they had to repay in 49 years, paying annually 6% of the amount. The size of redemption payments depended on the size of the quitrent that peasants paid to landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased in 1907.
Guard- privileged (i.e. enjoying exclusive rights) part of the troops. In Russia, the guard was created by Peter I in the late 90s of the 17th century. from the “amusing” troops - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - and at first bore the name of the royal, and from 1721 - the imperial guard. After the death of Peter, thanks to its exceptional position in the army, it became a political force that played a significant role in the palace coups of the 18th century. From the beginning of the 19th century. loses its importance as a political force, maintaining the status of privileged military units. It existed until the end of 1917. During the Great Patriotic War, in September 1941, the rank of guards units was introduced for the Armed Forces of the USSR.
Hetman- elected head of the registered Cossacks in the 16th-17th centuries. Since 1648 - ruler of Ukraine and head of the Cossack army. Since 1708, the hetman was appointed by the tsarist government. For a long time there were no such appointments, and in 1764 the hetmanate was abolished.
Vowels- elected deputies of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas in Russia from the second half of the 19th century.
City Duma- an unclassified body of city government in Russia (1785-1917). She was involved in issues of improvement, health care and other city affairs. It was headed by the mayor.
City government- executive body of city government in Russia (1870-1917). She was elected by the City Duma. The administration was headed by the mayor.
Living room hundred- a corporation of privileged merchants in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries, second in wealth and nobility after the “guests”. With the knowledge of the tsar, trading people from the towns and peasants were enrolled in the Gostinaya Hundred. Their number sometimes reached 185, they were exempt from taxes and received other privileges. The hundred usually sent two elected representatives to zemstvo councils.
The State Duma- a representative legislative institution of Russia from 1906 to 1917. Established by the Manifesto of Nicholas II of October 17, 1905. The Duma was in charge of legislative proposals, consideration of the state budget, state control reports on its implementation and a number of other issues. Bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after approval by the State Council and approval by the Emperor. She was elected for a term of 5 years. During the existence of this body of power, there were four Duma convocations: I State Duma (April - July 1906); II (February-June 1907); III (November 1907 - June 1912); IV (November 1912 - October 1917). The Russian Constitution of 1993 revived the State Duma, calling it the lower house of the Federal Assembly. This emphasizes the continuity of the legislative bodies of modern Russia with pre-revolutionary Russia. The State Duma of the third convocation has been in place since 1999.
State peasants- a special class in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Formalized by decrees of Peter I from black-sown peasants, odnodvortsy, lads and other peasant categories. State peasants lived on state lands and paid rent to the treasury. They were considered personally free. Since 1841 they were under the control of the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the 19th century. they made up 45% of the agricultural population of the European part of Russia. In 1886 they received the right to purchase land plots as their own.
State Council- the highest legislative institution of the Russian Empire. It was created from the Permanent Council in 1810, and in 1906 it became the upper legislative chamber. He considered bills introduced by ministers until they were approved by the emperor. Members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor, and since 1906 some of the Council members were elected. Abolished in December 1917
GOELRO (State Electrification of Russia)- the first unified long-term plan for the restoration and development of the economy of Soviet Russia for 10-15 years, adopted in 1920. It provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Mostly completed by 1931.
Civil War- the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. Organized armed struggle for power.
Lip- in Northwestern Rus', a territorial term corresponding to a volost or city. In the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. - a territorial district governed by a provincial headman. A province has been an administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first 8 provinces. Each province was divided into districts. Some provinces were united into governor generals. They were headed by governors or governors general. In 1914, Russia was divided into 78 provinces. In the 20s of the XX century. instead of provinces, edges and regions were formed.
GULAG- Main Directorate of the NKVD (MVD) camps of the USSR. The abbreviation Gulag is used to refer to the system of concentration camps that existed under Stalin.
“Walking People”- in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. a general name for freed slaves, runaway peasants, townspeople, etc., who did not have any specific occupation or place of residence and lived mainly by robbery or hired work. They did not bear any duties.
Tribute- a collection in kind or money from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax on subjects. Known in Rus' since the 9th century. In the XIII-XV centuries. a type of tribute was “exit” - a monetary collection in favor of the khans of the Golden Horde. During the formation of the Russian centralized state, tribute became a mandatory state tax from black farmers, palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century combined with other fees and was called data money. Datochnye people - in Russia in the 15th-17th centuries. persons from the taxable urban and rural population, assigned to lifelong military service. From the middle of the 16th century. included in the “new order” regiments. Under Peter I they were replaced by recruits.
“Twenty-five thousand meters”- workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, sent in the 1929-1930s by decision of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) to economic and organizational work on the creation of collective farms in the countryside. In fact, significantly more than 25 thousand left.
Palace Peasants- feudal-dependent peasants in Russia who lived on the lands of the great princes, tsars and members of the royal family and bore duties in their favor. Since 1797 they began to be called appanage peasants.
The era of palace coups- the name accepted in historiography for the period 1725-1762, when in the Russian Empire, after the death of Peter I, who did not appoint an heir, supreme power passed from hand to hand through palace coups, which were carried out by noble groups with the support of guards regiments.
Nobility- the dominant privileged class, part of the feudal lords. In Russia until the beginning of the 18th century. nobility are some class groups of secular feudal lords. Mentioned since the end of the 12th century; was the lowest part of the military service class, constituting the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the 13th century nobles began to be awarded land for their service. In the 18th century turned from a servant into a privileged class.
Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state. In the first years of Soviet power, decrees were the names of laws and regulations issued by the Council of People's Commissars, the Congress of Soviets and their executive bodies. Thus, the decree “On Peace” and the decree “On Land” were adopted by the Second Congress of Soviets on the night of October 27, 1917.
Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 20s-40s. expulsion of some peoples of the USSR. During the Great Patriotic War, this measure affected many nations. Eviction in 1941-1945 Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachays, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were subjected. The Stalinist regime affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds, etc. In 1989, the deportation of peoples was declared illegal and condemned as a grave crime .
Tithe- tax in favor of the church. It amounted to a tenth of the harvest or other income of the population.
“Wild Field”- the historical name of the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously developed in the 16th-17th centuries. runaway peasants and slaves, it was populated by service people to repel the raids of the Crimean khans.
Dictatorship of the proletariat- according to Marxist theory, the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with other sections of the working people. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat must occur after the victory of the socialist revolution; its existence is limited to the transition period from capitalism to socialism. The policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat is associated with the implementation of violence against “alien” classes and sections of society.
Dissidence- disagreement with the official ideology, dissent. In the 50-70s in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, defending human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state.
Volunteer Army- a white army created in the south of Russia in 1917 from volunteer officers, cadets, etc. It was headed by generals M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov and A.I. Denikin. In March 1920, the Volunteer Army was defeated by Red Army troops under the command of M.V. Frunze. The remaining forces of the Volunteer Army became part of the army of Baron P.N. Wrangel.
Duma officials- in the Russian state, officials were boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles, Duma clerks, who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma. In the 17th century headed the orders. They were governors of the largest cities.
Single inheritance- the procedure established by the decree of Peter I in 1714 for the transfer of land property by heredity, aimed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could pass to only one of the heirs) and legally eliminated the differences between estates and estates.
Heresies- religious movements in Christianity that deviate from the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and cult. They became most widespread in the Middle Ages.
Gendarmerie, gendarmes- police, which have a military organization and perform security functions within the country and in the army. In 1827-1917 in Russia there was a Separate Corps of Gendarmes, which performed the functions of political police.
Bookkeepers- dependent peasants and townspeople who entered into bondage, “mortgaged.” Having lost personal freedom, they were exempt from paying taxes. Existed from the XIII to the XVII centuries.
Purchases- in Ancient Rus', smerdas (see Smerda), who worked on the feudal lord’s farm for a “kupa” - a loan. Having worked off the debt, they were released. Unlike serfs (see Serfs), they had their own household.
Westerners- representatives of the direction of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century. They advocated the Europeanization of Russia, based on the recognition of the commonality of Russia and Western Europe. They were supporters of reforming Russian society “from above.” They constantly polemicized with the Slavophiles on the problems of the development paths of Russia. “Reserved Summers” - at the end of the 16th century. this was the name of the years in which peasants were prohibited from moving from one landowner to another on St. George’s Day. They were an important stage in the enslavement of peasants.
Land redistributions- in Russia, a method of distributing land within a peasant community. Since 1861, they were carried out by village gatherings on the basis of equalized land use.
Zemskaya hut- an elected body of local self-government created as a result of the zemstvo reform of Ivan IV. The zemstvo hut consisted of the zemstvo headman who headed it, a sexton and kissers, who were elected by the tax population of the city or volost. At the end of the XVI-XVII centuries. existed along with the voivodeship administration and was actually subordinate to it. In the 20s of the 18th century. replaced by magistrates and town halls.
Zemsky Sobors- central national class-representative institutions in Russia from the mid-16th to the 50s of the 17th century. The core of the zemstvo councils was the Consecrated Cathedral, headed by the metropolitan (since 1589 the patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who, by virtue of their position, had the right of a boyar court. In addition, zemstvo councils included representatives of the Sovereign's court, privileged merchants, elected representatives of the nobility and the elite of the townspeople. They discussed the most important national issues. The last Zemsky Sobor took place in 1653.
Zemstvo movement- liberal-opposition socio-political movement of the second half of the 60s of the XIX - early XX centuries. Its participants defended the expansion of zemstvo rights and the extension of the principles of zemstvo self-government to higher state institutions.
Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of the Russian state with its center in Moscow, not included by Ivan the Terrible in the oprichnina. Zemshchina was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders. She had her own special zemstvo regiments. It existed until the death of Ivan the Terrible.
Zubatovshchina- the policy of “police socialism”, implemented by the SV. Zubatov - head of the Moscow Security Department (from 1896) and the Special Section of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation, legal workers' organizations under police control (for example, the organization of GA. Gapon in St. Petersburg).
Elected Rada- a narrow circle of associates of Tsar Ivan IV - A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makariy, A.M. Kurbsky and others, actually an unofficial government in 1546-1560. The elected Rada united supporters of achieving a compromise between various groups and layers of feudal lords. She advocated the annexation of the Volga region and the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Discussed plans for reforms of the central and local government apparatus and implemented them.
“The Chosen Thousand”- included in the Thousand Book of 1550, members of the Sovereign's court (serving princes, boyars, okolnichi, etc.) and provincial boyar children, who were supposed to receive an increase in their land holdings in other counties, as well as estates near Moscow.
Sharecropping- a type of land lease in which rent is paid to the owner of the land as a share of the harvest (sometimes up to half or more).
Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in industry and other sectors of the economy for the growth of productive forces and economic recovery. Carried out in Russia at the end of the 19th century. It has been carried out in the USSR since the late 1920s. based on the priority of heavy industry in order to overcome the gap with the West, create the material and technical base of socialism, and strengthen defense capabilities. Unlike other countries of the world, industrialization in the USSR began with heavy industry and was carried out by limiting the consumption of the entire population, expropriating the funds of private owners in the city and robbing the peasantry.
International- the name of a large international association of the working class (International Workers' Association), created to coordinate the movement of the proletariat. The First International was founded with the direct participation of K. Marx and F. Engels in 1864. In 1876 its activities ceased. The Second International was founded in 1889 and existed until 1914, that is, until the First World War. With the outbreak of hostilities, the social democratic parties of the leading Western European countries spoke out in favor of supporting their governments in the war, which predetermined the collapse of the international unification. The III International (Communist International, or Comintern) was formed by V.I. Lenin in 1919 and became a kind of headquarters of the communist movement, located in Moscow. The Comintern became an instrument for the implementation of the idea of world revolution. May 15, 1943 I.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, “fulfilled its mission.” In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.
Josephites- representatives of the church-political movement and religious movement in the Russian state (late 15th - mid-16th centuries). It was named after the abbot of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, Joseph of Volotsky. In the fight against non-acquisitive people, they defended the dominant position of the church in Russian society, the inviolability of church dogmas, and the inviolability of the church's ownership. They were supported by the grand princely authorities, and the Josephite Philotheus created the theory of “Moscow - the third Rome”. In the second half of the 16th century. lost their influence in church and political affairs.
Sharecropping- a type of sharecropping in which the rent for the land is half the harvest.
A dictionary of historical terms will help you prepare both for the tasks of the test part of the Unified State Exam and for the second part of the exam, where when writing a historical essay, knowledge of historical terms corresponding to the selected time period is required.
Terminology is arranged alphabetically and according to chronological periods. To search the dictionary, press “Ctrl+F” and enter the desired word.
You can also download the dictionary from the link from YandexDisk:
VIII–beginning XVII century
Corvée was a duty that consisted of the obligation of a peasant who had his own allotment to work on the master's field for a certain number of days a week.
Baskak was a Mongol official who was in charge of collecting tribute and keeping records of the population in the conquered territories. As a rule, a military detachment went along with the Baskaks to suppress possible resistance. Baskaks appeared in Rus' in the middle of the 13th century, but in the middle of the 14th century. The Mongol khans were forced to transfer the right to collect tribute into the hands of the Russian princes.
Beekeeping is initially the extraction of honey from wild bees from natural hollows, then the breeding of bees in hollowed out hollows.
The Boyar Duma is the highest council of the nobility under the Grand Duke (during the times of Kievan Rus and the period of fragmentation), and from the 16th century. under the king. The Boyar Duma was a permanent legislative body and took part in resolving issues of domestic and foreign policy of the state. The Boyar Duma consisted of Duma ranks: Duma boyars, okolnichys, Duma nobles and Duma clerks. It was abolished in 1711.
Boyars are the senior princely warriors in Kievan and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', in Novgorod and Pskov they are the top of the urban population, descendants of the ancient tribal nobility. In Moscow Rus' XV-XVII centuries. - holders of the highest rank, members of the Boyar Duma.
The boyar republic is a type of government that developed in Novgorod and Pskov during a period of political fragmentation. It assumes widespread participation of the population in governance matters through the veche, but real power is still in the hands of the nobility (who occupy the main elected positions and control the activities of the veche).
Varangians are warrior-combatants from the Scandinavian peoples, who in Europe were called Vikings and Normans. The Varangians are mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the IX-XI centuries. The Russian princes had many Varangian warriors serving as mercenaries. In Rus', Scandinavian merchants who were engaged in trade on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks” were also called Varangians. In the XI-XIII centuries. Varangian warriors and merchants in Rus' became glorified without having a noticeable impact on Russian history and culture.
Verv is one of the names of the community among the Eastern and Southern Slavs. In Rus', it initially developed on a consanguineous basis and gradually turned into a neighboring (territorial) community, bound by mutual responsibility. In Russian Pravda, the rope was responsible to the prince for a murder committed on its territory, and supported (fed) the prince’s fine collectors.
Veche - a people's meeting in ancient and medieval Rus' to discuss common affairs. It arose from tribal gatherings of the Slavs. The veche was in charge of issues of war and peace.
Vira is a large fine awarded according to the laws of “Russian Pravda” for the murder of a free person.
Votchina is the hereditary land ownership of a feudal lord in Russia. The first estates were princely; they appeared in the 10th century. By the XI-XII centuries. the documents already mention boyar and monastic estates. The main value in a patrimonial economy was not so much the land as the dependent peasants living on it. The peasants could not own the land, so they took it for use from their feudal lord. For this they worked corvée and paid quitrent.
The Glagolitic alphabet is one of the first Slavic alphabets, supposedly created by the Slavic enlightener Cyril. Unlike the Cyrillic alphabet, it is not widely used.
Dual faith is a combination in the beliefs of the inhabitants of Rus' in the 10th-13th centuries. pagan and Christian ideas.
Tithe is a tax for the benefit of the church.
A squad was originally a detachment of warriors that formed around a military leader at the stage of transition from the clan system to the state. The squad was supposed to protect the leader, and he, in turn, provided the squad with everything necessary. The main source of wealth for the warriors was wars and the booty captured during them. Gradually, the squad turns into the top of the tribe, concentrating wealth and power in its hands. In Rus', the squad appeared in the 9th century. It was headed by a prince. In those days, the squad consisted of two parts: the so-called “senior” squad (the prince’s closest advisers and assistants) and the “junior” squad, which included newly recruited warriors.
A clerk is an official of the central apparatus of the Russian state.
Heresy is a religious teaching that conflicts with official dogma.
Purchase is a category of dependent population of the Old Russian state. A free man took a loan from the feudal lord, a “buy” (of livestock, money, tools, etc.) and was obliged to work it off. The fleeing purchase was made whitewashed, that is, a complete slave. By returning the loan, the purchase was freed from dependence.
Reserved years - years in which the transfer of peasants from one owner to another was prohibited (“commandment” - prohibition). They were originally introduced by Ivan IV in 1581 and were planned as a temporary measure. However, they were subsequently extended several times.
The Zemsky Sobor is the highest legislative body in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549. Subsequent cathedrals were convened until the end of the 17th century. on the initiative of the king. The participants of the Zemsky Sobor included representatives of all major classes: boyars (as part of the Boyar Duma), clergy (“Consecrated Cathedral”), nobles, townspeople and even black-growing peasants. Zemsky Sobors met irregularly and to resolve the most important state affairs (the election of a new tsar, the most important reforms within the country, foreign policy issues). The time of action of the Zemsky Sobor is associated with the time of the existence of the class-representative monarchy in Russia.
Zemshchina is a part of the territory of the Russian state that was not included by Ivan IV in his personal inheritance - the oprichnina. The zemshchina retained the traditional authorities of that time: the Boyar Duma, orders, local government. It also had its own army.
Grain is a pattern of tiny gold or silver grains that are soldered onto a metal plate.
The Golden Horde is a Mongol-Tatar state founded in the early 40s. XIII century Khan Batu. The Golden Horde included the territories of Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, the Northern Caucasus, Crimea, and the eastern part of Kazakhstan. The Russian principalities were vassals of the Golden Horde. Capitals: Sarai-Batu, from the first half of the 14th century. – Sarai-Berke (Lower Volga region). In the 15th century broke up into the Siberian, Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan and other khanates.
The elected Rada is a circle of close associates of Tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich, in fact the unofficial government of Russia in the 50s. XVI century Active members of the Chosen Council: Archpriest Sylvester, A.F. Adashev, Prince A.M. Kurbsky, I.M. Viskovaty, Metropolitan Macarius. “Rada” is a Polish term, derived from the German rat - “council”. The term “rada” was first used by A. M. Kurbsky, who wrote his work in Lithuania, where he fled in 1564.
The Josephites are an ideological movement among the Russian clergy of the 15th-16th centuries, followers of Abbot Joseph of Volotsky, supporters of the preservation of church-monastic land ownership and reprisals against heretics.
The Cyrillic alphabet is a Slavic alphabet created on the basis of the Byzantine unitiate (statutory alphabet), supposedly by a student of the Slavic enlightener Methodius Clementius. It was named “Cyrillic” as a sign of the people’s deep recognition of the activities of the first Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.
Prince - head of state or appanage in the 9th-16th centuries. among the Slavs and other peoples, later - a noble title. Before the formation of the state, the princes were tribal leaders, who then gradually became heads of state. At first, the power of the prince was elective, then it became hereditary. For example, the Rurik dynasty in the Old Russian state. During the period of political fragmentation, the princes had special functions in Novgorod and Pskov, being only hired military leaders, obliged to maintain order within the country and protect its borders.
Feeding is a type of princely award to his officials, in which the local administration was supported by collecting various “feeds” (bread, meat, cheese, hay, etc.) and court fees (judges) from the population in their favor. Feeding was given as a reward for previous, most often military, service. Administrative duties were only an addition to the opportunity to feed. Feeders did not receive salaries for administrative and judicial activities. The feeding system was abolished in 1556.
The cross-domed church is a type of Christian church that arose in the medieval architecture of Byzantium. The dome or drum rests on 4 pillars in the center of the building, dividing the internal space of the temple.
Kissing record - a document about taking an oath, accompanied by kissing the cross.
Baptism is the introduction of Christianity as a state religion in Kievan Rus, carried out at the end of the 10th century (988) by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich.
Chronicle - records of events in Russian history, arranged by year.
Localism is a system of appointing members of the Sovereign's court to official positions based on the official position of ancestors and immediate relatives.
Metropolitan - head of the Russian Orthodox Church until the establishment of the patriarchate in 1589.
Mosaic is an image or pattern made of colored stones, ceramic tiles, smalt (colored opaque glass).
Viceroy - in Rus' X-XVI centuries. official who headed the local government. Appointed by the prince. In the XIV-XV centuries. received feeding. The position of governor was abolished with the abolition of feedings in 1555-1556.
Non-acquisitives are followers of an ideological trend among the Russian clergy of the 15th-16th centuries, who advocated the refusal of the Church to own villages and exploit the labor of peasants. The most famous leader of this trend is Elder Nil of Sorsky.
The Norman theory is a direction in Russian and foreign historiography, whose supporters considered the Normans (Varangians) to be the founders of the state in Ancient Rus'. Formulated in the second quarter of the 18th century. G. Z. Bayer, G. F. Miller and others. The Norman theory was rejected by M. V. Lomonosov, D. I. Ilovaisky, S. A. Gedeonov and others.
A quitrent in kind was a duty that consisted of the peasant’s obligation to contribute to the benefit of the land owner a certain amount of products produced on his own farm.
A monetary quitrent is a duty consisting of the peasant’s obligation to pay the owner of the land a certain amount in money.
Ognishchanin is the main servant, the manager of the estate’s economy.
Oprichnina is an inheritance allocated to the widow of the Grand Duke, in addition to (“oprich”) all other inheritances. In 1565-1572. - a special royal inheritance of Ivan IV the Terrible with a special oprichnina court, army, and state apparatus. Also the name of the system of internal political measures carried out during the same period.
Cloisonne enamel is a technique for making jewelry based on filling the cells between filigree partitions with colored enamel.
Povoz is a system of collecting tribute, which was introduced by Princess Olga, instead of polyudye, establishing its fixed size (lessons) and collection place (cemeteries).
Pogost - according to the tax reform of Princess Olga, a place for collecting tribute, where the population brought it and where the court of the princely official (tiun) was located, who monitored the timely and correct receipt of taxes into the treasury.
Elderly - the payment established by law from a peasant to the owner of the land for the right to move to other lands, to another owner.
Political (feudal) fragmentation is a stage in the history of medieval European states when they were divided into feudal estates and the owner of each of them made laws, judged, collected taxes, maintained his own army, and the central ruler had no real power.
Polyudye - in Kievan Rus, a detour by the prince and a squad of subject lands to collect tribute.
An estate is a type of feudal land tenure in Russia. Estates first appeared in the 14th century. as land holdings granted for military service without the right to transfer land by inheritance (the so-called conditional land tenure). During the XVI-XVII centuries. there is a process of rapprochement between the estate and the patrimony. At the beginning of the 18th century. this process will culminate in the merger of the estate and the fiefdom. Owners of estates are called landowners.
Posad is the name of the trade and craft part of the city in Rus'.
Posadnik - during the era of the Old Russian state, the viceroy of the prince. Later, this term began to designate the highest government position in Novgorod and Pskov (until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries). Posadniks were elected at the assembly from representatives of the most noble and wealthy boyar families.
Orthodoxy is the eastern branch of Christianity, represented by several churches led by patriarchs and church councils.
Prikaz is a central government body in Russia in the 16th – early 18th centuries. Initially, an order was a special assignment given by the tsar to one or another boyar, later - a staff of officials (secretaries) who helped the boyar fulfill his role and, finally, a central government body. The term “order” came into use in the middle of the 16th century. The transformations of the Elected Rada played a significant role in the formation of the order system. The order system was eliminated at the beginning of the 18th century, during the process of Peter the Great's reforms.
The route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” is a water (sea and river) route from Scandinavia through Eastern Europe to Byzantium in the Middle Ages. One of the waterways of the expansion of the Varangians from their area of residence (the coast of the Baltic Sea) to the South - to Southeast Europe and Asia Minor in the 8th-13th centuries AD. e. Russian merchants used this same route to trade with Constantinople and Scandinavia.
Early feudal state - historians use this term to characterize the Old Russian state of the 9th-10th centuries. During this period, the territory of the state had not yet been completely formed, and there was no established system of governance. The tribal isolation of the territories that were part of the state was preserved.
The clan community is one of the first forms of social organization of people. In the early stages of its history, an individual person was unable to resist nature and obtain the minimum necessary for life. This led to the unification of people into communities. The clan community is characterized by collective labor and egalitarian consumption. Within the community there was only a sex-age division of labor.
The Seven Boyars - the boyar government included (seven people: Fyodor Mstislavsky, Ivan Vorotynsky, Vasily Golitsyn, Ivan Romanov, Fyodor Sheremetev, Andrei Trubetskoy and Boris Lykov), which took power in Moscow after the overthrow of Vasily Shuisky from the throne in 1610. Nominally remained in power until 1612. In fact, she transferred power to the Polish hetman S. Zolkiewski, with whom she entered into an agreement on calling Prince Vladislav, the son of the Polish king Sigismund III, to the Russian throne.
Filigree is a product made of gold or silver wire, which is soldered onto a metal base.
Sloboda - in Russia in the 12th - first half of the 16th centuries. individual settlements or a group of settlements, including those near a fortified city, the population of which was temporarily exempted from state duties (hence the name “sloboda” - freedom). In the 16th century settlements of service people (streltsy, gunners, etc.), coachmen and government artisans, as well as foreigners (Foreign settlements) were formed. In the first half of the 18th century. turned into ordinary villages or urban-type settlements. In the XIX-XX centuries. Suburban industrial settlements were sometimes given the name “sloboda”.
Smerd is a category of people with no rights in Ancient Rus'. The life of a stinker in “Russkaya Pravda” was protected by a minimum fee of 5 hryvnia. Perhaps this was the name given to the inhabitants of recently annexed territories subject to increased tribute. There is an opinion that all farmers were called smerds, among whom were both dependent and free.
A neighborhood community is a group, a collective of people who are not related by family ties. Community members live in a certain territory and belong to the community according to the principle of neighborhood. Each family within the community has the right to a share of community property and cultivates its own part of the arable land. Together, community members raise virgin soil, clear forests, and build roads. Among the Eastern Slavs, the transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one was completed by the 7th century. After this, the male population of the community received the name “people”. With the growth of feudal land ownership (during the existence of the Old Russian state), the community became dependent on the feudal lord or the state. However, it retains all its functions. The community regulated the cycle of agricultural work, distributed taxes among community members (the principle of mutual responsibility was in effect), and resolved current economic issues.
Sagittarius - in the Russian state of the 16th - early 18th centuries. service people who made up the standing army; infantry armed with firearms. Initially they were recruited from the free rural and urban population, then their service became lifelong and hereditary. They received a salary in money, bread, and sometimes land. They lived in settlements and had families, and were also engaged in crafts and trade. Streltsy were active participants in the Moscow uprising of 1682 and the Streltsy uprising of 1698. The Streltsy army was abolished by Peter I in connection with the creation of a regular Russian army.
The Stoglavy Council is a church council with the participation of Ivan IV in 1551. It was convened on the initiative of the secular authorities. He unified church rituals, declared all locally revered Russian saints universally revered, ordered the creation of schools for the training of clergy, regulated the norms of behavior of the clergy, forbade monasteries to found settlements in cities, established the immunity of the clergy from the secular court and the inviolability of church property.
Code of Laws is a set of laws of the unified Russian state, adopted by the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich in 1497. Uniform court norms were established for the entire territory of the country. Article 57 of the Code of Law introduced a restriction on the peasant transition: peasants could leave their owners once a year - a week before and after the autumn St. George's Day (November 26). At the same time, it was mandatory to pay “elderly” - a one-time payment for living on the land of the feudal lord. The Code of Law also limited the sources of servitude. The code of law of Ivan IV (1550) confirmed the limitation of peasant migration, eliminated the judicial privileges of appanage princes and strengthened the role of central state judicial bodies.
Temnik is a Mongol military commander, the head of a tumen (in Russian “darkness”), which consists of 10 thousand warriors.
Tiun is a servant-manager in the estate of a patrimonial estate; The princely tiuns also carried out various state assignments.
Tysyatsky - in the Old Russian state he led the militia. In the Novgorod Republic, he was elected at the assembly for one year, and was an assistant mayor. By the middle of the 15th century. this position is gradually disappearing.
An inheritance is a part of a principality-land, a semi-independent possession allocated to one of the younger members of the ruling dynasty.
Appanage princes - in the XIV-XVI centuries. relatives of the Grand Duke or Tsar who received part of the territory of the state as an inheritance. Within the limits of their inheritance, they were sovereign sovereigns, but could not conduct an independent foreign policy and were obliged to participate in the campaigns undertaken by the Grand Duke. In terms of their status, they were vassals of the Grand Duke. Occasionally, appanage princes were involved in solving national affairs, but their influence on domestic politics was, as a rule, insignificant due to mistrust on the part of the grand dukes.
Lesson - according to the tax reform of Princess Olga, there is a fixed amount of tribute levied on the subject population.
Appointed summers - the period during which the search for fugitive peasants or slaves was carried out. First introduced by decree of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich in 1597 with a 5-year period. Later, the duration of lesson years changed, ranging from 5 to 15 years. Finally abolished with the introduction of an indefinite search for fugitives under the Council Code of 1649.
Fresco – painting with water paints on wet plaster.
Serf is a category of dependent population in Russia in the 10th-18th centuries. The most powerless part of the population, in its legal status close to slaves. The feudal lord could kill, sell, punish the slave, and was also responsible for the actions of his slave. They became slaves as a result of being captured, sold for debts, or married to a slave. As a rule, serfs did not have their own allotment and were among the servants.
Christianity is one of the world religions, along with Buddhism and Islam.
Tsar is the title of the monarch of Russia in 1547-1917.
Servant - in the broadest sense of the word servant. In Ancient Rus', the category of dependent people, slaves.
Niello is an alloy of silver, lead and other components used to decorate metal products, mainly silver. Crushed niello is applied to the engraved surface of the metal, the product is fired, after which a black or dark gray pattern is revealed on it, firmly fused to the base. Blackening of silver and other metals was already known in the ancient world. Rough images (story, landscape, ornamental) are made on separate plates, or decorate household items (dishes, cutlery, boxes), weapons, and jewelry. Silver pendants and bracelets of Russian craftsmen of the 10th-12th centuries are known. Niello was widely used by Russian jewelers of the 15th-16th centuries; the greatest variety of product forms and subjects of rough drawings was achieved in the 18th century. masters of Veliky Ustyug.
Black-growing peasants are peasants who lived on “black”, that is, state lands.
St. George's Day - first introduced by the Code of Laws of 1497. From that time on, the peasant transition was limited to two weeks a year: the week before and the week after the autumn St. George's Day (November 26).
Paganism is a religious belief based on primitive myths about many gods, spirits, personifying the forces of nature (sun, rain, fertility), human activities (agriculture, trade, war).
Yarlyk is a khan's charter, which was issued to Russian princes and confirmed their right to reign. The label was also issued to the metropolitan. According to this document, the church was exempt from taxes and duties.
XVII-XVIII centuries
Absolutism is monarchical power, not limited by any elected representative body, based on a developed administrative apparatus and subject to the law (the monarch can change the law, but cannot break it until it is changed). In Russia it began to take shape in the second half of the 17th century. (under Alexei Mikhailovich), finally formed under Peter I, reached its peak in the second half of the 18th century. under Catherine II.
Assemblies - under Peter I, receiving guests in a noble house.
White settlements are parts of cities that belonged to secular landowners or monasteries, the population of which was exempted (whitewashed) from paying posad state taxes - taxes. For the first time, Boris Godunov returned the inhabitants of white settlements to taxation, but during the years of the “Troubles” this order was forgotten. The demand of the townspeople to eliminate the privileges of white settlements became one of the reasons for a number of urban uprisings, including the Salt Riot of 1648 in Moscow. Finally destroyed according to the Council Code of 1649.
Bironovshchina is a term used to characterize the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740). Comes from the name of her favorite E.I. Biron. The characteristic features of this period were the dominance of foreigners, mainly Germans, in all sectors of state and public life, brutal persecution of the dissatisfied, theft, espionage, and denunciations.
The rebellious century - the 17th century was remembered by contemporaries as the “rebellious” century. This century began with the Khlopk uprising and the war led by Ivan Bolotnikov and ended with the Streltsy unrest. Popular unrest covered vast territories, and during city riots the rebels became masters of the capital. However, the rebels did not have a well-thought-out plan of action, often pursued narrow-class interests, and were disunited and undisciplined. A common feature of popular unrest in the 17th century. were clearly expressed tsarist illusions.
The Supreme Privy Council is the highest advisory state institution in Russia in 1726-1930 (7-8 people). Created by Catherine I as an advisory body, it actually resolved the most important state issues.
The Guard is a selected, privileged part of the army. In Russia, the first guards regiments were Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, which grew out of the “amusing army” of Peter I. The Guard trained officers for the army and consisted mainly of people of noble origin. She had a significant influence on the political life of the country during the era of palace coups. During the 18th – early 19th centuries. the number of guards units increased, now the guard included all branches of the military and the fleet.
A province is the highest unit of administrative-territorial division in Russia (Russian Empire, Russian Republic, RSFSR, USSR) from 1708 to 1929, which took shape under Peter I in the process of organizing an absolutist state.
Palace peasants - in the Russian state of the XII-XVIII centuries. feudal-dependent peasants who lived on the lands of the great princes and kings and bore feudal duties in their favor. The main responsibility of the palace peasants was to supply the grand ducal (later the royal) court with food. Since 1797, they became appanage peasants.
A palace coup is a seizure of political power in Russia in the 18th century, caused by the absence of clear rules for succession to the throne, accompanied by a struggle between court factions and carried out, as a rule, with the assistance of guard regiments.
Nobles are servants of princes and boyars. The name replaced the term “vigilantes”. In the first half of the 15th century. noble servants “under the dvorsky” - the manager of the estate. For their service they received small holdings, which later became estates. In the 16th century The top of the service people who became part of the Sovereign's court began to be called nobles.
Dragoons are cavalry capable of operating on foot, or infantry mounted on horses. For the first time in history they are mentioned in relation to the 16th century. They appeared in the Moscow army under Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, when in 1631 the 1st Dragoon Regiment, which was in the army of A.S., was formed from recruited foreigners. Sheina near Smolensk. Then the dragoons were replenished with Russian volunteers and newly baptized Tatars. The dragoons of that time were armed with muskets, swords, reeds and short pikes. Under Peter I, the number of dragoon regiments reached 33. Under him, teams of police dragoons were established in the capitals and some large cities, which existed until 1811. In 1856, dragoon regiments were distributed among cavalry divisions. In 1882, all army uhlan and hussar regiments were renamed dragoons. After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. The historical names were returned to the Uhlan and Hussar regiments, but the uniform remained the same, with the exception of the front dress, which had characteristic differences.
Duma nobles - a rank in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. They performed court and military duties and supervised orders. Sometimes they rose to the rank of boyar. In the 16th century belonged to noble families and were few in number.
Serif lines are fortified lines on the southern borders of Russia. Built in the 16th-17th centuries. They consisted of small fortified towns, ramparts, palisades, and forest fences. They were called upon to block the path to Crimean raids and mark the border of Russia.
Explorers are Russian people whose travels in the 16th-17th centuries. led to the largest geographical discoveries in Siberia, the Far East and in the sea coastal waters washing them. Most of them were “service” (Cossacks of various ranks), trade and “industrial” (engaged in trades, mainly fur) people. As a result of their activities, supported and partially directed by the Russian government and the local Siberian administration, a significant part of Western Siberia up to the Yenisei was by the beginning of the 17th century. in the most general terms surveyed and annexed to the Russian state.
Cossacks - in the XV-XVI centuries. free people, inhabitants of the steppes between the Volga and Dnieper (Wild Field), partly immigrants from the Horde, partly fugitive Russian serfs and peasants. The Cossacks lived by hunting, robbing merchant caravans, and raiding Russian and Tatar villages. The highest authority among the Cossacks was the circle (general meeting). Cossack villages (detachments) were led by atamans, who were assisted by esauls. In the second half of the 16th century. Some of the Cossacks were included in the ranks of the service people “by appointment.” In the XVI-XVII centuries. the government used the Cossacks to guard the borders, paying them salaries in money, bread and gunpowder. In the 18th century The Cossacks turned into a privileged military service class. By the beginning of the twentieth century. there were 11 Cossack troops: Don, Kuban, Terek, Astrakhan, Ural, Orenburg, Semirechenskoe, Siberian, Transbaikal, Amur, Ussuri. In 1916, 4.4 million Cossacks belonged to 53 million dessiatines. land. In 1920, the Cossacks as a class were abolished.
A capitalist peasant is a peasant entrepreneur who has become rich and owns capital.
Classicism is an art direction based on the use of many elements from ancient architecture (portico, pediment, columns). Classicism is also characterized by clear symmetry and rigor of external design. It became widespread in Russia from the middle of the 18th century. until the 40s XIX century
Collegiums are sectoral governing bodies created in 1718. They were headed by presidents. Decisions were made by majority vote; in the event of a tie, the president's vote was counted as two votes. The “first” Military, Admiralty, Foreign Collegiums were responsible for the army, navy and diplomatic relations with foreign states. The Berg and Manufactory Collegiums were responsible for mining and light industry, and the Commerce Collegium was responsible for trade. The Chamber, State and Audit Boards collected revenues, made expenses and controlled finances. The College of Justice developed laws and controlled the courts, the Patrimonial Collegium was in charge of land ownership issues, and the Chief Magistrate governed the cities.
Colonization is the process of settlement and economic development of empty outlying lands of one’s country (internal colonization), as well as the founding of settlements (associated primarily with agricultural activities) outside one’s country (external colonization).
Serfdom is a set of forms of personal dependence of peasants under feudalism. In Russia, the features characteristic of serfdom became noticeable from the middle of the 15th century. The Code of Law of 1497, for the first time on a national scale, limited the right of transfer of patrimonial peasants to another owner to two weeks (one before and one after the autumn St. George’s Day) and introduced a mandatory payment for the right of transfer (“elderly”). The right of peasants to move on St. George's Day was first temporarily and then permanently prohibited at the end of the 16th century. (decree of 1597). In the first half of the 17th century. the period during which the owners had the right to search for and return runaway peasants steadily increased, and the Council Code of 1649 introduced an indefinite investigation. It is this date that is considered the beginning of the existence of serfdom in Russia. Serfs were obliged to bear duties in favor of their masters in the form of corvée (work in the lord's field) and in-kind, and later cash, dues.
The situation of serfs deteriorated sharply in the 18th century. Thus, as market relations developed, the exploitation of serfs steadily increased, and in the era of palace coups, the state, which depended on the support of the nobility, withdrew from the relationship between peasants and landowners, giving the latter unlimited power. The position of serfs almost ceases to differ from the position of slaves. At the same time, from the time of Catherine II, the idea of the immorality of serfdom and the need to abolish it began to spread in society. By the middle of the 19th century. Its economic unprofitability also becomes obvious (peasants’ disinterest in the results of their labor, the impossibility of free development of the labor market, etc.), therefore, after the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which was unsuccessful for Russia. Serfdom was abolished on February 19, 1861.
A peasant war is a special type of civil war, the main driving force of which is the peasantry. The main goal of such wars was usually the destruction of the feudal system. Most often they ended in defeat, since the masses participating in them did not have a clear program, acted spontaneously, and were poorly armed. The largest peasant wars in Russia were associated with the suppression of uprisings (riots), which were led by: I. Bolotnikov - 1606-1607, S. Razin - 1667-1671, E. Pugachev - 1773-1775.
The Kunstkamera is a museum created on the initiative of Peter I. It was opened to visitors in 1719 in a building specially built for it in St. Petersburg. It was based on the personal collections of Peter I. Throughout the 18th-19th centuries. The museum's collection was constantly increasing due to both foreign and domestic materials.
Manufacture is a large enterprise that uses manual labor and applies division of labor.
Mercantilism is an economic policy that proceeds from the fact that the welfare of the state depends on the greatest possible accumulation of money (gold, silver) in the country.
Small-scale production is a craft production focused not on ordering, but on selling products on the market.
Mesyachina is a monthly allowance that the landowner gave to a peasant who was deprived of an allotment and worked on the master’s field all six working days of the week. The month spread to Russia at the end of the 18th century.
Naryshkin baroque - Naryshkin style (Naryshkin baroque, Moscow baroque), conventional (after the surname of the Naryshkins, in whose estates buildings of this style appeared) the name of the stylistic direction in Russian architecture of the late 17th - early 18th centuries: elegant multi-tiered churches (in Fili and Troitsky- Lykov in Moscow) and secular buildings with carved white stone decoration.
The New Trade Charter is a set of trade rules in Russia, adopted in 1667 on the initiative of A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin. With its adoption, foreign merchants had to pay double duty for selling goods within Russia, could only conduct wholesale trade and sell their goods only to Russians. Trade in Russia between foreigners was prohibited.
The all-Russian market is a unified economic system, which is characterized by common economic ties and the exchange of goods between different parts of the country. It began to take shape in the 17th century as a result of the development of commodity-money relations, the specialization of regions, the emergence of manufactories, and the emergence of all-Russian fairs.
Ostrog is a type of defensive fortification of Russians in Siberia and the Far East at the end of the 16th-18th centuries.
Otkhodnichestvo is the departure of peasants from their place of traditional residence to earn money for a certain period of time. It was widespread in the Central non-chernozem region, the Urals, and the northern provinces of Russia due to low soil fertility and low efficiency of agricultural labor. Otkhodnichestvo became widespread in the second half of the 18th century. due to an increase in the size of the quitrent.
Parsuna - (distorted Latin persona - person, person) - originally synonymous with the modern concept of portrait, regardless of the style, image technique, place and time of writing. The concept of “parsuna” as a work of the transition period from icon painting to secular portraiture.
Possession peasants are a category of peasants who were considered the property not of the owner, but of the plant where they worked. Could not be sold separately from the factory. The labor of sessional peasants was especially widely used in the metallurgy of the Urals. They received a cash salary and were provided with small plots for vegetable gardens. Released under the Peasant Reform of 1861.
Assigned peasants are a category of peasantry in Russia in the 17th – first half of the 19th centuries. Instead of paying quitrent and poll tax, she was obliged to work in factories. Typically, such peasants were “assigned” or assigned to factories forever.
Enlightened absolutism is a policy carried out by a monarch who has unlimited power, in accordance with the ideas of the Enlightenment.
Protectionism is an economic policy of the state aimed at supporting the national economy. It is carried out by limiting the import of foreign goods, financial support for national production, stimulating the export of products, and sometimes by limiting the export of raw materials. It arose during the era of primitive accumulation of capital.
Schism - separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of a part of believers who did not recognize the church reform of Patriarch Nikon (1653-1656); religious and social movement that arose in Russia in the 17th century.
Recruit - a person accepted into military service by hire or conscription. In Russia in 1705-1874. - a person enlisted in the army through conscription. In 1874, the term “recruit” was replaced by the term “new recruit.”
Autocracy is an unlimited monarchical form of government. In Russia it was first used after the end of Horde rule (1480) to emphasize the external sovereignty of the reign of Ivan III. Under Ivan the Terrible, it is characterized by unlimited internal power. Since the time of Peter I, it has been used as an analogue of European absolutism. Existed in Russia until March 1917.
Secularization is the conversion by the state of church property (mainly land) into secular property. The plans for secularization were hatched by Ivan III and Ivan IV, but only Catherine II managed to put it into practice in 1764.
The Senate is a government governing body. In Russia it was established in 1711. It became the highest executive and judicial authority, which also had significant legislative powers. Later, in the 18th – first half of the 19th centuries, it was reformed several times, losing its legislative functions. According to the judicial reform of 1864, it became the highest court. Lasted until 1917
Sentimentalism is a style in literature and art of the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. Proclaimed the cult of natural feeling, nature. Characteristic is special attention to the emotional experiences of the “little man.” The main genres are a sensitive story and a journey. The most prominent representative in Russia is N. M. Karamzin.
Synod is a meeting of clergy who manage the affairs of the church. In Russia, it was established in 1721 by decree of Peter I during the church reform as the highest body for the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church instead of the patriarchate. In November 1917, the patriarchy was again restored in the country. The Synod became an advisory body under the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church
Old Believers (Old Believers) are opponents of the church reform carried out by Patriarch Nikon in the 50s. XVII century The Old Believers argued that the Russian Church has been superior to everyone in piety since ancient times, and therefore its rituals and books cannot be changed according to Greek models. They referred to the decisions of the Stoglavy Council of 1551. Nikon’s supporters were considered traitors to Orthodoxy, servants of the Antichrist. At the end of the 17th century. The Old Believers were divided into two main directions - priestlyism and non-priestlyism. Representatives of the first recognized the need for priests during services and rituals. Supporters of the second believed that the clergy had died. Subsequently, both priestlyism and non-priestlyism were divided into numerous rumors, and those - into agreements.
The laid down commission is a commission created by Catherine II in 1767 to draw up a new set of laws of Russia to replace the outdated Council Code of 1649. Representatives of all classes of Russian society (except for serfs), who received orders from their voters, were invited to participate in the work of the Commission. As a guide for deputies, Catherine II compiled the “Order,” which incorporated the main ideas of the Enlightenment. Based on the results of its work, the Commission failed to develop a single bill, and in 1768, under the pretext of war with Turkey, its activities were terminated.
Favoritism is a phenomenon of court life in the era of absolutism, in which a person enjoying the special favor of a ruler, an influential person, receives various privileges and, as a rule, influences the views and behavior of his patron.
Khovanshchina is the name adopted in historical literature for the actions of Streltsy and soldiers in April - September 1682. Caused by increased taxes, the arbitrariness of the administration and Streltsy commanders. Connected with the struggle of the palace parties after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. The speech was supported (until May) by the Moscow lower classes and serfs. Suppressed after the execution of the elected representatives of the archers and the leader of the uprising - Prince I. A. Khovansky.
The tent style is a special architectural type that appeared and became widespread in Russian temple architecture. Instead of a dome, the building of the tented temple ends with a tent. Tent churches can be made of wood or stone. Stone tented churches appeared at the beginning of the 16th century and have no analogues in the architecture of other countries. The most famous are the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Moat (St. Basil's).
A fair is a place of regular, usually seasonal, trade. Typically, fairs arose at the intersection of trade routes, in large river ports, etc. (for example, the largest fair near the walls of the Makaryev Monastery near Nizhny Novgorod). The appearance of fairs indicated the beginning of the transition from a subsistence economy to a market economy and the formation of a domestic Russian market.
Yasak - in Russia XVI-XVII centuries. natural tax, which was levied on the peoples of the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia. Charged on furs or livestock. Yasak payers were called yasak people. Later replaced by cash payments.
XIX century
Empire is a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, the Empire style absorbed the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.
Anarchists are a political philosophy encompassing theories and views that advocate the elimination of all coercive government and the power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different directions of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from secondary to fundamental ones (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, and the ethno-national issue). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.
Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore in France the monarchical Bourbon dynasty, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In the scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called “anti-revolutionary,” and starting with the third, “anti-Napoleonic.” At various times, coalitions included Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.
Great reforms of the 1860-1870s. – bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856), which began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). Great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), city reform (1870), judicial reform (1864), and military reform (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the field of finance, education, and the press and affected all spheres of life of Russian society.
Military settlements were a special organization of the armed forces in 1810-1857, combining combat service with housekeeping. Some state peasants were transferred to the position of military peasants. The villagers combined agricultural work with military service. It was expected that over time the entire army would be transferred to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment, and save the mass of state peasants from conscription, essentially turning them into free people. Alexander I hoped in this way to take another step towards the abolition of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulation, turned into hard labor. The settlements and A.A., who was in charge of their organization. The Arakcheevs were universally hated. The villagers rebelled several times. The largest uprising was the uprising of the Chuguev and Taganrog settlement regiments in 1819.
The Eastern Question is a designation accepted in diplomacy and historical literature for international contradictions in the 18th – early 20th centuries associated with the emerging collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.
Temporarily obligated peasants are peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to fulfill their previous duties in favor of the landowner before switching to redemption.
Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906. redemption by peasants from landowners of land plots provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landowners the ransom amount for the land, and peasants who were in debt to the state had to repay this debt over 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of quitrent that peasants paid to landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to collect more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, receiving about 700 million rubles. income.
Ghazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam there is a holy war for faith, against infidels (those who do not believe in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).
The State Council is the highest legislative institution. Transformed in January 1810 from the Permanent Council in accordance with the “Plan of State Transformations” by M. M. Speransky. He did not have legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted to him for consideration by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, budgets, reports of ministries, some higher administrative issues and special judicial cases).
The Decembrists were participants in the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.
Clergy - ministers of worship in monotheistic religions; persons professionally engaged in the performance of religious rites and services and constituting special corporations. In the Orthodox Church, the clergy is divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the 19th century, they were a privileged class of Russian society, exempt from corporal punishment, compulsory service and poll tax.
Westerners - the direction of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path and opposed the Slavophiles. Westerners fought against the “theory of official nationality,” criticized serfdom and autocracy, and put forward a project for the liberation of peasants with land. The main representatives are V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin and others.
The zemstvo movement is a liberal-opposition social and political activity of zemstvo councilors and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and involving them in government. It manifested itself in the submission of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, holding illegal meetings and congresses, and publishing brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: “Conversation”, “Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists”, “Union of Liberation”. Prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Peter D. Dolgorukov, P.A. Geiden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of the political parties of Cadets and Octobrists, the zemstvo movement ceased.
Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the zemstvo reform of 1864. In charge of education, healthcare, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and governors, who had the right to repeal zemstvo decisions.
Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of shares of the crop. It was a form transitional from feudal land lease to capitalist.
Imamate is the general name for a Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of the murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in the end. 20s XIX century during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonialist policy of tsarism.
Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.
Counter-reforms of the 1880s – the name of the activities of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, revision of the reforms of the 1860s: restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), introduction of class principles in primary and secondary schools, abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), introduction of the institute zemstvo chiefs (1889), establishment of bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.
The Corps of Gendarmes is a police force that has a military organization and performs functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. The corps of gendarmes served as political police.
Petty bourgeois - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917, a tax-paying class of former townspeople - artisans, small traders and homeowners. They united at the place of residence into communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, by law they could be subjected to corporal punishment.
Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegiums. The purpose of the reform was to restructure the central authorities based on the principle of unity of command. Initially, eight ministries were created: Military Ground Forces (from 1815 - Military), Naval Forces (from 1815 - Naval), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also under Alexander I there were the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or more comrades (deputies).
Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the highlanders of the North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of muridism was its combination of religious teachings and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against the “infidels” (i.e., non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism presupposed the complete and unquestioning subordination of its followers to their mentors - the Murshids. Muridism was led by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave greater organization to the struggle of the Caucasian mountaineers.
Populists are representatives of an ideological movement among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the position of “peasant socialism” against serfdom and capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal populists ). Founders: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of “peasant socialism”), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious trend), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda trend), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial trend). The revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs).
Neo-Russian style is a direction in Russian architecture of the late 19th century. – 1910s, which used motifs of ancient Russian architecture with the aim of reviving the national identity of Russian culture. It is characterized not by exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by generalization of motifs, creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style allow us to consider it as a national-romantic movement within the framework of the Art Nouveau style. V. M. Vasnetsov (facade of the Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F. O. Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky Station, 1902-1904), A. V. Shchusev (Marfo-Mariinsky Cathedral, 1908-1912) worked in this style.
Nihilism - in the 1860s. a movement in Russian social thought that denied the traditions and foundations of noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.
The Patriotic War of 1812 was the liberation war of Russia against the army of Napoleon I. Caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, Russia’s refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.
Labor - in post-reform Russia, a system of peasants cultivating the land of the landowners with their own implements for rented land (mainly for sections), loans of bread, money, etc. A relic of the corvée economy.
Cut-offs are part of the peasant plots that went to the landowners as a result of the reform of 1861 (the reduction of plots was carried out if their size exceeded the norm established for the given area).
The Peredvizhniki were artists who were members of the Russian art association, the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. They turned to depicting the everyday life and history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, and exposing social orders. The ideological leaders of the Wanderers were I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov. Main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; Among the Peredvizhniki there were also artists from Ukraine, Lithuania, and Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Peredvizhniki joined the AHRR.
The Petrashevites were participants in the evenings held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, problems of restructuring autocratic politics and serfdom were discussed. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the circle participants were writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to achieve the implementation of their plans by force, for which they created a secret society and began issuing proclamations. However, it was not possible to fulfill the plan. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of execution, it was replaced by hard labor. The convicted Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.
Poll tax - in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced household taxation. The poll tax was imposed on all men of the tax-paying classes, regardless of age.
Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual labor to machine labor and, accordingly, from manufactory to factory. It requires a developed market of free labor, therefore it cannot be fully accomplished in a feudal country.
Commoners - people from different classes: clergy, peasantry, merchants, philistines - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, they are carriers of revolutionary democratic views.
Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality using specific means inherent in one or another type of artistic creativity. In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes on specific forms of certain creative methods (enlightenment realism, critical, socialist).
Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement in the culture of the late 18th – 1st half. XIX century Reflecting disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism contrasted the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with the aspiration for unlimited freedom, the thirst for perfection and renewal, and the idea of personal and civil independence. The painful discord between a fictional ideal and cruel reality is the basis of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often its idealization), traditions of folklore and culture of one’s own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, fine arts).
The Russian Empire is the name of the Russian state from 1721 to September 1, 1917.
Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (otherwise known as neo-Russian, false Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and representing a synthesis of the traditions of ancient Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements of Byzantine culture. Russian-Byzantine architecture is characterized by the borrowing of a number of compositional techniques and motifs of Byzantine architecture, most clearly embodied in the “model projects” of churches by Konstantin Ton in the 1840s. As part of this direction, Thon built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.
The Holy Alliance is a treaty concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative to create the Holy Alliance belonged to the Russian Emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states joined this treaty, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. The Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Alliance developed the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of forcibly suppressing any national and revolutionary movements.
Slavophiles are representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, who proceeded from the position of the fundamental difference between Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia’s mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They polemicized both with Westerners and with the “theory of official nationality.” In contrast to the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nicholas autocracy, etc. The main representatives: the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, A. I. Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, A. S. Khomyakov.
Estates are social groups that have rights and responsibilities enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The class organization of society, which usually includes several classes, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia from the second half of the 18th century. The class division into nobility, clergy, peasantry, merchants, and burghers was established. Officially, estates in Russia were abolished in 1917.
Social Democrats are a direction in the socialist and labor movement that advocates a transition to a socially just society through reforming the bourgeois one. In Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. Marxism became most widespread. In 1883, the “Emancipation of Labor” group was created in Geneva (V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deitch, V.N. Ignatov, G.V. Plekhanov), the main task of which its members considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class” was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. Ulyanov, G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, N.K. Krupskaya, Yu.O. Martov), which was engaged in illegal propaganda activities in the working environment, organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP(b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP(b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
The theory of official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education S. S. Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.”
Appanage peasants are a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia at the end of the 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on appanage lands and belonged to the imperial family. They carried duties mainly in the form of quitrents. In 1863, the basic provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the appanage peasants, and they received ownership of part of the appanage lands for compulsory redemption.
A factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and division of labor.
“Going to the People” is a mass movement of radical populist youth in the countryside, aimed at promoting socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of “going to the people” belongs to A.I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the “Bell,” addressed this call to student youth. It began in the spring of 1873, reaching its greatest extent in the spring and summer of 1874 (covering 37 provinces of Russia). The Lavrists aimed to propagate the ideas of socialism, while the Bakunists tried to organize mass anti-government protests. By November 1874, over 4 thousand people were arrested, the most active participants were convicted.
Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and the media with the aim of suppressing undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, from 1804 it was regulated by censorship statutes and temporary rules.
XX-XXI centuries
1900–1916
Avant-garde is an artistic movement of the 20th century, advocating a break with the principles of the past and the search for new means of depicting the surrounding world, which manifested itself in such movements as cubism, expressionism, surrealism, etc.
The Entente (from the French “cordial agreement”) is a bloc, a military alliance of states that formed in the 20th century. (1904) originally from two powers: England and France. In 1907, Russia joined it, and the association was called the “Triple Entente”. In 1917, the United States and Japan joined the Entente.
Bolshevism is a current of political thought and a political party that took shape in 1903 as a result of the struggle of Marxists - supporters of V.I. Lenin with the Mensheviks. The watershed occurred at the Second Congress of the RSDLP on the first point of the Party Charter and membership in it. Lenin's formulation passed the majority of votes. Since then, his supporters began to be called Bolsheviks. In 1917-1952 The official name of the party included the word “Bolsheviks” - RSDLP (b), VKP (b). The 19th Party Congress in 1952 decided to call it the CPSU. It existed until August 1991. Today, a number of communist movements in Russia again call themselves “Bolsheviks,” including supporters of N. Andreeva, who appropriated the abbreviation VKP(b).
Military-industrial committees are organizations of Russian entrepreneurs created with the aim of mobilizing industry for military needs, operating during the First World War.
The State Duma is a legislative and advisory representative institution (1906-1917). Established by the Manifesto on October 17, 1905. It considered bills, which were then discussed in the State Council and approved by the emperor. The elections are multi-stage for 4 unequal curiae (landowner, urban, peasant, workers). Women, students, and military personnel are deprived of voting rights. Had 4 convocations: 1st (27.4 – 8.7.1906; chairman S. A. Muromtsev); 2nd (20.2 – 2.6.1907; chairman F.A. Golovin); 3rd (11/1/1907 – 9/6/1912; chairman N.A. Khomyakov, from 1910 – A.I. Guchkov, from 1911 – M.V. Rodzianko); 4th (from November 15, 1912; chairman Rodzianko). On February 27, 1917, she formed the Provisional Committee of Members of the State Duma. Formally, it continued to exist until October 6, 1917, when it was dissolved by the Provisional Government. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, one of the two chambers of the Federal Assembly. Half of the deputies are elected from the lists of political parties and social movements, the other half are elected from single-mandate constituencies using a majoritarian system for a period of 4 years.
Decadence (French decadence, Latin decadentia - “decline”) is the general name for crisis, decadent phenomena in the art of the late XIX - early. XX centuries, marked by individualistic pessimism, rejection of life, aestheticization of non-existence.
Zubatovshchina is a policy of “police socialism”, implemented by the head of the Moscow security department S.V. Zubatov (since 1896) and the Special Section of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation and legal workers' organizations under police control. After the February Revolution of 1917, he committed suicide.
Imperialism is a phase of economic and social development from the beginning of the 20th century. until 1917. In Russia, as elsewhere, there was a high degree of concentration of production, and the formation of financial capital was underway. The most important feature of imperialism in Russia is the interpenetration of higher forms of capitalism and pre-capitalist structures.
Cadets (People's Freedom Party, Cadets) - a political party in Russia, created in 1905. Program: constitutional and parliamentary monarchy, democratic freedoms, cultural self-determination of the peoples that were part of the Russian Empire, partial nationalization of the land, legislative solution to the labor issue. Leader – P.N. Miliukov. Print media: newspaper “Rech”, magazine “Bulletin of the People’s Freedom Party”. In the 1st and 2nd State Dumas, the Cadets occupied a dominant position. Predominated in the first composition of the Provisional Government. After the October Revolution, the Cadets were declared a “party of enemies of the people,” and their activities were banned by the Soviet government. In the early 1990s. a number of political organizations arose that adopted the name of the Cadets Party
A cartel is a form of monopoly in which participants retain production independence, but at the same time jointly resolve issues of production volume, product sales, etc. Profits in cartels are distributed according to the share of participation. Cartels appeared in Russia at the end of the 19th century.
A concern is one of the forms of monopolies, in the form of a diversified association (finance, industry, transport, trade, etc.) with maintaining independence in management, but with complete financial dependence of the enterprises included in the concern from the dominant group of monopolists.
Maecenas - a close associate of Emperor Augustus in Ancient Rome, known for his patronage of poets and artists. The name has acquired a common meaning, i.e. patron of the development of science and art. In Russia, patronage of the arts was widespread in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Russian entrepreneurs managed to develop a wide range of activities and support Russian culture. Many have made their collections of works of art the basis of museum collections accessible to the people: the Tretyakov Gallery, the Shchukin and Morozov museums of modern French painting, the Bakhrushinsky Theater Museum, the collection of Russian porcelain by A.V. Morozov, collection of icons by S.P. Ryabushinsky, etc. Patrons from among entrepreneurs subsidized the private opera of S.M. Mamontov, opera by S.I. Zimin, art theater K.S. Alekseev-Stanislavsky and S.T. Morozov, Soldatenkov Publishing House, Alexander Commercial School, etc.
Menshevism - arose at the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after opponents of Lenin’s principles of party building found themselves in the minority in the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, they were formally together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the bulk of the Mensheviks took the position of social chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became involved in the struggle against Soviet power.
“World of Art” is a Russian art association. It took shape in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers led by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the magazine “World of Art”, it existed in its original form until 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, - in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910, most of the masters of “M. And." was part of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. And." included many St. Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya. Bilibin, A. Ya. Golovin, I. E. Grabar, K. A. Korovin, B. M. Kustodiev, N. K. Roerich, V. A. Serov and etc.). M. A. Vrubel, I. I. Levitan, M. V. Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists participated in the “World of Art” exhibitions.
Modernism (from the French “newest, modern”) is the general name of trends in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, avant-gardeism, surrealism, dadaism, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to the reflection of existence.
Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.), privately owned (individual, group or joint stock) and exercising control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital with the aim of establishing monopoly prices and extracting monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 d.) in the mining industry. In total, about 200 monopolies existed in Russia during this period.
The Octobrists are members of the right-wing liberal party “Union of October 17th”. It was formed by 1906. The name comes from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. It demanded popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number of members, together with affiliated groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper “Slovo”, “Voice of Moscow”, etc., over 50 in total. The largest faction in the 3rd State Duma, alternately blocked with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 it ceased to exist.
Cut - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - a peasant farm, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.
Progressive Bloc - was created in August 1915 from members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives) with the aim of putting pressure on the government. The association was headed by the left Octobrist S.I. Shidlovsky, but the actual leader was the leader of the cadets P.N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, a declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published with demands for updating the composition of local authorities, ending persecution for religion, releasing certain categories of political prisoners, restoring trade unions, etc. The main goal of the bloc was to create a government of “public trust” from among representatives of the administration and Duma leaders in order to lead the country out of the difficult political and economic situation in which it found itself during the First World War, and to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.
A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of socio-political conditions for revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis at the top,” i.e., the inability of government officials to maintain their dominance unchanged, while it is necessary that the “tops” themselves cannot live in the old way; aggravation, higher than usual, of the needs and misfortunes of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation occurred in the late 50s and early 60s. XIX century was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the aggravation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Reached its climax in 1880-1881. In the conditions of the ensuing reaction after the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. Revolutionary situation at the beginning of the 20th century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution due to the outbreak of World War I. Revolutionary situation in 1916-1917. resulted in the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.
Russian seasons abroad - performances of Russian opera and ballet troupes organized by S. P. Diaghilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. Contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term caught on and became a household word to denote the success of Russian cultural and artistic figures abroad.
Symbolism is a movement in European and Russian art of 1870-1910. Focuses primarily on artistic expression through symbol. Striving to break through visible reality to “hidden realities”, the supra-temporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the symbolists expressed rejection of bourgeoisism and positivism, longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic premonition of world social changes, trust in age-old cultural values as a unifying principle. Main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valery, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M. K. Ciurlionis, M. Vrubel and others.
A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. Syndicate participants retain production, but lose commercial independence.
Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council - in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies of leadership and coordination of the workers’ struggle for their rights on the ground. On an incomparably larger scale, the Soviets were revived during the February (1917) Revolution and, until June 1917, acted as a “second” government opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies operated. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were representative bodies of state power in the center and locally in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 - in the Russian Federation (from 1936 to 1977 - Councils of Working People's Deputies, from 1977 - Soviets people's deputies). Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies became the highest body of state power (until 1991). A distinctive feature of the Soviets was the inseparability of legislative and executive powers.
The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land ownership, which marked a turn in the agrarian-political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of Internal Affairs and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P. A. Stolypin (1862-1911) . Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of November 9, 1906), strengthening the Peasant Bank, forced land management (laws of June 14, 1910 and May 29, 1911) and resettlement policy were aimed at eliminating the shortage of land while maintaining landownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, creation of an additional power base among the wealthy layer of peasants. The reform was disrupted after the assassination of P. A. Stolypin by the Socialist Revolutionary D. Bogrov.
A trust is a form of monopoly in which members of an association lose production and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.
The June Third coup - the dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and changes to the electoral law. Considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.
The Triple Alliance was a military-political bloc of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. In 1915, Italy and Türkiye joined.
Trudoviki - a faction of peasant deputies and populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program was close to the program of the People's Socialist Party; it included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of landowners' lands. The printed organ is the newspaper “Working People”. In June 1917 merged with the People's Socialists
According to the Stolypin agrarian reform, a farm is a farm separated from the community along with land and house. Was private property.
The Black Hundreds (from the Old Russian “black hundred” - the taxable townspeople) - members of extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, speaking under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, “Unions of Russians”) people”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the revolution of 1905-1907 they supported the repressive policies of the government, organized pogroms, and organized the murders of a number of political figures. After the February Revolution of 1917, the activities of Black Hundred organizations were prohibited.
Social Revolutionaries (social revolutionaries) - a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. Leader – V.M. Chernov. The tactic is political terror. Left Socialist Revolutionaries - a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917, the left wing of the Socialist Revolutionaries). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Nathanson. Newspapers “Land and Freedom” and “Znamya Truda”. They took part in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). From the beginning of 1918 they were opponents of the Brest Peace Treaty and the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918 they organized an armed uprising, which was suppressed. Separate groups of left Socialist Revolutionaries operated in Ukraine, the Far East, and Turkestan. They ceased operations in 1923.
1917–1920
Annexation (from Latin “annexation”) is the forcible seizure by the winner of part of the territory of the defeated state.
The White Movement is the collective name for political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed Soviet power during the Civil War. The origin of the term is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of supporters of law and order. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M.V. Alekseev, P.N. Wrangel, A.I. Denikin, A.V. Kolchak, L.G. Kornilov, E.K. Miller, N.N. Yudenich).
White is the name of opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the Civil War.
The Military Revolutionary Committee is the body of the Petrograd Council for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulations on the PVRK were approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks; there were also left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the highest emergency body of state power. Dissolved in December 1917.
The Provisional Government is the central body of state power formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. Existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to October 25 (November 7, 1917). Created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma of 1917 and the Socialist-Revolutionary-Menshevik leadership of the Petrograd Soviet. It was the highest executive and administrative body and also performed legislative functions. The local authorities of the provisional government were provincial and district commissars.
Second coalition. Provisional Government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for capitalists and 7 for socialists) July 24 (August 6) - August 26 (September 8), 1917
Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) – May 2 (15), 1917
The first coalition Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for capitalists and 6 for socialists) May 5 (18) – July 2 (15), 1917
Third coalition. Provisional Government A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for socialists and 6 seats for capitalists) September 25 (October 8) – October 25 (November 7).
After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the remaining capitalist deputy ministers, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. Based on the forged protocol of August 17 (30), the self-proclaimed Provisional Government issued orders against Soviet power, received up to 40 million rubles from the State Bank, from which it paid salaries to saboteur officials. The underground Provisional Government “operated” until November 16 (29), 1917
VTsIK - All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Councils of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - workers', peasants' and Cossacks' deputies) - a body that exercised general management of the councils during the break between Congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the First Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee took shape at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, the Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 were Left Socialist Revolutionaries). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks and 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Socialist Revolutionaries) were elected. Since the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties have not been elected to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Since January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, people's commissariats to manage individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 – Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 – M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.
VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Crimes in Ex officio; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (resolution of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, “in connection with the transition to peaceful construction” V.I. Lenin proposed reorganizing the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into the State Political Administration (GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.
Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. During the war, the problem of power is solved, which, in turn, must provide a solution to the main vital issues facing the warring parties.
Dual power is the simultaneous existence of two authorities in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917. After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation arose in Russia: two authorities were created at the same time - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Adviсe. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of dual power. The period of struggle between two dictatorships for autocracy.
A decree (from the Latin “decree”) is a normative legal act issued by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees and adopted by the Congresses of Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, “Decrees are instructions calling for mass practical action.”
Dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the liquidation of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, a necessary condition and the main result of its victory. The proletariat uses its power to suppress the resistance of the exploiters and their complete destruction; then power is used for revolutionary changes in all spheres of social life: economics, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of the working people and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry with the leading role of the working class.. In 1917, in Russia, after the implementation of the October Socialist Revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the form of Soviets.
Intervention (from Latin “invasion”) is the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Modern international law considers intervention to be an offence. Intervention can be military, economic, ideological, or carried out in other forms.
“Greens” is the name in Russia during the Civil War for people hiding in the forests who evaded military service. Liquidated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.
Contribution (from Latin “to collect”) - money or other material assets collected after the war from a defeated state by the victorious state, as well as forced monetary collections levied by the authorities from the population in the occupied territory.
Confiscation (from the Latin “to take into the treasury”) is a forced seizure, without compensation by the state, of a private person’s property. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, the lands of landowners, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.
The Kornilov mutiny was an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army of the General Staff, Infantry General L. G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.
The Red Guard attack on capital is a term that characterizes the methods of carrying out socio-economic activities of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of direct expropriation of the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legitimized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, the merchant fleet, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.
Reds is a generalized name for supporters of the Bolsheviks, defenders of Soviet power during the Civil War and military intervention. In a broad sense, it applies to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.
Educational program is the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Massive campaign to teach basic adult literacy in the 1920s and 1930s. As a result of the campaign, by the end of the 30s. The literacy rate in the USSR reached 90%.
Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy into state ownership.
Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. They were created by bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food (part of the Food Army), trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets (procurement, harvesting and procurement, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; the governing body was the Military Food Bureau of the All-Russian Central Council of Trade Unions). We carried out food appropriation in the countryside; acted together with committees of poor people, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the confiscated bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.
Prodrazvyorstka is a system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of “war communism”, established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. It caused discontent among the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, and was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.
Workers' Faculty - workers' faculty. In 1919-1940 a general educational institution in the USSR for preparing young people who did not have a secondary education for higher education; were created at universities (3 years of full-time study, 4 years of evening studies).
Reparations are compensation by a defeated state for damage to the victorious state.
Sabotage is a deliberate failure to fulfill duties or their careless performance.
Sovnarkom - Council of People's Commissars (SNK) is the highest executive and administrative body of state power, the government of the Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8), 1917. Until his death, it was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (in 1946 transformed into the Council of Ministers).
Communist cleanup is voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday April 12, 1919 at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first mass subbotnik on May 10, 1919 on the Moscow-Kazan Railway. Spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, All-Union Leninist communist subbotniks have been held.
Terror (from Latin “fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to and including physical destruction.
The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, intended to establish a form of government and develop a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917. It met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd and after 13 hours of work it was closed at the request of the guard.
Emigration (from Latin “to move, to move out”) is a departure outside the country associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of a given state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, for the purpose of temporary or permanent settlement in the territory of a foreign state. States may allow restoration of citizenship to emigrants.
1920–1930
Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy, which would violate their independence and equality.
Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is in the hands of one person or group of people. Authoritarianism is characterized by a complete or partial absence of political freedoms of citizens and restrictions on the activities of parties and organizations.
Antonovshchina - peasant movement of 1920-1921. in the Tambov province, directed against Soviet power and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the Red Army, sometimes even using gas attacks. In June 1922, Antonov was killed. The abolition of food appropriation in 1921 significantly reduced the number of dissatisfied peasants.
“The Great Turning Point” is Stalin’s expression, which he used to characterize the policy of accelerated industrialization and collectivization of agriculture that began in the late 1920s in the USSR.
GOELRO (short for State Commission for Electrification of Russia) is the first unified state long-term plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V.I. Lenin by the State Commission for Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years and provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Mostly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO - the Volkhov hydroelectric station in the Leningrad region.
GULAG - Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention), in 1934-1956 a division of the NKVD (MVD), which managed the system of forced labor camps (ITL). Special departments of the Gulag united many ITL in different regions of the country: Karaganda ITL (Karlag), Dalstroy NKVD/MVD USSR, Solovetsky ITL (USLON), White Sea-Baltic ITL and the NKVD plant, Vorkuta ITL, Norilsk ITL, etc. The heaviest weapons were installed in the camps conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violation of the regime, mortality from hunger, disease and overwork was extremely high. Prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, Far East and other regions.
Twenty-five thousanders are workers of the industrial centers of the USSR who, at the call of the Bolshevik Party, went to the villages for economic and organizational work in early 1930 during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. The resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks provided for sending 25 thousand people; in fact, 27.6 thousand went.
Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agricultural to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has developed successfully since the late 19th – early 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (from the end of the 20s), industrialization was accelerated by the totalitarian regime using violent methods due to the sharp limitation of the standard of living of the majority of the population and the exploitation of the peasantry.
Collectivization is the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a programmatic setting of the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st Five-Year Plan (1928/29 – 1932/33). By the end of 1932 it was largely completed. By 1936, the collective farm system had fully developed.
Collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the collectivization period of the late 20s - early 30s. XX century They farmed on state land assigned to K. for so-called eternal use. The highest governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects a board headed by a chairman, mostly a protege of local party bodies, district and regional party committees. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the farms by that time had been transformed into state state farms.
The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from various countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with a center in Moscow, essentially became an instrument for implementing the idea of world revolution. Supreme bodies: Congress (the last 7th Congress was held in 1935), Executive Committee (permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor of the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the late 20s. The Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of carrying out a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, J.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, “fulfilled its mission.” In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.
Concession (from Latin “permission, assignment”) is an agreement on the transfer into operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; an agreement for the lease of enterprises or plots of land to foreign firms with the right to production activities, the enterprise itself organized on the basis of such an agreement.
The cult of personality is a policy that exalts one person, characteristic mainly of a totalitarian regime and promoting the exclusivity of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, ascribing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.
The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, an integral part of socialist transformations. The Cultural Revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.
The League of Nations is an international organization created in 1919. The official goal is to develop international cooperation and guarantee peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. Expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.
Peaceful coexistence is a type of relations between states with different social systems, which presupposes the renunciation of war as a means of resolving controversial issues and their settlement through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition of the right of every people to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.
NEP (new economic policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed in the Soviet republic by 1920. The highest point of dissatisfaction with the current policy of “war communism” was the Kronstadt rebellion. At the X Congress of the RCP(b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin's food appropriation was replaced by a smaller tax in kind. The main elements of this policy: progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 tax in kind), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to rent and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, abolition of the rationing system and rationed supplies, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the New Economic Policy was phased out.
The opposition is an organized group that opposes the ruling elite according to assessments, programs, and policies. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and internal party.
Tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 to replace the surplus appropriation system, was the first act of the new economic policy. Collected from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (significantly below surplus appropriation) taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by a single agricultural tax.
The Five-Year Plan is the period for which centralized economic planning was carried out in the Soviet Union. The five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, at the 21st Congress of the CPSU, a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965 was adopted. Subsequently, five-year plans were adopted again. The last, thirteenth Five-Year Plan was designed for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a market decentralized economy.
Repressions are coercive measures of state influence, including various types of punishments and legal restrictions, applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of persons. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (Red Terror, decossackization). With the beginning of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, repressions became widespread. They reached a particular scale in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to Gulag camps on charges of committing political crimes. Political repression continued with varying degrees of intensity until Stalin's death in March 1953.
Socialist realism is a creative method of literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries of socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of a socialist-conscious concept of the world and man, the depiction of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. Formed initially at the beginning of the 20th century. in the works of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, party spirit and humanism. The sculpture “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by V. Mukhina became a symbol of socialist realism.
The Stakhanov movement was a movement of workers in the USSR for increasing labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of Donbass, and then spread to other industries, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A. G. Stakhanov.
Totalitarianism (from Latin “whole, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, comprehensive state control over all spheres of social life.
Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political trends in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, linked the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921 During the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of “war communism”, nationalization, and militarization of trade unions. Much of what they propagated was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion of 1923-1924. Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of internal party relations, expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy; they proclaimed the slogans of “dictatorship of industry”, “super-industrialization”. The 13th Party Conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP(b). The XV Party Congress in 1927 declared membership in Trotskyism incompatible with being a member of the party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political movement in the RCP(b) ceased to exist due to the expulsion of L. Trotsky abroad, however, much later, the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious during the years of Stalinist repression.
Shock worker is a Soviet concept that originated during the first five-year plans, denoting a worker who demonstrates increased labor productivity. The shock movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the shock workers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as role models (miner Alexei Stakhanov, locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor driver Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies authorities, etc. The attitude towards shock labor and shock workers among Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activities evoked respect. On the other hand, an increase in the productivity of some workers soon had a negative impact on the earnings of others, since established production standards naturally increased and wage rates decreased.
Federation (from Latin “union, association”) is a form of government in which the federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, unified federal (union) government bodies are formed, a single citizenship, monetary unit, etc. are established.
Cost accounting (economic accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on the comparison of an enterprise’s costs for production with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of expenses and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, everyone working in meeting planned targets and using resources economically. In fact, it means the admission of the principles of a market economy into socialist planned regulated production.
1941–1945
The Anti-Hitler Coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against the aggressive bloc consisting of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The creation of the coalition began in June 1941, when the governments of England and the United States made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Nazi Germany. By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, New Zealand and others took part in the common struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies with their armed forces. Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.
Blitzkrieg is the theory of a fleeting war with victory achieved in the shortest possible time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.
Blockade is the encirclement of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base by land, sea or air with the help of armed forces in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating a state politically or economically, to put pressure on him.
The Great Patriotic War is the war of the Soviet people with Nazi Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name “Great Patriotic War” began to be used in the Russian-language tradition after Joseph Stalin’s radio address on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people during the battles, as well as brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.
The second front is the front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was discovered by the USA and Great Britain in June 1944 with the landing in Normandy (France).
Genocide is the destruction of certain population groups for racial, national or religious reasons.
Deportation (from Latin “expulsion”) - during a period of mass repression, the expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were evicted. In 1989, a Declaration was adopted recognizing repressive acts against peoples subjected to forced relocation as illegal and criminal.
The card system is a system for supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To purchase a product, one had to not only pay money for it, but also present a one-time coupon giving the right to purchase it. Cards (coupons) established certain standards for the consumption of goods per person per month, so this system was also called standardized distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917, they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the card system occurred in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The card system was reintroduced into the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, and was finally canceled in December 1947. The new and last wave of normalized distribution in the USSR (coupon system) began in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage . It has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, due to the “release” of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.
A radical turning point in the course of a war is strategic and political changes during military operations, such as: the transition of strategic initiative from one belligerent side to another; ensuring reliable superiority of the defense industry and the rear economy as a whole; achieving military-technical superiority in supplying the active army with the latest types of weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of forces in the international arena.
Lend-Lease is a system for the loan or lease of weapons, ammunition, food, medicine, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US expenses on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 amounted to $46 billion. The volume of supplies to the British Empire amounted to over 30 billion dollars (% of the loan was 472 million) to the Soviet Union 10 billion dollars (% of the loan was 1.3 billion dollars).
Occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany as a result of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany was created to manage the Soviet zone. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.
Occupation (from Latin “capture”) is the temporary seizure of foreign territory by military force without legal rights to it.
The partisan movement is a type of people’s struggle for the freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformation, which is waged on territory occupied by the enemy, with the armed core relying on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. It manifests itself in the form of combat operations, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded on the Nazi-occupied territory of the USSR. Strategic leadership was carried out by Headquarters through the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. There were over 1 million people in partisan detachments and formations. The partisans liberated entire areas, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.
Underground - illegal organizations fighting invaders in occupied territories. “Young Guard” - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. V. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovo underground in 1941-1942. in the Kaluga region.
“Rail War” is the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy’s railway communications in the occupied territory of the Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and part of Ukraine.
Evacuation (from Latin “empty, remove”) - withdrawal of troops, military property or population during war, natural disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding of the area during hydraulic construction ).
1945–1991
Corporatization is a way of privatizing state and municipal enterprises by transforming them into open joint-stock companies. It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.
Lease contracts are forms of organizing and remunerating the labor of employees of rental collectives within enterprises. A contract agreement is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, under which the rental collective undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise a certain amount of products at on-farm prices and tariffs. He has the right to dispose of products produced in excess of this volume independently. Lease contract form. became widespread during the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).
The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in human history when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only individual, most often small and insignificant states from a strategic point of view, which declared their neutrality.
Military-strategic parity is the equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.
Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and possibilities. Charges of subjectivism and voluntarism were brought against N.S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, which led to his resignation.
MIC - military-industrial complex, designation (belongs to D. Eisenhower) of the alliance of military industry, army and related ones that developed in a number of countries (USA, USSR, etc.) during the 2nd World War and strengthened during the Cold War parts of the state apparatus and science.
Glasnost is a concept developed by Russian political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of government bodies.
GKChP - State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR, was created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of government agencies who disagreed with the reform policies of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of the new Union Treaty. The State Emergency Committee included: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, Chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasant Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association of State Enterprises and Industrial, Construction, Transport and Communications Facilities of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, Vice President of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were sent into large cities, almost all television programs stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations in opposition to the CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the State Emergency Committee showed indecisiveness. In this situation, Russian President B.N. Yeltsin showed the greatest activity. He called on all citizens to disobey and a general strike. The center of resistance to the State Emergency Committee was the White House, the building of the Russian government. Within three days it became clear that society did not support the State Emergency Committee (putsch). Members of the State Emergency Committee went to Crimea to see M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under Article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason to the Motherland) in the “GKChP” case. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt undertaken by the Emergency Committee accelerated the process of the collapse of the USSR.
Demilitarization - disarmament, prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, withdrawal of troops and military equipment, conversion of military industries.
Currency reform is changes carried out by the state in the field of monetary circulation, usually aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same rate. The 1991 monetary reform in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - after the name of the Prime Minister of the USSR Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.
De-Stalinization is the debunking of Stalin’s personality cult and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of managing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the personality cult of I.V. Stalin. After the removal of Malenkov, the process of de-Stalinization continues N.S. Khrushchev, who delivered a report “On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences” at a closed meeting of the 20th Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the rehabilitation process fades. A new wave of de-Stalinization begins during the period of perestroika.
Dissidents are “dissidents”. The name of participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. Dissidents in various forms advocated for the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights activists), against the persecution of dissent, and protested against the entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were subjected to repression by the authorities.
“Iron Curtain” - after W. Churchill’s speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression “Iron Curtain” began to be used to refer to the “wall” separating capitalism and socialism.
Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, covering approximately two decades (1964-1982). In official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.
The Cuban Missile Crisis was an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment of American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as to the threat of an invasion of American troops in Cuba. The most acute crisis that brought the world to the brink of nuclear war was eliminated due to the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (led by N. S. Khrushchev) and the USA (led by President J. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles weapons. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the lifting of quarantine and the abandonment of the invasion of Cuba; it was also confidentially announced that American missiles would be withdrawn from Turkey and Italy.
Cooperation is a form of labor organization in which a significant number of people jointly participate in one or different, but interconnected labor processes, as well as a set of institutionalized voluntary mutual aid associations of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas of the economy. Based on share participation.
“Cosmopolitanism” (from the Greek “citizen of the world”) is the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of national patriotism. Refusal of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. “universal human values”. The campaign against cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in the post-war years. They were accused of being apolitical and lacking ideas, of “kowtowing to the West.” It resulted in rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.
“Lysenkoism” is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, the denial of genetics and a temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from approximately the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I.V. Stalin, T.D. Lysenko (who over time became a symbol of the campaign) and many other people.
Multi-party system is a political system in which there can be many political parties that theoretically have an equal chance of winning a majority of seats in the country's parliament. It began to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the Third Congress of People's Deputies abolished Article 6 of the Constitution, which established the leading role of the CPSU.
New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which included: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposing socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; declaration of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; declaring as a universal way to resolve international issues not the balance of power of the two systems, but the balance of their interests; rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and recognition of the priority of universal human values over class, national, ideological, etc. Led to the end of the Cold War.
Nomenklatura - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum that dominates the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenklatura: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.
STR (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces based on the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and direct productive force. Began in the middle of the 20th century. It sharply accelerates scientific and technological progress and has an impact on all aspects of society.
“Thaw” is a common designation for changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that began after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term “thaw” goes back to the title of the story by I. G. Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The “thaw” period was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. The 20th Congress of the CPSU played an important role in these processes, condemning Stalin’s cult of personality. The “Thaw” contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, positive changes in the mid-50s. were not further developed.
Passport regime is one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons in the areas of protecting state security. While monitoring their own subjects and arriving foreigners, the authorities may require identification from them, as well as proof that they are not a danger to public peace. Official documents identifying a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, and place of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. By the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968, new rules for registration and deregistration of citizens in rural areas were introduced.
Perestroika is the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev and others) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal human values ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, due to contradictory efforts, created the preconditions for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.
Human rights activists are individuals who criticized the evils of the socialist system in the USSR, opposed the violation of human rights, and proposed ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system of the USSR. The human rights movement operated in the 60s and 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal newsletter in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. Participants in the movement were subjected to brutal repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of perestroika
A putsch is a coup d'état carried out by a group of conspirators, an attempt at such a coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term; the State Emergency Committee’s attempt to remove USSR President M. Gorbachev from power contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.
Détente of international tension - improving relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-70s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the USA recognizing the post-war borders in Europe as inviolable, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed
Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) of rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform pursued the goal of getting rid of the excess money supply in cash circulation and at least partially solving the problem of shortages on the commodity market of the USSR
Market economy is a socio-economic system developing on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. A market economy is based on the principles of free enterprise and choice. The distribution of resources, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of a market economy and largely ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, in the economic systems of developed countries, a certain degree of government intervention is carried out (ensuring the general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, implementing social protection measures, etc.).
Samizdat is a method of illegal distribution of literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge or permission of official bodies, usually by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers, etc.
CIS, Commonwealth of Independent States - an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR, in conditions of deep crisis and collapse, was ceasing to exist, and declared their desire to develop cooperation in political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan joined the Agreement and signed, together with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, the Declaration on the Goals and Principles of the CIS in Almaty. Later Georgia joined the CIS. In 1993, the CIS Charter was adopted, which defined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: Council of Heads of State, Council of Heads of Government, Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Interstate Economic Council, Interparliamentary Assembly centered in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordination and Consultative Committee in Minsk.
Economic councils are territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of sectoral ministries.
The shadow economy is a term that refers to all types of economic activity that are not taken into account by official statistics and are not included in GNP.
Commodity shortage - lack, shortage; a product that is not in sufficient quantity.
The Helsinki Process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The Helsinki process began with the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975).
“Cold War” is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 40s to 1991. The “Cold War” is characterized by the confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the USA, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres using psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.
The people of the sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the “sixties” was the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the “thaw”.
1992–…
A share is an issue-grade security that gives the owner the right to receive income or dividends depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.
Exchange - an institution in which the purchase and sale of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or mass goods sold according to samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; building where stock exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first stock exchange arose in 1703 in St. Petersburg.
Near Abroad is a collective name for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltics), which emerged in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR. The term is more historical and cultural in nature than geographical. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states directly bordering it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, China, North Korea).
Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994, a government security (to bearer) for a designated purpose with a specified nominal value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other property (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.
Devaluation is an official decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit or a depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or some national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.
Default - the economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the most severe economic crises in the history of Russia. The main reasons for the default were: Russia's huge public debt generated by the collapse of Asian economies, a liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials, which formed the basis of Russia's exports, as well as populist economic policy of the state and the construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual default date is August 17, 1998. Its consequences seriously affected the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The ruble exchange rate against the dollar fell more than 3 times in six months - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The trust of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. A large number of small businesses went bankrupt, many banks burst. The banking system collapsed for at least six months. The population lost a significant part of their savings, and their standard of living fell. However, the devaluation of the ruble has allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.
Impeachment (from the English “censure, accusation”) is a special procedure for holding senior officials accountable (through the lower house of parliament).
Conversion is the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of civilian products.
Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and power entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and growth of influence resources. The result of corruption is the degradation of power and increased crime.
Price liberalization is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted of abandoning state regulation of prices for most goods (since 1992)
Nanotechnology is the technology of objects whose dimensions are about 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes the atomic assembly of molecules, new methods of recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions at the molecular level, etc.
National projects are a program for the growth of “human capital” in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. The head of state identified the following as priority areas for “investment in people”: healthcare; education; housing; Agriculture.
A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, supreme power belongs to the president. The President can be elected by popular vote, parliament or any institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). Once elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled or re-elected without emergency circumstances provided for by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the president has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after, as a result of general elections or the current political situation, the balance of forces in parliament has changed in favor of the opposition to the president, his election program and political course. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy he proclaimed, the president, based on the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures provided for by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government developed in the Russian Federation after the October crisis of 1993.
Privatization is the transfer or sale of part of state property to private ownership.
Separation of powers is a characteristic feature of the rule of law, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.
A referendum (Latin referendum - something that must be communicated) is a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.
The Federation Council - according to the 1993 Constitution, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.
The Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, the parliament is a representative and legislative body. Consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.
“Shock therapy” is a course to improve the economy through its accelerated transfer to a market economy. Conducted by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N. Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar reforms).
Dictionary of historical terms for preparing for the Unified State Exam
Absolute monarchy (absolutism) - fa form of monarchy in which the power of the monarch is unlimited and supreme. It is characterized by a high degree of centralization, a standing army and police, and an extensive bureaucratic apparatus. The heyday of absolutism in Europe in the 17th-18th centuries, in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. In the modern world it exists, for example, in Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, etc.
Autocephalous Church- in Orthodoxy an independent, administratively independent church. For example, the Russian Orthodox Church is autocephalous.
Autarky - p policies for the economic isolation of the country, the creation of a closed, self-sustaining national economy that does not resort to the import of goods from abroad.
Autonomy - with self-government, the right to independently exercise state power and manage any part of the state, established by the central government. In a broad sense, autonomy is a certain degree of independence of bodies, organizations, territorial communities, and individuals.
Authoritarianism - f a form of political regime based on the unlimited power of one person, group of persons or state body. The characteristic features of authoritarianism are a developed system of violence; recognition of the diversity of economic, political and cultural interests; limiting the opposition; strict centralization of state power, etc.
Aggression - n the unlawful use of armed force by the first against the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of another state. In modern international law, aggression includes such actions as the invasion of the armed forces of one state into the territory of another, a blockade of ports or coasts, an attack on a warship, and the like. Forms of aggression - direct (invasion); indirect (secret use of armed forces); complicity (the state providing its territory).
Administrative command system - inwhich came into scientific circulation in the late 1980s. designation of the management system that developed in the USSR in the 1930-1950s. Characteristic features: strict centralization of management; direct hierarchical subordination of organs; directive planning; directive pricing; unconditional predominance of state ownership, etc.
Acmeism - t teaching in Russian poetry of the 1910s. The Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist aspirations towards “hidden reality”, a return to the material world, to objectivity, to the exact meaning of the word.
Alternative - in a choice between two or more mutually exclusive possibilities.
Empire style - style in architecture and decorative arts of the first three decades of the 19th century, which completed the development of classicism; developed during the empire of Napoleon I. Characteristic features: massive, monumental forms, decor with military emblems and ornaments.
Alliance - with a union, usually of states or organizations, based on treaty obligations.
Anarchism - n The direction of political thought and movement that defends the view of the state as an absolute evil and advocates the destruction of state power.
Annexation - n the forcible annexation (seizure) by a state of the territory of another state, people, as well as the forcible retention of a nationality within the borders of another state. During annexation, state borders are established by force, against the will of the population.
Anty - n the name of the union of Slavic tribes among Byzantine and Gothic writers of the 6th - early 7th centuries. They lived mainly between the Dniester and the Dnieper.
« Arakcheevshchina" - tterm used to denote the policy of the last decade of the reign of Alexander I (named after A.A. Arakcheev). The characteristic features of “Arakcheevism” are strengthening of the bureaucracy; planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, intensifying persecution of education and the press, censorship restrictions.
Rent - d an agreement under which one party (the lessor) undertakes to provide the other party (the lessee) with property for temporary use for a fee.
Aristocracy - 1. Nobility, whose special position in society is determined by origin and the privileges assigned to it. 2. Form of government. Plato recognized the aristocracy as a state governed by wise philosophers. Since the time of Aristotle, aristocracy has also been understood as a form of government in which power belongs to the best, unselfish, virtuous and is exercised in the interests of the common good. Aristotle considered the aristocracy, along with the monarchy and the police, to be the correct forms of government.
Assembly - in the reign of Peter I - meetings and balls in the houses of the Russian nobility (since 1718).
Asceticism - extreme degree of abstinence, renunciation of life's blessings.
Artel - oh bringing together representatives of any profession to work together.
Atheism - b atheism, denial of God, disbelief in his existence. A. is often combined with a hostile attitude towards religion and faith. The so-called “militant atheism” in practice leads to violence against the religious feelings of believers. Other forms of atheism (ancient Greek materialists, enlightenment philosophers, positivists, etc.) are associated with the traditions of philosophical freethinking.
Baroque - o one of the dominant styles in art of the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. Characteristic features: solemnity, contrast, dynamism, intensity of images, desire for grandeur and splendor, a combination of reality and illusion. The heyday of Baroque architecture in Russia is associated with the middle and second half of the 18th century.
Corvee - oh labor rent, the forced labor of a dependent peasant working with his own equipment on the landowner's farm for a plot of land received from him for use.
Baskak. Representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands; in the Russian principalities in the second half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. was engaged in collecting tribute in favor of the Horde.
Birch bark certificates - pmonuments of Old Russian writing, letters and documents of the 11th-15th centuries, made with a sharp bone or metal rod (writing) on birch bark (birch bark). Found in 1951 during excavations in Novgorod, then in Smolensk, Staraya Russa, Pskov, Vitebsk, Tver, Moscow and other cities.
Bible - with sacred book of Christians. The collection of sacred texts consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament (a total of more than 40 works).
"Bironovschina" - tterm used to denote the policy of the reign of Empress Anna Ivanovna (on behalf of her favorite E. Biron). Characteristic features are the dominance of foreigners (mainly Courland nobles), embezzlement and bribery, disrespect for Russian customs, drill and cruelty in the army, the special role of the Secret Chancellery.
Political bloc - fform of political unification of states, parties, movements. It includes forces of varying degrees of influence that enter into an alliance to achieve common goals: implementing programs, winning elections, making any decisions.
Fighting squads - armed detachments of townspeople (workers, students, townspeople, etc.), which arose on the initiative of radical revolutionary parties as self-defense organizations during the first Russian revolution of 1905 - 1907.
"Great Terror" - tterm used to refer to the period of Stalinist repressions in the USSR in the 1930s.
Bonapartism - the policy of maneuvering power between various forces and social groups. In Russia, the features of Bonapartism are inherent in the policy of P. A. Stolypin during the June Third monarchy.
Boyars - 1. The highest stratum of society in Russia (along with the great and appanage princes) in the X-XVII centuries. 2. From the 15th century. the highest rank among service people “in the fatherland”, the first ranks of the Boyar Duma. Boyars occupied the main administrative, judicial and military positions, headed orders, and were governors. The rank was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century.
Boyarin - senior warrior, large landowner, owner of the estate.
Boyar Duma - inthe highest council under the prince (from 1547 under the tsar) in the 10th - early 18th centuries. Discussed issues of foreign and domestic policy.
Buddhism - m world religion that arose in the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. in Ancient India.
Riot - l a local, spontaneous manifestation of protest, accompanied by violent actions against persons at whom people's discontent is directed. It often develops into riots, pogroms, and disobedience to authorities.
Life - p everyday life.
Budget - from meta cash income and expenses. It is formed at the level of the state, enterprise, organization, family. The state budget is adopted by the country's highest legislative body. In Russia, the state budget was established in 1862. It replaced the list of state income and expenses.
Bureaucracy - with of professional officials and managers. In science, thanks to the works of the German sociologist of the early 20th century. M. Weber established a view of bureaucracy as a key manifestation of the rationality inherent in modern society (as opposed to traditional society). It is characterized by: a detailed division of labor, allowing the use of qualified managers in leadership positions; a strict hierarchy of governing bodies based on the principles of subordination of the lower levels of the apparatus to the higher ones; the presence of a developed system of mandatory standards for management activities; “depersonalization” of management, in which it is not the person performing a specific function that is important, but the function that he performs.
Gross national product - fromthe total value of goods and services produced, expressed in market prices.
Gross social product - sthe value of material goods created by society during a certain period.
Currency - d monetary system, monetary units of a country participating in international economic exchange; banknotes (coins, banknotes), other means of payment (checks, bills, drafts, etc.), international monetary units used in payments.
Varangians (Normans, Vikings) - pa common name in Ancient Rus' for participants in predatory campaigns - immigrants from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes and Swedes).
Voucher - control card; privatization check for the targeted acquisition of securities (with limited circulation, real estate).
Great powers - tA term adopted to designate states playing a leading role in the international arena.
Grand Duke - 1. Head of the Grand Duchy in the Old Russian State of the X-XV centuries. and a unified Russian state of the 15th - mid-16th centuries. 2. In the Russian Empire - a member of the imperial family, a relative of the emperor and empress.
Royal wedding - tthe solemn church ceremony of enthroning the tsar with the presentation of symbols of supreme power: the barm, the “Monomakh cap”, the scepter and the orb, which took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
Verdict - r The decision of jurors in a criminal trial about the guilt or innocence of the defendant.
Rope - name of a community in Ancient Rus'
Supreme Privy Council - inthe highest state institution in Russia in 1726-1730, created after the death of Peter I by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body to the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.
Veche - n national assembly among the Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Rus'. It resolved issues of war and peace, summoned and expelled princes, adopted laws, and concluded treaties with other lands. The first chronicle mentions of the veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development occurred in Russian cities of the second half of the 11th-12th centuries. (in Novgorod, Pskov, Vyatka land - until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century)
Vira - d a gentle fine in favor of the prince in the Old Russian state.
Power - with the ability of one subject to carry out his will and decisions, subordinating others to them. Types of power: family, moral, legal, parental, etc. A special type is political power, the implementation of which is based on state institutions. Power involves the use of various means: coercion, violence, persuasion, encouragement, traditions, fear, etc. Through power, domination, leadership, regulation, control, management, coordination, mobilization, organization and other functions are carried out.
Military courts - hemergency military judicial bodies introduced during the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907. for a speedy trial and punishment based on the verdict. Operated during the First World War.
Military-industrial committees - opublic organizations created in Russia during World War I to assist the government in mobilizing industry for the war effort.
Military settlements - oa special organization of part of the troops in the Russian Empire in 1810-1857. Created in order to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, create a reserve of trained troops, and abandon recruitment on state lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kherson and other provinces. Military villagers were engaged in both combat service and agricultural work.
War communism" - uheconomic policy of the Soviet state during the Civil War (1918-1920). The goals are the concentration of all labor and material resources in the hands of the state. Characteristic features: nationalization of almost all industry and transport; carrying out a food dictatorship; introduction of surplus appropriation; ban on free trade; naturalization of economic relations, equalization of wages; labor conscription, creation of labor armies.
Military duty- the duty of citizens of the Russian Federation to undergo military training in the ranks of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation and defend the Fatherland. According to Art. 59 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the defense of the Fatherland is the duty and responsibility of a citizen of the Russian Federation. He performs military service, and if military service is contrary to his beliefs or religion, he has the right to replace it with alternative civilian service. Historically, universal conscription was introduced in Russia by the military reforms of the 1860s and 1870s. instead of conscription. In the USSR, the law on universal military service was adopted in 1939.
War - struggle between states or between different groups within a state using armed forces.
Free Russian press - tterm used to designate uncensored publications, mainly of revolutionary and democratic directions, published outside Russia in Russian in 1849-1917.
Free tillers (free tillers) - topeasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803.
Magi. In Ancient Rus', servants of pagan cults. In the X-XI centuries. The Magi were the organizers and participants of popular uprisings against the adoption of Christianity.
Voluntarism - in politics - political activity, which is characterized by arbitrary decisions of leaders, groups, authorities, ignoring real conditions and opportunities. The basis of voluntarism is the recognition of will, volitional actions as the only effective means of political activity.
Eastern question - tterm to denote a complex of international problems and contradictions of the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of the national and religious movement of the Balkan peoples and the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in the territories belonging to Turkey. The main participants in the struggle for the division of spheres of influence are Russia, England, France, Austria, Prussia, Italy and the USA.
Patrimony - d the most jealous type of large feudal land ownership. In the Old Russian state in the X-XI centuries. patrimony is a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIII-XV centuries. the dominant type of land tenure. Since the 15th century existed along with the estate since the 17th century. there is a process of erasing the differences between patrimony and estate, which ends in 1714 with a decree on single inheritance.
Temporarily obliged peasants - informer landowner peasants, freed from serfdom according to the “Regulations” on February 19, 1861, but not transferred to redemption. For the use of land they bore duties (sharecropping or quitrent) or paid payments established by law. On December 28, 1881, a law was issued on the compulsory purchase of plots to temporarily obligated peasants from January 1, 1883.
Universal suffrage- the principle of suffrage, granting the right to participate in elections of representative bodies of power to all citizens who have reached a certain age (in the Russian Federation - 18 years).
All-Russian market - witha system of strong economic ties between individual parts of the country, which has developed as a result of the specialization of the economy of individual regions and the strengthening of trade between them. The All-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century.
Second front - in years of the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the USSR's allies in the anti-Hitler coalition, England and the USA, in June 1944 with a landing in Normandy (in northwestern France). The decision to open a second front was repeatedly postponed.
Elections - to a set of measures with the aim of forming the governing bodies of the state, party, socio-political movement, organization, etc. In the Russian Federation, elections are held for the President, deputies of the State Duma, heads of the constituent entities of the Federation, etc. A citizen of the Russian Federation participates in elections on the basis of universal equal and direct suffrage with secret ballot. Participation in elections is voluntary. No one has the right to influence a citizen of the Russian Federation in order to force him to participate or not participate in elections, as well as to influence his free expression of will.
Redemption operation - inpurchase by peasants of land plots from landowners under the terms of the reform of 1861. Carried out in 1861–1906. on the condition that the peasants return to the treasury over 49 years the amount paid by the government to the landowners (6% annually). The redemption operation was based on the amount of quitrent that peasants paid to the landowner before the reform. Payments were collected until 1906. More than 1.6 billion rubles were collected. (of which 700 million rubles are income).
Prosecutor General - inThe highest government official of the Russian Empire. He headed the Senate, monitored the legality of the activities of the state apparatus and officials.
Genocide - n crime, expressed in actions aimed at the complete or partial destruction of a national, ethnic, racial or religious group by killing members of this group, causing serious harm to their health, forcibly preventing childbearing, forcibly transferring children, forcibly relocating or otherwise creating living conditions designed to physical destruction of members of this group. International law recognizes genocide as a crime against humanity.
State emblem - oofficial distinctive sign, emblem of the state. Depicted on flags, banknotes and seals of government agencies. The coat of arms of the Russian Federation is an image of a double-headed eagle with three crowns, holding an orb and a scepter in its paws. On the eagle's chest on the shield is an image of a horseman slaying a dragon with a spear. The Law “On the State Emblem of the Russian Federation” was adopted in December 2000.
National anthem - ta ceremonial song of a programmatic nature, glorifying the country, the state, the most important historical events, and national heroes. The official symbol of state unity and sovereignty. The Law of the Russian Federation “On the National Anthem” was adopted in 2000, the author of the music is A. V. Aleksandrov, the author of the words is S. V. Mikhalkov.
Glagolitic - o bottom of the first two reliably known Slavic alphabets, which presumably arose in the second half of the 9th century. In terms of composition, order, name and meaning of letters, the Glagolitic alphabet almost completely coincides with the Cyrillic alphabet, but differs in the complex shape of the letters. After the XI-XII centuries. the Glagolitic alphabet was supplanted among the eastern and southern Slavs by the Cyrillic alphabet
Publicity - 1. During the period of reforms of the 1860–1870s. the requirement of publicity applied to legal proceedings and the press. 2. During the period of perestroika 1985 - 1991. publicity meant openness, availability of information for public review, free discussion, control over the activities of institutions, organizations and officials.
City Duma - bunofficial body of city government in Russia in 1785-1917. She was involved in issues of improvement, health care, and other economic matters. In 1870 - 1917 The executive body of the city duma became city councils headed by the city mayor.
The State Duma -1. Representative legislative institution of Russia in 1906-1917. Established by the Manifesto on October 17, 1906. The bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after discussion and approval by the State Council and approval by the Emperor. It was elected for a period of 5 years, but could be dissolved by the tsar, who simultaneously appointed new elections and the time of convening the Duma of a new composition. Before 1917, four Dumas were convened: I - from April 27 to July 8, 1906; II - from February 20 to June 2, 1907; III - from November 1, 1907 to June 9, 1912; IV - 1912 2. Chamber of the Federal Assembly (Parliament) of the Russian Federation. The procedure for electing deputies to the State Duma of the Russian Federation is determined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Federal Law “On the Election of Deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.” Consists of 450 deputies and is elected for a term of four years. A citizen of the Russian Federation who has reached the age of 21 and has the right to participate in elections can be elected as a deputy. Deputies work on a professional permanent basis. The Federal Law “On Elections of Deputies of the State Duma” establishes the equality of deputies elected in the majoritarian (in single-mandate constituencies) and proportional (in party lists) systems (225 and 225), while the possibilities of the subjects of the Federation in nominating their candidates for deputies in party lists. The jurisdiction of the State Duma includes: giving consent to the President of the Russian Federation for the appointment of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation; resolving the issue of trust in the Government of the Russian Federation; appointment to the position of Chairman of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the Accounts Chamber, Commissioner for Human Rights; announcement of amnesty, etc. After the adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, elections to the State Duma were held in 1993, 1995, 1999, 2003.
State system - withmethod of territorial organization, internal division of the state into its component parts - administrative-state units, administrative entities or sovereign states. Forms of government - unitary state and federation.
State peasants - oa separate class in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Formalized by decrees of Peter I from the remnants of the unenslaved agricultural population, primarily black-mown peasants. State peasants lived on state lands and were considered personally free. Since 1841 they were managed by the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the 19th century. state peasants made up 45% of the agricultural population of European Russia. In 1866 they were subordinated to the general system of rural administration, and in 1886 they received the right to purchase land plots into ownership.
State Council -1. Created on January 1, 1810. The highest legislative institution of the Russian Empire. Members of the State Council and its chairman were appointed by the emperor from among the highest dignitaries, ministers were members of the Council ex officio. In fact, membership in the Council was for life. 2. Since 1906, the upper legislative chamber. The State Council participated in legislative activities on an equal basis with the Duma, considered bills adopted by the State Duma, and received the right of legislative initiative before their approval by the Tsar. The dismissal of members of the Council by the highest appointment occurred solely at their request. After the February Revolution of 1917, it virtually ceased to exist. Abolished on December 24, 1917. 3. In modern Russia - an advisory body under the President of the Russian Federation to consider the largest, strategic issues of the country's development. Collected since 2000
State - in the most important institution of the political system of society. The concept of the state remains controversial in political science. Various theories emphasize one or another aspect of the social essence of the state: either serving the common good, the interests of society and the individual, or organized coercion, suppression by the exploiting classes of the actions of the exploited. The most common idea is of the state as a political-territorial sovereign organization of power in society, which has a special apparatus to carry out its functions and is capable of making its orders binding on the population of the entire country. The state acts as a political, structural and territorial organization of society. Signs of a state (as opposed to pre-state forms of government): division of the population according to the territorial principle, which gives rise to such an institution as citizenship (nationality); the presence of a special public authority, separated from society; the presence of a special layer, a category of people professionally engaged in management; taxes intended to ensure that the state carries out its functions; state attributes (anthem, coat of arms, flag). The state is distinguished from other political organizations by: sovereignty (i.e., the full power of the state within the country and its independence in the international arena); lawmaking (only the state can issue regulations that are binding on the entire population of the country); monopoly on the legal use of violence. The functions of the state are divided into external and internal (economic, social, cultural, protective).
Civil War - inarmed struggle of opposing forces within the country for the possession of state power. It is characterized by the split of society into hostile camps, the intransigence of the fighting parties, and their organizational formation (the Troubles of the early 17th century, the Civil War of 1918–1920).
Civil font - shrift, introduced in publications of the civil press in Russia instead of the printed Kirillov semi-ustav in 1708. Formed the basis of the modern Russian alphabet.
Civil society - withthe totality of interpersonal relationships (family, economic, cultural, religious, etc.) that develop outside the framework and without government intervention. The most important institutions of civil society are political parties, movements, churches, religious, creative and other non-political organizations, professional associations, private enterprises, consumer societies, etc. They are considered the most important condition for the formation of a rule of law state.
Gregorian calendar - inintroduced by the calendar reform of Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 instead of the Julian calendar. In Russia, the transition to the Gregorian calendar was carried out by decree of February 14, 1918. The Russian Orthodox Church continues to use the Julian calendar. The difference between the old and new style is for the 18th century. - 11 days, for the 19th century. - 12, for the 20th–21st centuries. - 13.
Greedy - in Ancient Rus' IX-XII centuries. princely warriors, bodyguards of the prince.
Province - a administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first eight provinces. Each province was divided into districts. Some provinces were united into governor generals. The provincial reform of Catherine II in 1775 was important. It was headed by governors or governors general - the highest government officials in the provinces. In 1923-1929. instead of provinces, edges and regions were created.
Tribute – natural or monetary exaction from conquered tribes and peoples.
Dating people - inRussia XV-XVII centuries. persons from the taxable urban and rural population, assigned to lifelong military service. From the middle of the 17th century. included in the regiments of the “new system” Under Peter I, replaced by recruits.
"Twenty-five thousand meters" - workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, sent in 1929-1930. by decision of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) to work in the village for the purpose of collectivization.
Non-Aligned Movement - da movement uniting countries that declared non-participation in military-political blocs and groupings as the basis of their foreign policy in the 1960s - 1990s.
Socio-political movement - aboutdin of the institutions of the political system, the unification of large groups of people based on common interests and needs. Types of socio-political movements: conservative, liberal, socialist, etc. (based on ideology); international, national liberation, nationalist (based on national politics); worker, peasant, etc. (based on class); women's, veteran's, youth, etc. (by age and gender). Unlike parties, it does not have a strict organizational structure and is less stable.
Resistance Movement - inabout the time of World War II 1939-1945. national liberation, anti-fascist movement against the German and Italian occupiers, their allies and collaborators
Nobility in Russia - inarose in the XII – XIII centuries. as the lowest part of the military service class. Since the 14th century - the gradual rise of the nobility and the allocation of land for their service. By the beginning of the 18th century. (the reign of Peter I) the formation of the class is completed; in the second half of the 18th century. the nobility, seeks exemption from compulsory military and civil service, conscription, personal taxes, noble self-government and personal privileges. How the class was liquidated after the October Revolution of 1917
Decree - a normative act issued by the head of state or government. During the period of the October Revolution and the Civil War - the name of the legislative acts of the Soviet government.
Democracy - “Power of the people”, “democracy”, a certain form of political, social and economic organization of society, based on the fundamental recognition of the people as the source of all power. Democracy is also understood as a form of political regime in which, in particular, the highest body of state power is elected directly by the people, there is an integral system of elected bodies of power, administration and self-government, universal and equal suffrage is constitutionally enshrined, mutual responsibility of the state and society is ensured, power is subordinated control of society. There are various forms of democracy: representative and direct, conciliatory and conflictual, polarized and non-polarized. Direct (direct) and representative democracy are forms of exercising the people's will in a democratic political regime. In the first case, the people express their opinions and interests directly by participating in referendums, rallies, and demonstrations. In the second, the will of the people is manifested in the choice of certain persons representing their interests in legislative, judicial, and other government bodies at various levels (national, regional, local).
Deportation - p forced displacement of an individual, group of individuals or entire peoples outside the state or a specific region; expulsion, expulsion from the state as a measure of criminal punishment. In the 1940s a number of peoples were deported (Ingush, Kalmyks, Volga Germans, Chechens, Kabardians, Crimean Tatars, etc.). The rehabilitation of repressed peoples dates back to 1957 (except for the Volga Germans, rehabilitated in 1964)
Despotism - with autocracy, arbitrariness, cruel suppression of someone else's will, submission.
Tithe - n an argument in favor of the church. It amounted to a tenth of the harvest or other income of the population.
Default - in law - refusal of one of the parties to the contract to fulfill stipulated obligations (payment of money, provision of services, etc.).
Dialect - a local dialect, a dialect that is a type of the national language.
Dictatorship - n and the unlimited power of a person, party, class, etc., based on force, on the corresponding political regime.
Dynastic marriage- a marriage between representatives of the ruling dynasties of different states.
Dictatorship of the proletariat - inMarxist theory - the political power of the working class, which it exercises in alliance with the poor peasantry and other sections of the working people. It is established as a result of the victory of the socialist revolution and has the goal of building socialism. After 1917, according to official statements, the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the RSFSR / USSR.
Dissident - and dissident. In religion, an apostate, a person who has departed from the dogmas of faith. In politics, one who does not agree with the dominant ideology. The dissident movement is a form of social protest; public nonviolent actions against totalitarian regimes.
The doctrine of "containment" - inforeign policy concept proclaimed by the United States at the turn of the 1940s-1950s. Basic principles: The US government must respond firmly and consistently to every attempt by the USSR to expand its sphere of influence, without interfering in the internal affairs of the Soviet Union.
Squad - in In ancient Rus', a squad was an armed cavalry detachment under the prince, participating in military campaigns, managing the principality, as well as the prince’s personal household. She lived at the princely court (gridna) at the full expense of the prince. It was divided into the eldest (“princely men”) and the youngest (“youths”, “children’s”, “stepchildren”). At the end of the 12th century. The druzhina organization in the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' was replaced by the so-called courtyard with a staff of military servants (noblemen-charitable). The formation of the nobility began. The extinction of friendly relations dates back to the 12th-14th centuries.
Duma officials – in the XV – early XVIII centuries. - officials (boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles, Duma clerks) who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma, as well as in the work of Duma commissions. In the second half of the 15th - early 18th centuries. The highest palace positions (equerries, butlers, bed attendants, armorers, treasurers) were equated to the Duma ranks.
Clergy - with puddlers of religious cult. As a rule, it is represented by a special hierarchical organization, divided into higher and lower. The clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church until 1917 constituted a special class. The Orthodox clergy is divided into white (priests, deacons) and black (monasticism).
Unity of inheritance - pthe principle of inheritance of power in monarchical states. 2. The order of inheritance of land property established by decree of Peter I in 1714, aimed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could be inherited by only one of the heirs) and legally eliminated the differences between estates and estates.
Bishop - in Orthodox and a number of other Christian churches, the highest clergyman, the head of a diocese, an ecclesiastical territorial unit. From the 4th century bishops are hierarchically divided into patriarchs, metropolitans (some of whom have the title of archbishop) and bishops themselves.
Heresy - a teaching that has deviated from the dominant provisions of religious teaching, which are considered an immutable truth and not subject to criticism.
Life - biography of a person canonized by the church.
Strike - and an exceptional measure for resolving a collective labor dispute (conflict), a temporary voluntary refusal of workers to perform labor duties (in whole or in part) in order to resolve a labor dispute. The right to strike is constitutionally enshrined in the Russian Federation (Article 37 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation).
Purchases - in In ancient Rus', people who worked on the feudal lord's farm for a coupa - a loan (land, livestock, grain, money, etc.). Unlike slaves, they had their own farm.
Westerners - p representatives of the direction of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century. They recognized the common historical path of Russia and Western Europe. Westerners advocated the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the proclamation of political freedoms (speech, conscience, etc.). They put forward projects for the liberation of peasants with land.
“Saved Summers” - inend of the 16th century years in which peasants were prohibited from changing hands from one owner to another on St. George's Day (November 26). They became an important stage in the establishment of serfdom.
Serif lines (serif lines) - odefensive structures on the southern and south-eastern outskirts of Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. (forest debris, ramparts, ditches, palisades, rivers, ravines). They had strongholds (forts, fortified cities).
Zemsky Sobor - ccentral national estate-representative institution in the middle of the 16th-17th centuries. First convened in 1649. As part of the Zemsky Sobor: the Consecrated Sobor, headed by the Metropolitan (from 1589 - the Patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who ex officio had the right of a boyar court; privileged groups of merchants, elected from the district nobility and the elite of the townspeople.
Zemstvo movement - lliberal-opposition socio-political movement of zemstvo vowels and zemstvo intelligentsia in the second half of the 1860s. - early 20th century Goals: expanding the rights of the zemstvo and extending the principles of zemstvo self-government to higher government institutions. Forms: in the second half of the 19th century. – submission of addresses and petitions to the emperor, holding illegal meetings and congresses, publishing articles and brochures abroad; at the beginning of the twentieth century. Illegal political organizations of liberal zemstvos arose (“Conversation”, “Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists”, “Union of Liberation”), all-Russian zemstvo congresses were held. It was the basis for the creation of liberal political parties during the first Russian revolution of 1905 - 1907.
Zemstvo (zemstvo institutions) - inintroduced by the zemstvo reform of 1864, local all-estate self-government, which included elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvo assemblies, zemstvo councils. The zemstvo was in charge of education, health care, veterinary medicine, statistics and other issues of local economy. The activities of zemstvos were controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and governors. Elections to zemstvo institutions were based on the principle of property qualifications and the curial system, which ensured the predominant influence of landowners in them. Liquidated in 1918 by decree of the Soviet government.
Zemshchina - h part of the country's territory centered in Moscow, not included by Ivan IV the Terrible in the oprichnina. It was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders, and had zemstvo regiments. Canceled after the death of Ivan IV the Terrible.
Ideology - with the totality of ideas, ideas, teachings, beliefs characteristic of society as a whole, individual classes or social groups, parties and movements. The following ideologies are considered the most influential: traditionalist (the ideal of the present and future is sought in the past), conservative (upholds the values of stability, stability, order), liberal (proves the priority of freedom, natural individual rights, civil equality), socialist (based on the ideas of social justice and equality , high level of social protection).
“Izbornik” - d Revnerussky collection of works of a moralizing and liturgical nature.
Chosen Radaa narrow circle of close associates of Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible (A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makariy, A.M. Kurbsky, etc.), in fact, an unofficial government in 1546-1560.
Outcasts - in Ancient Rus' XI-XII centuries. peasants who broke ties with the community and did not enjoy its protection, freed or ransomed slaves and other persons who left their social group or category.
Sharecropping - in type of land lease, in which rent is paid to the owner of the land with a share of the harvest (sometimes up to half - sharecropping - and more).
Empire - m anarchical state, the head of which, as a rule, bears the title of emperor. Russia became an empire in 1721, with Peter I accepting the title of Emperor (until 1917)
Industrialization - pthe process of creating large-scale machine production, which underlies the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one. In Russia, industrialization has been active since the end of the 19th century. In the 1930s carried out at an established pace.
Industrial society - ttype of society established as a result of the industrial revolution and modernization processes.
Intelligentsia - withsocial layer, heterogeneous in origin and position. Belonging to the intelligentsia is determined by a person’s professional employment in mental or creative work, educational level and special knowledge that he possesses.
Intervention - in interference of one state in the internal affairs of another in open (armed aggression) or hidden forms.
Inflation - r a decrease in prices for goods and services that is not caused by a corresponding improvement in their quality. A prerequisite for inflation is the overflow of the sphere of circulation with paper money, in which the mass of money significantly exceeds the mass of goods. The immediate causes of inflation are miscalculations in the financial policy of the state (unfunded emissions, budget imbalances, unsustainable social programs, etc.), excessive influx of foreign currency, rising prices for imported goods, chronic commodity shortages and other factors.
Josephites (Osiphites) - cchurch group at the end of the 15th - mid-16th centuries, named after the abbot of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery Joseph of Volotsky. They defended the dominant position of the Orthodox Church in society, the inviolability of church dogmas and the inviolability of church property. The theory of “Moscow is the third Rome,” which played an important role in the formation of the official ideology of the Russian autocracy, was created by the Josephite Philotheus.
Islam - m world religion that arose in the 7th century. in Arabia. The basic tenet of Islam is: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet.” Holy book - Koran.
Historical process - pa temporal sequence of successive events in which the activities of many generations of people were manifested. The basis of the Historical process is historical facts. The subjects of the Historical process are the masses, social groups and public associations, historical figures.
Judaism - m onotheistic religion that arose in the 1st millennium BC. e. in Palestine. National religion of the Jews.
Cossacks - in military class in Russia in the 18th century. - early 20th century In the XIV-XVII centuries. Cossacks are free people who performed military service in the border regions of Russia. In 1920, the Cossacks as a class were abolished. In the 1990s. the revival of its traditions, culture and way of life began.
Cartel - m an onopolistic agreement to regulate production volumes, conditions of sales of products, and hiring of labor in order to obtain monopoly profits. Cartel members retain commercial and production independence.
Catholicism - oh the bottom of the three movements of modern Christianity.
Canon is the rule.
Cyrillic - o the bottom of the first two reliably known Slavic alphabet. Named after the Slavic enlightener, translator of liturgical books into the Old Church Slavonic language, St. Cyril. Created on the basis of the Greek charter letter of the 9th century. in the second half of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. with the addition of new letters. It became the basis of modern Slavic writing systems: Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, etc.
Classicism - with style and direction that prevailed in European art of the 17th - early 19th centuries. The characteristic features of classicism are simplicity and clarity of forms, strictness of lines, imitation of the best examples of ancient art, consistency and regulation of the main stylistic techniques.
Social class - inid of a social community, one of the elements of social structure. In Marxist sociology it is considered the main element of social structure. The basis of class division is the attitude to property, as well as the place in the system of social division of labor, methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that the class has.
Code - s a legislative act that combines and systematizes the rules of law regulating a certain area of social relations.
Codification - with systematization of legislation, consolidation of various laws and regulations into one code. In Russia, codification was carried out in 1826 – 1832. under the leadership of M.M. Speransky.
Collegiums - c central government institutions formed by Peter I during the reform of public administration in 1717-1722. and existed until the beginning of the 19th century. The activities of the boards were based on the collegial (joint) principle of discussing and resolving cases, uniformity of organizational structure, record keeping, and a clearer definition of competence.
Collectivization in the USSR- mass creation of collective farms (collective farms), carried out in the late 1920s - early 1930s. It was accompanied by the liquidation of individual farms and was carried out at an accelerated pace with the widespread use of violent methods. It led to a reduction in agricultural production, caused damage to the peasantry, and radically changed the traditional way of life of the bulk of the Russian population.
Colonization - p the process of turning a country into a colony, as well as the settlement and economic development of empty lands.
The colony - a country captured and exploited by another state (mother country). A community of people living in another country or city.
Kombeds (committees of the poor)- organizations of the rural poor in European Russia. Created by decree of the Council of People's Commissars in June 1918, they actually carried out the functions of state bodies: they distributed landowners' lands and agricultural implements, together with food detachments and local Soviets they carried out food appropriation, and recruited for the Red Army. Disbanded at the end of 1918 - beginning of 1919.
Communism - p political ideology that substantiates the need to restructure society on the basis of the destruction of private property, classes and the state, the principles of collectivism and equality. A social system based on these principles.
"Conditions" -y terms of Anna Ioannovna's accession to the Russian throne. Proposed in 1730 by the Supreme Privy Council (“sovereigns”) with the aim of limiting the monarchy in favor of an aristocratic oligarchy. The Empress signed the "Conditions", but soon rejected them and dissolved the Supreme Privy Council.
Conservatism -p political ideology based on the values of order, stability and traditionalism. Ideals of conservatism: private property, market, free enterprise, strong state, religion, morality, family.
Constitutionalism - ppolitical and legal principle, according to which the relationship between civil society and the state is built on the basis of the separation of powers, guarantees of individual rights and freedoms, and the rule of law.
Constitutional monarchy - fa form of government in which the head of state is a hereditary monarch, legislative power is exercised by an elected parliament, and executive power belongs to the government.
Constitution - about the fundamental law of the state, which establishes the foundations of the social and economic system, the form of government and government, the legal status of the individual, the order of organization and competence of government and management bodies, the organization and basic principles of justice, and the electoral system. As a legal document, the constitution plays a very important role in the legal support of society. It is the basis of all legislation of the country and is endowed with the highest legal force. All other laws of the state are adopted in strict accordance with its provisions. The Constitution is distinguished by its stable content; a special legal procedure for introducing amendments to it is provided. In the Russian Federation and a number of other countries, the constitution is a document of direct effect; its implementation does not require the adoption of additional legal acts.
Contribution - d monetary payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.
Counter-reforms - t term used to designate elements of the policy of the reign of Alexander III (1881–1894): the restoration of preliminary censorship, the introduction of class principles in primary and secondary schools, the abolition of the autonomy of universities, the establishment of bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo and city self-government.
Confession - in religion; unification of believers, clergy, church organizations within the framework of the dominant church.
Concern - f form of monopoly, an association of industrial, financial and commercial enterprises subordinate to the financial control of the parent company.
Concession - d an agreement on the state’s commissioning of enterprises, land, subsoil, etc., to a foreign state or private person under certain conditions, for the purpose of developing or restoring the national economy and developing natural resources.
Koran - with sacred book of Muslims. Compiled from the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, spoken in Mecca and Medina and recorded by his companions. For followers of Islam, the Koran is a divinely inspired book, a direct appeal from Allah to Muslims.
Feeding - from possession of officials (governors, volosts, etc.) at the expense of the local population in Rus'. “Food” was collected two to three times a year in the form of food, fodder, and part of various duties from trades and shops. Eliminated by the zemstvo reform of 1555-1556.
Serfdom (serfdom) - pthe attachment of peasants to the land and to the personality of the landowner, his subordination to the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Russia, on a national scale, serfdom was formalized by the Code of Law of 1497, decrees on “reserved” and “prescribed” years, and was finally consolidated by the Council Code of 1649. In the 17th-18th centuries. all categories of the dependent population merged into the serf peasantry. Abolished by the peasant reform of 1861
Crisis - r a sharp aggravation of contradictions, acute difficulty or inhibition of any activity, a difficult transitional state.
Kulaks - t term used to designate the rich layer of the rural population that arose as a result of the social stratification of the Russian village after the reform of 1861. Wealthy peasants joined the kulaks. The elimination of the kulaks as a class was carried out during the period of collectivization.
Cult of personality - tterm, used after the XX Congress of the CPSU (1956) as the official name of the period of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 1950s.
Chronicles - and historical works, a type of narrative literature in Russia in the 11th-17th centuries, weather records of the most important events of all-Russian and local history. They were created at princely courts, in monasteries, and at episcopal departments. In most cases, they were not preserved as independent historical monuments, but were included in chronicles.
Liberalism - p political ideology, which is based on the values of individual rights and freedoms, civil equality, and the priority of the individual over society and the state. The ideals of liberalism are personal freedom, the inviolability of private property, freedom of entrepreneurship and the market. Modern liberalism has abandoned the principle of absolute non-interference by the state in economic and social processes and recognizes the need for elements of state regulation of the market.
Majoritarian electoral system - andan electoral system in which the candidates elected in a given electoral district are those who received more than 50% of the votes (absolute majority) or a greater number of votes than other candidates (relative majority).
Majorat - p the procedure for the undivided inheritance of real estate by the elders in the family or clan.
Manifest - t a ceremonial written appeal from the supreme authority to the population; programmatic appeal.
Manufactory - p an enterprise that uses manual labor from hired workers and has a detailed division of labor.
Maneuver - movement of troops.
Marxism - with socio-political doctrine, ideology created in the middle of the 19th century. German scientists K. Marx and F. Engels. Main ideas: recognition of social existence as a primary factor of development; the doctrine of the historical process as a process of development and change of socio-economic formations; the idea of class struggle and social revolution as the driving forces of history; criticism of the institution of private property and the demand for the transfer of the means of production to the ownership of the entire society; the doctrine of the natural nature of the historical process, etc. The ideal of Marxism is the reorganization of society on communist principles.
Mercantilism - uh economic policy of protectionism, encouraging the development of domestic industry, especially manufacturing, supporting the export of domestic products and restricting the import of foreign ones. Its supporters sought the predominance of exporting goods abroad over importing them into the country. The most consistent policy of mercantilism was pursued in Russia during the reign of Peter I.
Localism - oh a special procedure for appointment to military, administrative and court service, taking into account the nobility of origin, birth, service and personal merits of ancestors. Typical for the end of the 15th–16th centuries. Abolished 1682
Month - in Russia XVIII - first half of the XIX century. a six-day corvee of serfs deprived of land plots, for payment in kind, issued monthly in the form of food rations and clothing.
Metropolis - g a state with colonies.
Philistines, philistines - inRussian Empire from the second half of the 18th century. unprivileged class. Composition: persons engaged in science and in service (white clergy, officials, scientists, artists), persons engaged in trade (merchants, manufacturers, factory owners, ship owners and sailors), artisans, working people. The bourgeoisie were exempted from public works, they were forbidden to be transferred to a state of serfdom, they had the rights to security, freedom of movement, and an estate court (they were not exempt from corporal punishment). They carried out recruiting duties.
Ministry - c a central government body that manages a certain sector of the economy, area of foreign or domestic policy. In Russia, ministries were formed in 1802. In 1917 they were replaced by people's commissariats. In 1946 the name was restored.
Miniature - a work of art, usually pictorial, small in size.
World religions - preligions whose beliefs do not recognize national differences and which have adherents among peoples speaking different languages and living in different parts of the world. World religions include Christianity, Islam and Buddhism.
Metropolitan - to major hierarch of the Russian Orthodox and a number of other Christian churches.
Modernization - the process of transition from a traditional society to a modern industrial one. Includes the implementation of the industrial revolution and industrialization, the formation of a developed market economy and civil society, the legal consolidation of individual autonomy, human rights, freedoms and responsibilities. The problem of modernization remains controversial in modern social science.
Modernism - about a general designation for the phenomena of literature and art of the twentieth century, which moved away from the traditions of external similarity and approved a new approach to the depiction of existence.
Monarchy - f a form of government in which supreme power belongs to an individual and is inherited, while the monarch, as the theory states, is not responsible for the results of his rule. There are different types of monarchy. An absolute monarchy is characterized by the concentration of all power in the hands of the ruler, who exercises it through officials responsible to him. In the modern world, absolute monarchies exist, for example, in the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. The second type is a constitutional monarchy: the power of the monarch is limited by a representative body of government and, as a rule, by the constitution. Sometimes two types of constitutional monarchy are distinguished - parliamentary (the monarch “reigns, but does not rule”) and dualistic (the monarch forms a government responsible to him).
Monetarism - uh An economic theory that recognizes the money supply (the amount of money) in circulation as a decisive factor in the economic development of a country and the economic policy of the state.
Monotheism - p a religion based on monotheism, the veneration of a single, absolute God.
Men are noble people.
Mutiny is an uprising.
Viceroy - the head of local government appointed by the central government.
Populism - nleadership in the liberation movement of post-reform Russia in the second half of the 19th century. At the heart of his ideology are ideas about a special, original path of development for Russia, capable of bypassing the stage of capitalism and relying on the peasant community to create a socialist society.
People's Commissariats (People's Commissariats) - in1917-1946 central government bodies for a particular sector of the national economy or field of activity. Led by people's commissars. Converted to ministries in 1946
Subsistence farming - ttype of economy in which products and things are produced and manufactured for one’s own consumption, and not for sale.
Nationality - and a historically established ethnic group characterized by linguistic, territorial, economic and cultural community.
Scientific and technological revolution - toa qualitative leap in the development of the productive forces of society, its transition to a new state based on fundamental changes in the system of scientific knowledge. There are two stages of the scientific and technological revolution: 50s - late 70s. XX century (the main thing is automation of production processes) and the end of the 70s. XX century to the present (the main thing is the development of microelectronics, the introduction of computers, the technological revolution).
Nationalization - ntransfer of enterprises, lands, banks, and economic sectors from private ownership to state ownership.
Nation - n the most developed ethnic community based on the unity of language, territory, culture, economic life, and social psychology.
Non-covetous - r religious-political movement at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. They preached asceticism and withdrawal from the world. They demanded that the church renounce land ownership. The main ideologists are the elder of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery Nil Sorsky and Vassian Kosoy. The teaching of non-possessors was condemned by church councils of 1503 and 1531.
Manners - customs, ways of society.
New Economic Policy (NEP) - padopted in 1921 at the X Congress of the RCP(b); replaced the policy of “war communism”. It began with the replacement of the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind. It is characterized by the use of commodity-money relations, the market, various forms of ownership, and the attraction of foreign capital (in the form of concessions).
"Norman theory" -inemerged in the second quarter of the 18th century. direction in Russian and foreign historiography. His supporters considered the Normans (Varangians) to be the creators of the state in Ancient Rus'. Modern research proves the inconsistency of this theory; the determining factor in the process of formation of any state is objective internal conditions.
Chief Prosecutor - sa veterinary person heading the Holy Synod; head of the Senate department.
Renovationism - ina movement that emerged shortly after the October Revolution of 1917, opposing the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church, for the modernization of the religious cult. Renovationists declared support for the Bolshevik government and a loyal attitude towards the Soviet state. After 1945 it self-liquidated.
Lifestyle – characteristics of all aspects of human life or individual segments of the population.
quitrent - in Russia - the annual collection of money and products from serfs by the landowner. Food dues were abolished by the peasant reform of 1861; monetary dues were retained for temporarily obligated peasants until 1883.
Society - people united by a common life and activity in one state.
Peasant community (world) - fform of social organization. Characteristic features: common ownership of the means of production, full or partial self-government, class isolation. It was used as a device for collecting taxes. After the peasant reform of 1861, the community became the owner of the land. During the Stolypin agrarian reform, exit from the community along with the land was allowed.
Common law - witha system of norms and rules of behavior based on custom. Customary law arose in the pre-state period and was widespread in ancient and medieval societies.
One-party system - pan artillery system in which the only legitimately existing party monopolizes state power.
Occupation - n violent seizure and retention of foreign territory during hostilities.
Okolnichy - the second most important rank of member of the Boyar Duma.
Oligarchy - with According to Aristotle, oligarchy is a degenerate, perverted form of aristocracy, in which power belongs not to the best, but to the most powerful, the rich. The oligarchy rules in the interests not of society, but of its individual layers associated with the oligarchs. A financial oligarchy is characterized by the presence of an extensive system of personal connections, the participation of financial and banking magnates in government structures and, conversely, the involvement of high-ranking officials in financial institutions.
Militia - Volunteer warriors of the people's militia.
Opposition - p opposition to certain policies, as well as political groups, parties, movements opposing the political line of the government or the opinion of the majority.
Oprichnina - in 1565-1572 the name of the inheritance of Ivan IV the Terrible, which included lands in the rich North of the country, in the South and in the center, as well as part of Moscow. The oprichnina introduced its own oprichnina administration: the Boyar Duma, orders, army. The system of internal political measures of Ivan IV is also called oprichnina - mass repressions, executions, land confiscations, etc.
Horde exit - dan, a quitrent paid by Russian princes to the khans of the Golden Horde.
Prison - a point for placing military detachments, fortified with a wooden fence in the form of vertically dug pointed pillars.
Segments - y pieces of land cut off from plots that were in use by peasants during the peasant reform of 1861 and transferred to the landowners. Cut-offs were made if the allotment exceeded the maximum standard established by the “Regulations” on February 19, 1861.
Cut - f land use form established during the Stolypin agrarian reform. A plot of land allocated to a peasant in replacement of the communal lands previously allocated to him, located in various places. The estate remained in the village.
"Thaw" - t term used to denote the policy of de-Stalinization during the period when N. S. Khrushchev was at the head of state (1953 - 1964).
Otkhodnichestvo - ythe movement of peasants to work in cities or for agricultural work in other areas.
"Official Nationality Theory" - aboutofficial ideology put forward during the reign of Nicholas I, based on the opposition of Russia to the West. The main principles of the theory were formulated by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov in 1832: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.”
Pact - m An international treaty is usually of great political significance.
Parity - r equality of the parties. In finance, the relationship between the monetary units of different countries according to their gold backing or purchasing power.
Parliament - in in a broad sense - the highest state legislative representative institution.
Parliamentarism - witha system of organization and functioning of the supreme state power in democratic states, characterized by the separation of legislative and executive functions with the leading position of parliament. The government is formed and actually controlled by parliament.
Parliamentary republic - fa form of republican government characterized by a number of features: the simultaneous formation of parliament and government based on election results; formation of government by parliament; government responsibility to parliament; vesting the president (head of state) with representative powers; concentration of executive power in the government, etc.
Partisan movement - inid of the struggle for freedom and national independence or for social transformation, which is waged in territory occupied by the enemy. On the territory of Russia, the partisan movement existed during the Patriotic War of 1812, the Civil War and Intervention of 1918-1922, and the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.
Party system - withthe totality of political parties, connections and relationships between them. Types of party systems: one-party, two-party, multi-party.
Political party - oan organization of like-minded people who have united to defend the interests of certain social groups through coming to power and using it. There are different classifications of political parties. There are, in particular, ideological parties (created on the basis of ideological unity) and parliamentary parties (uniting their members in the interests of winning elections). Among the ideological parties, there are conservative parties (they stand for the preservation of the existing order), reformist parties (they advocate reforms of society that do not change its fundamental foundations), revolutionary parties (calling for the overthrow of the current system), and reactionary parties (calling for a return to the previous order). According to the principles of organization, political parties are divided into mass and cadre, with and without official membership.
Patriarch - in The name of the Christian Church belonged first to all bishops, then only to Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. In modern Orthodoxy, the patriarch is the highest clergy, the head of an independent (autocephalous) church, elected by the church council.
Patriarchate - fThe form of church government in Orthodoxy, in which the patriarch is at the head of the church. Originated in the early Middle Ages. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the patriarchate was established in 1589, then abolished in 1721 and revived in 1917.
Patriotism - l love for the Motherland, for one’s people, readiness to defend it, to actively work in the name of its good and prosperity.
Peredvizhniki - g a group of artists, members of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (established in 1870). Characteristic features of the art of the Itinerants: rejection of academicism with its mythology, decorative landscapes, lush theatricality; interest in genre everyday scenes, the life of the peasantry, emphasis on the ideological side of art. Russian landscape painting flourished in the work of the Peredvizhniki. Existed until the early 1920s.
Resettlement policy - prelocation of the population (mostly peasant) of the central regions of Russia for permanent residence to sparsely populated outlying areas - to Siberia and the Far East. It intensified at the beginning of the twentieth century. in connection with the Stolypin agrarian reform.
Perestroika - t term used to denote transformations in the USSR in 1985 - 1991. The most important directions: democratization of all aspects of life in Soviet society, expansion of glasnost, radical economic reform; establishment of a comprehensive system of international security, a nuclear-free, non-violent world.
Tribe - t type of ethnic community characteristic of primitiveness. A tribe is characterized by consanguineous ties between its members, division into clans, common territory, individual elements of the economy, customs, cult, and self-awareness.
Churchyards - places for collecting tribute. They were established by the reform of Princess Olga.
"Elderly" - in XV-XVII centuries a monetary collection from peasants when they leave the landowner on St. George's Day. Introduced by the Law Code of 1497. Disappeared with the complete enslavement of the peasants. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. “elderly” was the name given to the penalty for accepting runaway peasants.
Polytheism - m godlessness. A religion that recognizes many gods.
"Police Socialism" - pthe name adopted in historiography for one of the methods of implementing domestic policy, the main idea of which was the creation of government-controlled organizations to distract workers from the political struggle. At the end of the 19th century. Such organizations appeared in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. - in Russia, where a major role in their appearance and spread was played by the gendarme colonel, head of the Moscow Security Branch and the Special Department of the Police Department S.V. Zubatov. The Russian version of “police socialism” is also called “Zubatovism” in the literature.
Regiments of the “foreign system”, regiments of the “new system” - inmilitary units formed in the 17th century. in Russia from “willing” free people, Cossacks, foreigners, etc., later - from Danish people, modeled on Western European armies in organization and training. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century. used by Peter I to form a regular army.
Polyudye - about travel by a Russian prince with a retinue of his vassal possessions for the purpose of collecting tribute; the name of the tribute itself.
Estate - t term used to designate a form of conditional (for service) land ownership at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 18th century. Known since the XIII-XIV centuries. The estate was not subject to sale, exchange or inheritance. In the XVI-XVII centuries. gradually became closer to the estate, and in 1714 merged with it. In the XVIII-XX centuries. estate - the same as land estate.
Landowners - d Voryans, owners of estates.
Posadnik - in an elected official in an ancient Russian city-republic, the head of the executive branch. Together with the prince, he was in charge of issues of administration and court, commanded the army, led the veche assembly and the boyar council, represented in foreign relations (signed an agreement with the prince).
Posad people - tthe commercial and industrial population of Russian cities, bearing state taxes - trade taxes, trade duties, participation in citywide work (for example, the construction of fortifications), in-kind duties, etc. Since the 17th century. Posad people were the name given to the population of cities. They were divided into hundreds - the Living Room, the Cloth Room, the Black Room. In 1775 they were divided into merchants and burghers.
Possession peasants -inXVIII-XIX centuries a category of peasants who belonged to private enterprises in which they worked or which they served. The category of possession peasants was introduced under Peter I by decree of 1721 on the purchase of people for factories in connection with the need to provide workers for the growing large manufactory. In 1736, artisans were assigned to factories and factories. Unlike serfs, sessional peasants were not allowed to be transferred to agricultural work, to be recruited instead of landowner peasants, etc. Liberated by the peasant reform of 1861.
Post-industrial society - aboutthe bottom of the definitions of modern society. The features of post-industrial society, according to a number of scientists, are the predominance of the service sector over the production sector; in changing the social structure, in the formation of which the criteria of profession, education and knowledge play a decisive role; in the creation of new intelligent technologies; in informatization and computerization of public life, etc.
The Government of the Russian Federation - inthe highest executive body. Consists of the chairman, his deputies and ministers. The Chairman of the Government is appointed by the President of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma. The composition of the P. is determined by the President on the proposal of the Chairman of the Government. The Government of the Russian Federation develops and submits the budget to the State Duma and ensures its execution; ensures the implementation of a unified financial, credit and monetary policy in Russia, as well as a unified policy in the field of culture, education, and healthcare; manages federal property; carries out measures to ensure the country's defense capability, etc.
Right - oh the bottom of the normative systems regulating relations in society. In political and legal science there is no single approach to defining this concept. There is a definition of law as a system of generally binding norms (rules) of behavior established or sanctioned by the state and ensured by its coercive force (normative approach). Law is also defined as a system of concepts contained in the public consciousness about generally binding rules of conduct, human rights and responsibilities, prohibitions, and the conditions for their emergence and implementation. Law has an evaluative nature, being normatively established justice. The state, relying on the law, formulates and issues laws that reflect public ideas about what is legal and illegal, permitted and prohibited. Rules of law are generally binding, formally defined, and secured by the coercive power of the state.
Orthodoxy - oh the bottom of the three movements of modern Christianity. It finally emerged as an independent church in 1054 with the split of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox. Orthodoxy gradually split into several autocephalous churches. In Rus', Orthodoxy was adopted at the end of the 10th century, at which time the Russian Orthodox Church was founded.
The president - 1. Head of state in many modern states with a republican form of government. The scope of his powers in republics of different types is not the same. In a presidential republic, the president heads the government and is not responsible to parliament. In a parliamentary republic, executive power is concentrated in the government, which is formed by the party (or bloc of parties) that wins the elections. In a presidential-parliamentary (mixed) republic, the government is responsible to both the president and parliament. 2. The President of the Russian Federation is the head of state who exercises a wide range of powers: representation of the Russian Federation within the country and in international relations, protecting the country’s sovereignty, its independence and integrity, ensuring interaction between government bodies, resolving issues of citizenship, awarding state awards, pardons. The President of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, can declare a state of emergency on the territory of the country or in its individual regions. Elected for 4 years on the basis of universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage. From 1991 to 1999, the President of the Russian Federation was B. N. Yeltsin. In 2000 and 2004, V.V. Putin would have been elected President of the Russian Federation.
Presidential Republic - fa form of republican government characterized by a number of features: direct popular election of the president, combining the powers of the head of state and head of government in the person of the president; relative independence of the executive branch from the legislative branch; the president does not have the right to dissolve parliament, etc.
Privatization - p transfer of state or municipal property into private ownership. Specific forms of privatization are different: free distribution to citizens; rent with subsequent purchase; transformation of state-owned enterprises into joint-stock companies; buyout of enterprises on a competitive basis.
Privilege - n property right, benefit.
Orders - oh central government bodies in the 16th – early 18th centuries. They were divided into sectoral and territorial. Disadvantages: there was no unity in the distribution of affairs between orders, there was no clear delineation of functions and competence between them, red tape and bribery reigned, the entire system was difficult to control by the supreme authority. Replaced under Peter I by collegiums.
Jurors -private participants in a court session, forming a panel independent of professional judges. A verdict is made on the guilt or innocence of the defendant, as well as on the presence or absence of aggravating circumstances.
Tax in kind (food tax) - ntax introduced in 1921 to replace the surplus appropriation system. Its dimensions were established before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product, taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms and were significantly lower than surplus appropriation. Canceled 1923
Food dictatorship - witha system of emergency measures of the Soviet state in relation to rural commodity producers, announced in March 1918 in connection with the aggravation of the food situation in the interests of workers, Red Army soldiers and the peasant poor. Characteristic features: centralization of food procurement and distribution, establishment of a grain trade monopoly, requisition (forced seizure) of grain, surplus appropriation. Canceled with the introduction of the New Economic Policy.
Surplus appropriation - fromthe system of procurement of agricultural products in the Soviet state in 1919-1921, an element of the policy of “war communism”. Characteristic features: obligatory delivery by peasants of all surplus (above established norms for personal and economic needs) of bread and other products at fixed prices; planned state assignments to the provinces, distributed among counties, volosts, villages, and peasant households; the use of violent measures (food detachments, committees of the poor, local councils) to confiscate products; withdrawal of not only surpluses, but also necessary supplies. In 1921 it was replaced by a tax in kind.
Industrial Revolution - pthe transition from manufacture, which used mainly manual labor, to machine production. In Russia, the beginning of the industrial revolution dates back to the 1830s, and its completion to the early 1880s.
Enlightened absolutism - tterm used to denote the policy of absolutism in some European countries in the second half of the 19th century. In Russia, the policy of enlightened absolutism was carried out during the reign of Catherine II.
Protectionism - ineconomics - a policy aimed at protecting national producers from foreign competition.
Trade unions - mmass public organizations that unite workers on a professional basis in order to protect their economic and socio-cultural rights.
Putsch. A coup d'etat carried out by a small group of conspirators.
Radicalism - in politics - a characteristic of ideology and activity, which are based on the desire for a radical, decisive change in the existing order.
Raznochintsy - in Russia at the end of the 18th - 19th centuries. inter-class category of the population, people from different classes and separated from their class environment (clergy, philistines, merchants, petty bureaucrats). It was not legally formalized in any way. The commoners were mainly engaged in mental work.
Discharge - p a period in the relationship between the world systems of capitalism and socialism, which began at the turn of the 1960-1970s. The basis of detente is the military-strategic parity (equality) of the USSR and the USA. It ended in 1979 with the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.
Split - oh separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of part of the believers who did not accept the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon of 1653-1656. Opponents of the official church were called schismatics or Old Believers.
Dispossession - inDuring the period of collectivization, a course towards physical destruction, resettlement to the northern uninhabited areas, expulsion from their native places, confiscation of property from the wealthy part of the peasantry. Repression also fell on the middle peasants.
Rat is an army.
Rehabilitation - oh justice and restoration of the rights of individuals and entire peoples who were subjected to repression by the Soviet state. Rehabilitation was carried out especially widely in the mid and second half of the 1950s. and in the second half of the 1980s - early 1990s.
Reaction - in politics - active resistance to social progress, the desire to consolidate outdated orders.
Revenge - in politics - activities aimed at gaining the upper hand over the victorious enemy, restoring lost positions and orders.
Revolution - to a revolution in any field (scientific, technological, industrial, demographic revolution, etc.). A social revolution leads to the elimination of existing social and political orders and the establishment of a new government.
Recruitment duty - frommethod of recruiting the Russian regular army in the 18th-19th centuries. Tax-paying classes (peasants, townspeople, etc.) were required to provide a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874 it was replaced by universal conscription.
Religion - f a form of social consciousness, a set of ideas and views based on belief in the existence of God, higher powers, the sacred, as well as the corresponding rituals and cults.
Reparations - in compensation by the defeated state for the material damage caused to it in monetary or any other form. The payment of reparations is provided for after the end of the war in the peace treaty.
Repatriation - in the return to their homeland of prisoners of war and civilians who found themselves abroad during the war, as well as emigrants with the restoration of their civil rights.
Repression - n punishment, punitive measure applied by the state.
Republic - f a form of government in which the legal source of political power is the citizens of the state. In a republic, supreme power belongs to bodies elected for a certain period of time.
Referendum - in a popular vote to resolve a particularly important issue of public life, to identify public opinion.
Reform - p reformation, change of something.
Rococo - with tile direction in European art of the first half of the 18th century. Characteristic features: escape into the world of play, fantasy, sophisticated ornamental rhythm, decorativeness, grace, sophistication.
Romanticism - and active and artistic direction in spiritual culture of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. Reflected disappointment in the ideals of the Enlightenment and the results of the Great French Revolution. Characteristic features: aspiration for freedom, thirst for improvement and renewal, the uniqueness of the human personality, the intrinsic value of its spiritual life, the depiction of strong passions, the motives of “world sorrow” and “world evil”, interest in the past and its idealization.
Russian Orthodox Church - withthe largest of the Orthodox churches. Founded in the 10th century. From the end of the 11th century. at the head of the church was the Kiev Metropolitan, from the end of the 13th century. - Metropolitan of Vladimir (residence in Moscow since 1328). Initially it was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1448 it became autocephalous. The Patriarchate was established in 1589, abolished in 1721 and restored in 1917. In January 1918, the Russian Orthodox Church was separated from the state.
Ryadovichi - to category of dependent people in Ancient Rus'. A person who has entered into a certain agreement with the master is a “row” and is obliged to perform any work on this “row”.
Market - with the totality of all relationships, as well as forms and organizations of cooperation between people with each other, relating to the purchase and sale of goods and services. Signs of the market: unlimited number of participants; absolutely free access for any manufacturer of goods and services; the presence of each participant in the competition with a full amount of information about the situation (about prices, supply and demand, the amount of profit received, etc.); mobility of material, financial, labor and other resources necessary for the production of goods and services; the inability of market participants to influence decisions made by other producers. In the modern economy, there is a whole system of markets, consisting of a market for goods; market for means of production; labor market; investment market; currency and securities market; market. scientific and technical developments; information market.
Original - unique, following its own path, independent in its development.
Autocracy - m onarchical form of government in Russia in the 16th - early 20th centuries.
Secret committees - inabout the second quarter of the 19th century. temporary government institutions created by the emperor to discuss reform projects, and in 1857-1858. - to discuss projects for preparing the abolition of serfdom.
Secularization - inin a broad sense - liberation from the influence of the church.
"Seven Boyars" - pThe government of the Russian state during the period of the Polish-Swedish intervention of 1610-1613, formed after the overthrow of Tsar V.I. Shuisky.
Senate in Russia - in1711-1917 the highest government body subordinate to the emperor. Established by Peter I as the highest body for legislation and public administration. In the first half of the 19th century. turned into the highest judicial body overseeing the activities of government institutions and officials. According to the judicial statutes of 1864, it was the highest court of cassation.
Sentimentalism - tmovement in European and American art and literature of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Sentimentalism considered the main thing in human nature not reason, but feeling. Works of literature and art of sentimentalism are characterized by an interest in the feelings and experiences of the common man, especially those from the middle classes.
Separatism - with the desire of a people, a region within a country, for separation, isolation.
Separate peace - ma peace treaty or truce with an enemy, concluded by one of the states included in a coalition of warring countries, without the knowledge or consent of its allies.
Middle peasants - t term to designate a layer of peasants who occupied a middle position between the kulaks and the rural poor. They cultivated the land themselves and with the help of family members. In 1917 they made up a fifth of all peasant farms, and in 1928-1929. - more than half. During collectivization, the middle peasants as a social class ceased to exist.
Symbolism - n direction in European and Russian art of the 1870-1910s. The main thing in the aesthetics of symbolism was the symbol - a multi-valued allegorical symbol that expresses the essence of phenomena and ideas that are beyond sensory perception.
Syndicate - f the form of cartel-type monopolistic agreements; an association of entrepreneurs that undertakes all commercial activities (prices, purchase of raw materials, sales of products), while maintaining production independence.
Synod, Holy Synod - inthe highest legislative, administrative and judicial government agency for the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church, one of the highest government bodies in the Russian Empire in 1721-1917. After 1917, the Holy Synod was an advisory body under the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'.
Slavophiles - p representatives of the direction of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century. Main ideas: the thesis about the deep difference between Russia and the West, the special path of its development based on the existence of a peasant community and Orthodoxy; In the absence of internal struggle, peaceful cooperation, classes live peacefully with each other. Slavophiles critically assessed Peter's reforms, opposed serfdom, for autocracy and the right of society to freely express their opinions - at Zemsky Councils and in the press.
Sloboda - an area on the outskirts of the city, inhabited by artisans of one specialty.
« Shifting" - aboutsocial and political current among the Russian intelligentsia, mainly emigrants, in the 1920s. (from the title of the collection “Change of Milestones,” published in Prague in 1921) In the NEP, “Smenavekhovism” saw the beginning of the liberalization of the Bolshevik regime and the possibility of recreating the Russian state.
Smerdy - to category of the semi-free population of Ancient Rus' in the 9th-14th centuries, communal peasants who bore duties in favor of the prince and paid him tribute. Perhaps the inhabitants of the conquered lands who were subject to tribute were called smerds. There is no consensus in science about the origin and meaning of the term “smerd”.
Mixed electoral system - andan electoral system that combines the principles of majoritarian and proportional systems. In the Russian Federation, for example, one half of the State Duma deputies are elected according to a majoritarian system in single-mandate constituencies, and the other half are elected according to lists nominated by electoral associations (proportional system).
Council of People's Commissars (SNK) - in1917 – 1946 the name of the highest executive and administrative body of state power of the RSFSR / USSR.
Federation Council - pAlat of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. The Federation Council includes two representatives from each subject of the Federation. The jurisdiction of the Federation Council includes: approval of changes in borders; approval of some of the most important decrees of the President of the Russian Federation (for example, on the introduction of a state of emergency); calling elections for the President of the Russian Federation; appointment to the position of judges of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation; appointment to the post of Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation, etc.
Estates - from social groups that have rights and obligations that are enshrined in custom or law and are inheritable. The class system is characterized by hierarchy, inequality, and a low level of mobility. In Russia from the second half of the 18th century. The class division into nobility, clergy, peasantry, merchants, and burghers was established. Abolished in 1917
"Socialization of the Earth" - aboutThe main requirement of the agrarian program of the Socialist Revolutionary Party: the destruction of private ownership of land, its transfer for the use of communities and the equal distribution of land among communal peasants.
Socialism - p political ideology, which presupposes the structure of society on the principles of equality, social justice, and meeting the needs of individuals. The concept of “socialism” unites doctrines of antiquity, the Middle Ages, modern times, and modernity that differ in content and nature. The most influential of modern socialist theories is the concept of social democracy (“democratic socialism”).
Stan - camp.
Old Believers - rreligious groups and churches in Russia that did not recognize the church reform of the 17th century, oppositional or hostile to the Russian Orthodox Church. Until 1906, adherents of the Old Believers were persecuted by the authorities.
Strata - in sociology - a social stratum, a group of people united on the basis of some common characteristics (income, level of education, profession, etc.).
Stratification - insociology - the division of society into strata in accordance with certain criteria (income, profession, education, proximity to power, prestige, etc.).
Sovereignty - p the sovereignty of the state within the country and its independence in the international arena.
Terror - y the threat of physical violence for political or other reasons, as well as the actions themselves that create a danger of death and are committed with the aim of intimidation, putting pressure on decision-making by authorities, and violating public safety.
Totalitarianism - f form of a political regime characterized by complete domination of the state over all aspects of society. Signs of totalitarianism: the only mass party; universally binding ideology; state monopoly on the media; terrorist control by political police; centralized economic management system, etc.
Traditional society - aboutgeneric name for agrarian pre-industrial societies. Features of traditional society: the absence of obvious boundaries between eras in its development; the idea of merging with nature as the basis of relations between society and nature; the predominance of communal-state forms of ownership; low level of social mobility; domination of the state over society and society over the individual; traditions as the main regulator of social life.
Tax - in XV - early XVIII centuries. monetary and natural state duties of peasants and townspeople. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. a unit for imposing duties on peasants in favor of landowners.
Appanages - possessions of younger members of the princely family.
Unitary state - fform of government. In a unitary state, the power of representative, executive and judicial bodies common to the entire country extends to its entire territory, there are unified legislative, legal, monetary systems, and unified citizenship. Administrative-territorial units have the same legal status.
Union - the unification of two monarchical states by a common monarch.
Urbanization - p the process of increasing the role of cities in the life of the country. One of the prerequisites and consequences of modernization and the development of an industrial society.3
Lessons - the amount of tribute and the tribute itself in Ancient Rus'. They were established by the reform of Princess Olga.
"Lessonal summers" - yestablished by royal decrees from the end of the 16th century. time frame for the search and return of fugitive peasants to their owners (from 5 to 15 years). Abolished by the Council Code of 1649, when the investigation became unlimited.
Utopian socialism - yideas about the ideal structure of society, based on community of property, compulsory labor, fair distribution.
Utopia - in in a broad sense - an impossible dream, a project of social order that has no chance of implementation.
Fascism - and deology, which is based on the ideas of racial and national superiority of some races and nations over others.
Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation - inthe highest representative and legislative body of the Russian Federation. Consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.
Federation - f form of government, the voluntary unification of previously independent states into a single union state. The territory of the federation is formed by the territories of its subjects. The powers of the federal government and the powers of the constituent entities of the federation are delimited by the constitution. Each subject of the federation forms its own legislative, executive and judicial bodies, which exist along with the federal ones. Single union citizenship, as a rule, is combined with citizenship of a subject of the federation.
State flag - oofficial symbol of state power, personification of state sovereignty. The Law of the Russian Federation “On the State Flag” was adopted in December 2000.
Form of government - pthe principle of the structure of the highest bodies of state power, the procedure for their formation and the distribution of competence between them.
Faction - in parliament - an organized group of members of a party or bloc of parties.
Fodder - feed for horses and livestock.
“Walking among the people” - mmassive movement of youth, inspired by the ideas of revolutionary populism, to the villages in 1873-1875.
Serfs - to dependent population category; known in the Old Russian state since the 10th century. Close in legal status to slaves. In the 17th century complete servitude was eliminated, indentured servants remained, who gradually merged with the serf peasantry. Since the 17th century they received land for use and were subject to duties. With the introduction of the poll tax in 1722, they became serfs.
Mansions - a residential wooden house, often consisting of separate buildings connected by vestibules and passages: the home of princes and boyars.
Christianity - m world religion that arose in the 1st century. n. e. In Palestine. The foundations of the doctrine of Christianity are enshrined in the Nicene-Constantinople Creed, which was formed by the 4th century.
Khutor - f land use form provided for by the Stolypin agrarian reform. A separate peasant estate on individually owned land allocated to a peasant in one place to replace the previously allocated communal and estate lands located in different places.
Church Charter - a set of rules governing the activities of the church.
Census - y terms that limit a person’s participation in the exercise of certain rights, for example voting rights. Types of qualifications: property (the requirement to own certain property or receive certain income); educational (requirement of a certain level of education); age; residence qualification (requirement to reside for a certain period of time in a given country or locality); citizenship qualification (requirement to be a citizen of a given state).
Censorship - s system of state supervision over the press and media. In Russia since the beginning of the 18th century. Forms of censorship: preliminary and punitive. According to the charter of 1804, general (domestic and foreign) and departmental (spiritual, military, theatrical, etc.) censorship was introduced. In 1865, based on the “Temporary Rules on the Press,” censorship reform was carried out. In the USSR, censorship was carried out by Glavlit since 1922. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, censorship of mass media is not allowed.
Black Hundred organizations - toextreme right social and political associations in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century. (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of the Archangel Michael”, “Unions of Russian People”, etc.).
Black-nosed peasants - inXIV-XVII centuries free peasants who owned communal lands and bore state duties. In the 18th century became state peasants.
Petition - written request, complaint.
"Shock therapy" - tterm used in the 1990s. to denote a system of economic measures aimed at a rapid and sharp transition from a planned economy to a market economy.
Exploitation – appropriation of the results of someone else’s work.
Extremism - p commitment to extreme views, extreme measures of political influence.
Economy – state of economic life; economic – related to economics.
Epic – a collection of works of folk art.
Ethnicity - b a large group of people, distinguished on the basis of a common culture, language, and awareness of the indissolubility of historical destiny. Types of ethnic groups: nation, nationality, tribe.
Label - l a preferential charter issued by the Golden Horde khans to the secular and spiritual feudal lords of the subject lands.
Paganism - r religion based on the deification of the forces of nature.