What words belong to passive vocabulary. Active vocabulary

In modern Russian, obsolete words include those that are known from the works classical literature. They are rarely used in speech.

Reasons for words becoming obsolete:

1) extra-linguistic; 2) intralinguistic.

Historicisms are words whose semantic changes are caused by extra-linguistic factors. These are the names of objects and phenomena of the old way of life, the old culture, social, economic and political relations that have become a thing of the past. Historicisms include names social institutions(corvée, quitrent, zemshchina), household items, clothing (arshin, frock coat, caftan), names of people by social status(smerd, boyar, prince, count, nobleman, hetman, centurion). the word historicism extralinguistic

Neologisms at one time included such words as budenovka, cart, committee of the poor, surplus appropriation, educational program, workers' faculty, but in a short time they became historicisms.

The intralinguistic reasons that determined the appearance of obsolete words include synonymous competition, as a result of which one of the synonymous words gives way to another. Such a process occurred at one time with the words eye and eye, brow and forehead, airplane and airplane, helicopter and helicopter, etc.

In addition, intralinguistic factors include the processes of expanding or narrowing the meaning of words as a result of the elimination of more specialized names. The following example is given in the linguistic literature: in Russian, each finger had a separate name. But the word FINGER was used only for the thumb, the word FINGER for the index finger, etc. Over time, the special names of fingers became unimportant and the word FINGER acquired general meaning, spreading to all others, and the word FINGER began to be used as an archaic synonym for it.

Varieties of archaisms

Obsolete words that have fallen out of use as a result of intralingual processes are called archaisms. As the language develops, they are replaced by other words that are more acceptable to subsequent generations. Old nominations are becoming passive vocabulary.

In linguistics, there are several classifications of archaisms. So, N.M. Shan divides all archaisms into lexical and semantic. M.I. Fomina, A.V. Kalinin and others divide archaisms into the following groups: lexical proper, lexical-phonetic, lexical-word-formative, lexical-semantic.

Actually, the lexical archaisms are completely outdated (eye, forehead, finger, battle).

Lexical-phonetic archaisms include words whose sound form has changed in the process of historical development (bakcha - melon, busulman - Muslim, stora - curtain, klob - club number - number, calm - style).

Lexico-word-formation archaisms are words in which individual word-formation elements are outdated (friendship - friendship, nervous - nervous, rest - rest, buyer - buyer).

Lexico-semantic archaisms have been preserved sound form, but changed their meaning (the word druzhinnik is perceived by modern native speakers as a participant in a voluntary association, and not a person who was a member of the princely squad).

Historicisms and archaisms are an important stylistic device in a literary text, by which one can determine the era in a work on a historical theme.

Neologisms and their types

Neologisms are new words or meanings that have recently appeared in a language. These are the names of new objects that appeared in the process of development of science, culture, technology, production, everyday life, names of new phenomena, actions, processes.

A neologism remains new until it has become commonly used and sufficiently frequent (programmer, computer, cybernetics). These words quickly entered the language and became integral part vocabulary composition.

In the language there are such neologisms that name phenomena that are obviously transitory (new materials - crimplen, bologna, styles of clothing and shoes - Romanian, body shirt, hairstyles - gavroche, babetta), etc. Similar words from the category of neologisms very quickly fall into the category outdated vocabulary.

Linguistic scientists distinguish lexical neologisms - new derivatives and borrowed words (lunokhod, nuclear-powered rover, cruise, broiler), which make up about 90%, and semantic ones, which arose as a result of the emergence of new meanings in words functioning in the language, for example: dynasty - 1) series sequentially reigning monarchs from the same family, and 2) representatives of different generations from the same family, having the same profession (working dynasty), etc.

Occasionalisms are individually authored formations. They are characterized by one-time use, created “on occasion”, and are inherent only in a given context. Everyone knows the occasionalisms in the works of V. Mayakovsky (hammer, sickle, chamberlain, etc.), K. Fedin (starry eyes), E. Yevtushenko (bezneronie, nesgubinka, teasing, etc.), etc.

Dictionaries of obsolete and new words

There are no special dictionaries of historicisms and archaisms yet. However, many outdated words were included in V.I.’s dictionary. Dalia. Their meanings are reflected in a large academic encyclopedia.

For a long time there were no dictionaries of neologisms. However, back in Peter’s times, the “Lexicon of New Vocabularies” was compiled, which was essentially short dictionary foreign words. Some words were included in V.I.’s dictionary. Dahlem. The Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D.N., became significant in its composition of neologisms. Ushakova. A large number of them were included in S.I.’s dictionary. Ozhegova.

In 1971, a dictionary-reference book was published, prepared based on materials from the press and literature of the 60s, “New Words and Meanings,” edited by N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokina. The dictionary explains about 3,500 words that are widely used.

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On thaty:" Aactive and passive vocabulary of literary Russian language"

Mastyugina A.

In modern Russian, obsolete words include those that are known from works of classical literature. They are rarely used in speech.

Reasons for words becoming obsolete:

1) extra-linguistic; 2) intralinguistic.

Historicisms are words whose semantic changes are caused by extra-linguistic factors. These are the names of objects and phenomena of the old way of life, the old culture, social, economic and political relations that have become a thing of the past. Historicisms include the names of social institutions (corvée, quitrent, zemshchina), household items, clothing (arshin, frock coat, caftan), names of people by social status (smerd, boyar, prince, count, nobleman, hetman, centurion). the word historicism extralinguistic

Neologisms at one time included such words as budenovka, cart, committee of the poor, surplus appropriation, educational program, workers' faculty, but in a short time they became historicisms.

In addition, intralinguistic factors include the processes of expanding or narrowing the meaning of words as a result of the elimination of more specialized names. The following example is given in the linguistic literature: in Russian, each finger had a separate name. But the word FINGER was used only for the thumb, the word FINGER for the index finger, etc. Over time, the special names of fingers became unimportant and the word FINGER acquired a general meaning, spreading to all others, and the word FINGER began to be used as an archaic synonym for it.

Varieties of archaisms

Actually, the lexical archaisms are completely outdated (eye, forehead, finger, battle).

Lexico-word-formation archaisms are words in which individual word-formation elements are outdated (friendship - friendship, nervous - nervous, rest - rest, buyer - buyer).

Lexico-semantic archaisms retained their sound form, but changed their meaning (the word druzhinnik is perceived by modern speakers as a participant in a voluntary association, and not a person who was a member of the princely squad).

Historicisms and archaisms are an important stylistic device in a literary text, by which one can determine the era in a work on a historical theme.

Neologisms and their types

A neologism remains new until it has become commonly used and sufficiently frequent (programmer, computer, cybernetics). These words quickly entered the language and became an integral part of the vocabulary.

In the language there are such neologisms that name phenomena that are obviously transitory (new materials - crimplen, bologna, styles of clothes and shoes - Romanian, body shirt, hairstyles - gavroche, babetta), etc. Such words from the category of neologisms very quickly fall into the category of outdated vocabulary.

Dictionaries of obsolete and new words

For a long time there were no dictionaries of neologisms. However, back in Peter’s times, the “Lexicon of New Vocabularies” was compiled, which was essentially a short dictionary of foreign words. Some words were included in V.I.’s dictionary. Dahlem. The Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D.N., became significant in its composition of neologisms. Ushakova. A large number of them were included in S.I.’s dictionary. Ozhegova.

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37. Active and passive vocabulary.

Through vocabulary, language is directly related to reality and its awareness in society. Language is directly related to human production activity, and not only with production activity, but also with any other human activity in all areas of his work.

Before explaining the ways of changing the vocabulary, we should dwell on some phenomena that allow us to take a closer look at the vocabulary as a whole and in its individual parts.

First of all, this is a question about active and passive vocabulary.

An active vocabulary is those words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses. The words of the main vocabulary fund, of course, form the basis of the active dictionary, but do not exhaust it, since each group of people speaking a given language also has specific words and expressions that for this group are included in their active dictionary and are used by them every day , but are not obligatory as facts of the active vocabulary for other groups of people, who in turn have other words and expressions. Thus, the words of the main vocabulary are common to the active vocabulary of any population group, while specific words will be different for the active vocabulary of different groups of people.

Passive vocabulary is those words that a speaker of a given language understands, but does not use himself (such as, for example, many special technical or diplomatic terms, as well as various expressive expressions).

The concepts of active and passive vocabulary are very important when studying another (foreign) language, but one should not think that there is an impenetrable wall between the facts of active and passive vocabulary; on the contrary, what is available as a liability can, if necessary, easily turn into an asset (preamble, veto, rally, officer, general and similar words); and cash in an asset goes into liability (nepman, maternity leave, people's commissar and so on.).

Active and passive vocabulary are distinguished due to the different usage of words.

Active vocabulary (active vocabulary) consists of words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses and actively uses. Depending on the level language development For speakers, their active vocabulary averages from 300-400 words to 1500-2000 words. The active composition of the vocabulary includes the most frequent words that are used every day in communication, the meanings of which are known to all speakers: earth, white, go, many, five, on. The active dictionary also includes socio-political vocabulary (social, progress, competition, economics, etc.), as well as words that belong to special vocabulary and terminology, but denote relevant concepts and are therefore known to many non-specialists: atom, gene, genocide, prevention, cost-effective, virtual, atom, anesthesia, verb, ecology.

B passive lexicon(passive vocabulary) includes words that are rarely used by the speaker in ordinary speech communication. The meanings are not always clear to speakers. Passive words form three groups:

1) archaisms;

2) historicisms;

3) neologisms.

1. Archaisms (from Greek archaios ‘ancient’) – outdated words or expressions displaced from active use by synonymous units: neck – neck , right hand - right hand, in vain- in vain, in vain, since ancient times- from time immemorial, actor– actor, this- this, that is to say- that is .

The following types of archaisms are distinguished:

1) the actual lexical ones are words that are completely outdated as an integral sound complex: lichba ‘account’, otrokovitsa ‘teenage girl’, influenza ‘flu’;

2) semantic - these are words with an outdated meaning: belly (in the meaning of 'life'), shame (in the meaning of 'spectacle'), existent (in the meaning of 'existing'), outrageous (in the meaning of 'calling for indignation, for rebellion') ;

3) phonetic - a word that retained the same meaning, but had a different sound design in the past: historia (history), glad (hunger), vrata (gate), mirror (mirror), piit (poet), osmoy (eighth), fire ' fire';

4) accented - words that in the past had an emphasis different from the modern one: symbol, music, ghost, shuddered, against;

5) morphological - words with an outdated morphemic structure: ferocity - ferocity, nervous - nervous, collapse - collapse, disaster - disaster, answer - answer.

In speech, archaisms are used: a) to recreate the historical flavor of the era (usually in historical novels, stories); b) to give speech a touch of solemnity, pathetic emotion (in poetry, in an oratory, in a journalistic speech); c) to create a comic effect, irony, satire, parody (usually in feuilletons, pamphlets); d) for the speech characteristics of a character (for example, a person of clergy).

2. Historicisms are obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the realities that they denoted: boyar, clerk, oprichnik, baskak, constable, crossbow, shishak, caftan, okolotochny, solicitor. Words denoting the realities of the Soviet era also became historicisms: committees of the poor, NEPman, revolutionary committee, socialist competition, Komsomol, five-year plan, district committee.

For polysemantic words, one of the meanings can become historic. For example, the commonly used word people has an outdated meaning of ‘servants, workers in a manor house’. The word PIONEER, meaning ‘member of a children’s organization in the USSR’, can also be considered obsolete.

Historicisms are used as a nominative means in scientific-historical literature, where they serve as names of the realities of past eras, and as a visual means in works fiction, where they contribute to the reconstruction of a particular historical era.

Sometimes words that have become historicisms return to active use. This happens due to the return (reactualization) of the phenomenon itself denoted by this word. Such, for example, are the words gymnasium, lyceum, governor, Duma, etc.

3. Neologisms (from Greek neos 'new' + logos 'word') name words that have recently appeared in the language and are still unknown to a wide range of native speakers: mortgage, mundial, glamor, inauguration, creative, extreme, etc. After a word comes into widespread use, it ceases be a neologism. The emergence of new words is a natural process reflecting the development of science, technology, culture, and social relations.

There are lexical and semantic neologisms. Lexical neologisms are new words, the appearance of which is associated with the formation of new concepts in the life of society. These include words such as autobahn ‘type of highway’, jacuzzi ‘large heated bathtub with hydromassage’, label ‘product label’, remake ‘remake of a previously filmed film’, bluetooth ‘a type of wireless connection for data transmission’, as well as sponsor, hit, show, etc.

Semantic neologisms are words that belong to the active dictionary, but have acquired new, previously unknown meanings. For example, the word anchor in the 70s received a new meaning ‘a special platform for fixing an astronaut, located on the orbital station next to the hatch’; the word CHELNOK in the 80s. acquired the meaning of “a small trader who imports goods from abroad (or exports them abroad) with their subsequent sale in local markets.”

A special type of words of this kind are individually authored neologisms, which are created by poets, writers, and publicists with special stylistic purposes. Their distinctive feature is that they, as a rule, do not become active vocabulary, remaining occasionalisms - single or rarely used new formations: Kuchelbecker (A. Pushkin), green-haired (N. Gogol), Moscow soul (V. Belinsky), passenger , become masculine (A. Chekhov), machinery (V. Yakhontov), frown (E. Isaev), six-story building (N. Tikhonov), vermutorno (V. Vysotsky). overblown (A. Blok), multi-powder, mandolin, hammer-handed (V. Mayakovsky). Only individual author’s formations over time become words in the active dictionary: industry (N. Karamzin), bungler (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), pro-session (V. Mayakovsky), mediocrity (I. Severyanin), etc.

Creating new words is creative process, reflecting a person’s desire for novelty and completeness in the perception of reality. Native speakers create new words that reflect the nuances of existence and its assessment: for example, psychoteca, soulful, soulful dance, joyfulness, specialness, self-righteousness, etc. (from the collection of neologisms by M. Epstein).

However, the results of word searches should not always be considered successful. For example, the new formations found in the following statements are unlikely to enrich the national lexicon.

The question has been formed and guaranteed.

The store urgently needs a vegetable shop to sell vegetables.

There are also real masterpieces of toy making.

Material assets were stolen, although the warehouse was special.

Questions semantic system language, semantic structure linguistic units, relationship various types values, development of methods for their research and a number of others the most complex issues semasiology attracts the attention of linguists different schools and directions. The meaning of a word is one of the most complex and at the same time the most important not only linguistic, but also logical, psychological and philosophical categories, since it is directly related to the basic question of the relationship between thinking and language, concept and word, and it reflects the diversity inner world man and the surrounding reality. Modern linguistics, developing in many directions, has already accumulated significant experience in the study of lexical meaning. Lexical units carry different types both extralinguistic and actually linguistic information, which underlies the identification of different types of value. Currently, in linguistics much attention is paid to the problems of linguistic nomination, which in their own way language functions refers to the object of our research - outdated words.

Language as a system is in constant motion, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it first of all reacts to all changes in society, replenished with new words. At the same time, the names of objects and phenomena that are no longer used in the life of peoples fall out of use. In the functioning of the vocabulary of any language, including Russian, a dialectical contradiction is revealed: on the one hand, there is a desire for stability, stability, on the other, for constant change and development. Therefore, at each stage of existence in the language system, it is possible to distinguish active and passive vocabulary.

The active vocabulary includes all the vocabulary that is familiar and used every day in one or another area of communication; the passive vocabulary includes outdated vocabulary and words that appear in speech and are included in language system, striving to gain a foothold in it. From obsolete words that form a peripheral part of the language system during the period of its functioning under study, one should distinguish such words that existed in the history of the language, but are unknown to ordinary speakers of the language of the analyzed era and cannot be understood without referring to specialized literature. Thus, in relation to the modern Russian language, the words arshin, konka, polites should be characterized as passive words, and the words skora - “skin”, loki - “puddle”, swagger - “puffiness, swagger”, etc. - as not included in the system of modern Russian language.

The concept of active and passive language stock was introduced into lexicographic theory and practice by L. V. Shcherba. Shcherba referred to passive vocabulary as words that have become less common and the range of use of which has narrowed. However, the passive vocabulary of a language “should not be confused with the passive vocabulary of a particular native speaker, depending on his profession, education, daily work, etc.”

There is no unity among scientists in understanding the essence of the term passive vocabulary. Broad understanding: the passive vocabulary includes words that are rarely used or are not used by all native speakers. These are the names of rare things; outdated words; words that have not yet become common property; words that exist either only in books or only in colloquial speech; words known only to a narrow circle of specialists in any field of knowledge. Narrow understanding: the passive vocabulary includes words that are understood by most native speakers, but are rarely used, almost never used in everyday communication, - part of the obsolete and part of the new vocabulary just entering the language system.

Obsolete and new words represent two fundamentally different groups in the vocabulary of the passive vocabulary.

Archaization process

Archaization of one of the meanings of the word is very interesting phenomenon. The result of this process is the emergence of semantic, or semantic, archaisms, that is, words used in a way that is unusual for us, outdated meaning. The process of archaization of part of the vocabulary of a language, as a rule, occurs gradually, therefore, among the obsolete words there are those that have a very significant “experience” (for example, child, vorog, reche, scarlet, therefore, this); others are removed from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, since they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Some words become obsolete in a very short period of time, appearing in the language and disappearing already in modern period; Wed : shkrab - in the 20s replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate; NKVD officer - NKVD employee. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word can be perceived as not yet completed. The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extra-linguistic in nature if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be caused linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs oshyu, odesnu (left, right) disappeared from the active dictionary because the producing nouns shuytsa - “left hand” and desnitsa - “right hand” became archaic. In such cases decisive role played a role in the systemic relationships of lexical units. Thus, the word shuitsa fell out of use, and the semantic connection of the words united by this also disintegrated. historical root(for example, the word shulga did not survive in the language in the meaning of “left-handed” and remained only as a surname, going back to the nickname). Antonymous pairs (shuytsa - right hand, oshyu - right hand), synonymous connections (oshyu, left) have been destroyed. However, the word right hand, despite the archaization of words associated with it through systemic relations, remained in the language for some time. IN Pushkin era, for example, it was used in the “high syllable” of poetic speech. One of the reasons was also a change in the productivity of service morphemes, for example: the loss of the word-forming variant dorogotnya and the appearance of the variant dorogotnya due to the fact that end of XVII V. the suffix -rel- began to be added to the stems of verbs (cf.: running around, knocking, chattering), while the suffix -izn- began to be intensively used in denominative word formation (cheapness, novelty, whiteness). There are known cases of the revival of obsolete words, their return to the active vocabulary. Thus, in modern Russian, such nouns as soldier, officer, ensign, minister and a number of others are actively used, which after October became archaic, giving way to new ones: Red Army soldier, chief division, people's commissar, etc. In the 20s, from the passive vocabulary, the word leader was extracted, which even in the Pushkin era was perceived as outdated and was listed in the dictionaries of that time with the corresponding stylistic marking. Now it is being archaized again. Relatively recently, the Old Church Slavonic word parasite has lost its archaic connotation.

However, the return of some obsolete words to the active vocabulary is possible only in special cases and is always determined by extralinguistic factors. If the archaization of a word is dictated by linguistic laws and is reflected in the systemic connections of vocabulary, then its revival is excluded.

Thus, we can conclude that the vocabulary of the Russian language is in constant development: it is regularly updated with new words, forming the composition of active and passive vocabulary. Active words usually include words used daily, in oral and written speech. Passive vocabulary consists of words that are used rarely and not by all native speakers. These may include outdated words, jargon or professionalism. Obsolete words arise as a result of the process of archaization. The reasons for this process may be extra-linguistic in nature or may be dictated by linguistic laws. Words also tend to return to the active vocabulary from the passive one, however, if the formation of an obsolete word was determined by linguistic factors, then it will never be revived.

HISTORISM AND ARCHAISMS IN O. MANDELSHTAM'S POETIC TEXTS

2. 1. Stylistic functions of obsolete words

2. 1. 1. Stylistic functions of historicisms

Among obsolete words, a special group consists of historicisms - the names of disappeared or irrelevant objects, phenomena, concepts, for example, oprichnik, chain mail, gendarme, policeman, hussar, tutor, institute, etc. The appearance of historicisms, as a rule, is caused by extra-linguistic reasons: social transformations in society, the development of production, the renewal of weapons, household items, etc.

Historicisms can be classified into several semantic groups:

The first lexical-semantic group consists of words denoting positions and titles. This group includes words denoting a high social position of persons: tsar, boyar, prince. The next lexical-semantic group consists of words denoting military vocabulary. This includes words such as berdysh, chain mail, spear. The third lexical-semantic group consists of words denoting clothing. This group includes words such as caftan, bast shoes, terlik, feryaz. The fourth lexical-semantic group consists of words denoting buildings and their parts. These are words such as cell, bedchamber, cookhouse. The fifth lexical-semantic group consists of words denoting everyday concepts: tub, vzvar, cart.

Words that differ in the time of their appearance in the language become historicisms: they can be associated with very distant eras (tiun, voivode, oprichnina), and with recent events (tax in food, gubkom, district).

The meaning of historicisms as stylistically colored words acquires its special significance in works of fiction, since it is they that allow the author to find his own, unique style of presentation and, most importantly, to bring the reader as close as possible to the era about which we're talking about in the work. After all, it is words that allow us to most fully imagine the events, customs and customs of the past. This is due to the fact that language is a constantly changing organism that reacts very quickly to various not only cultural, but also political and social changes in society. Thus, the words boyar, tsar, etc. ceased to be used due to the disappearance of the concepts. The words of this group are called historicisms. Obsolete words include not only words that have long gone out of use, but also those that arose and became obsolete relatively recently. Native and borrowed words can be obsolete.

Outdated words in modern literary language can perform various stylistic functions. In particular, historicisms are used in works of art about the historical past of our country to recreate the flavor of the era and depict antiquity.

2. 1. 2. Archaisms, their stylistic functions

Archaisms include the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by other words belonging to the active vocabulary; for example: every day - always, comedian - actor, necessary - necessary, percy - chest, verb - to speak, to know - to know. Their main difference from historicisms is the presence of synonyms in modern language, devoid of a hint of archaism.

Words can be archaized only partially, for example, in their suffixal design (vysost - height), in their sound (ocm - eighth, goshpital - hospital), in their individual meanings (nature - nature, fairly - excellent, disorder - disorder). This gives grounds to distinguish several groups within archaisms:

1. Lexical archaisms - words that are outdated in all their meanings: lzya (possible), barber (hairdresser), zelo (very), therefore, know, is coming. They can also be divided into several subgroups, for example: a) A group of words denoting parts human face and bodies (mouth, eyes, face); b) Lexico-semantic group of words denoting a person according to some characteristic (child, husband, thief); c) Group of traditional poetisms. This group is represented by a number of very common, traditional and characteristic words for the poetic lexicon, such as bliss, delight, bush, curtains.

d) A group of words denoting physical or emotional condition person. It can combine such lexemes as vigil, hunger, hope and the word kruchina, recorded in dictionaries as folk poetic.

e) A group of words related to the theme of death (deceased, buried).

f) A group of words symbolically denoting a region, a land given by fate (vale, monastery); g) Words denoting speech (verb, verb, name), serving to create an atmosphere of sublimity and solemnity; h) A group of words related to the perception of phenomena in the surrounding world (look, listen, know, taste); i) A group of words denoting any action (perform, do, bestow, anoint).

2. Lexico-word-formation archaisms - words in which individual word-formation elements are outdated: fisherman, flirt, vskolki (since), necessary, handicrafts (craft), transgress.

3. Lexico-phonetic archaisms are words whose phonetic design is outdated and has undergone some changes in the process of the historical development of the language. The leading place here is occupied by incomplete words, which are representatives of genetic Slavicisms (solodky, vorog, young, breg, night, Sveisky (Swedish), Aglitsky (English), Iroism, atheism).

4. Lexico-semantic archaisms - words that have lost individual values: guest - merchant, shame - spectacle, vulgar - popular, dream - thought.

5. Grammatical archaisms are outdated grammatical forms nominal parts speech. They can also be divided into several groups: a) A very large group consists of grammatical archaisms-nouns.

b) A sign of morphological archaization of adjectives is inflection: even. Inflection -ago of a full adjective is an indicator genitive case singular.

c) A very small group of morphological archaisms is represented by pronouns (for example, personal az, interrogative colic, attributive).

Archaisms in modern literary language can perform various stylistic functions.

1. Archaisms, and especially Old Slavonicisms, which have replenished the passive composition of the vocabulary, give speech a sublime, solemn sound.

Old Church Slavonic vocabulary was used in this function back in ancient Russian literature. In the poetry of classicism, acting as the main component Odic dictionary, Old Slavonicisms defined the solemn style of “high poetry”. In poetry speeches XIX V. With the archaizing Old Church Slavonic vocabulary, the outdated vocabulary of other sources, and above all Old Russianisms, was stylistically equalized. The tradition of writers turning to obsolete high vocabulary in works of civil-patriotic themes is retained in the Russian literary language in our time.

2. Archaisms are used in works of art about the historical past of our country to recreate the flavor of the era.

3. Obsolete words can be a means of speech characterization of characters, for example, clergy, monarchs.

4. Archaisms, and especially Old Slavonicisms, are used to recreate the ancient oriental flavor, which is explained by the closeness of Old Slavonic speech culture to biblical imagery.

5. Highly outdated vocabulary can be subject to ironic rethinking and act as a means of humor and satire. The comical sound of outdated words is noted in everyday stories and satire of the 17th century. , and later - in epigrams, jokes, parodies written by participants in linguistic polemics of the early 19th century. (members of the Arzamas society), who opposed the archaization of the Russian literary language.

In modern humorous and satirical poetry outdated words are also often used as a means of creating an ironic tone of speech.

When analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech, one cannot help but take into account the fact that their use in some cases may not be related to a specific stylistic task, but is determined by the characteristics of the author’s style and the individual preferences of the writer. In poetic speech Pushkin's era turning to incomplete words and other Old Church Slavonicisms that have consonant Russian equivalents was often due to versification: in accordance with the requirement of rhythm and rhyme, the poet gave preference to one or another option (as “poetic license”): “I will sigh, and my voice is languid, a harp-like voice will die quietly in the air” by Batyushkov; “Onegin, my good friend, was born on the banks of the Neva. ", "Go to the banks of the Neva, newborn creation. "at Pushkin. TO end of the 19th century V. poetic license were eliminated and the amount of outdated vocabulary in the poetic language decreased sharply. However, also Blok, and Yesenin, and Mayakovsky, and Bryusov, and other poets of the early 20th century. paid tribute to outdated words traditionally assigned to poetic speech(however, Mayakovsky already turned to archaisms primarily as a means of irony and satire). Echoes of this tradition are still found today; for example, in Yevtushenko’s works: Winter is a respectable regional city, but not a village at all.

In addition, it is important to emphasize that when analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in a particular work of art, one should take into account the time of its writing and know the general linguistic norms that were in force in that era. After all, for a writer who lived a hundred or two hundred years ago, many words could have been completely modern, commonly used units that had not yet become a passive part of the vocabulary.

The need to contact outdated dictionary also arises among authors of scientific and historical works. To describe the past of Russia, its realities that have gone into oblivion, historicisms are used, which in such cases act in their own nominative function. Yes, academician D. S. Likhachev in his works “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Culture of Rus' in the Time of Andrei Rublev and Epiphanius the Wise” uses many words unknown to a modern speaker of the language, mainly historicisms, explaining their meaning.

Sometimes the opinion is expressed that outdated words are also used in official business speech. Indeed, in legal documents there are sometimes words that in other conditions we have the right to attribute to archaisms: deed, punishment, retribution, deed. In business papers they write: herewith attached, this year, the undersigned, the above-named. Such words should be considered special. They are set in an official business style and do not carry any expressive or stylistic meaning in the context. However, the use of outdated words that do not have strict terminological meaning, may cause unjustified archaization of business language.

2. 2. Features of the use of outdated vocabulary in the poetry of O. Mandelstam

The very fact of turning to the archaic, high vocabulary of many modern authors suggests that this vocabulary is recognized by them as one of the means stylistic expressiveness. Thus, the lexical layer under consideration is not alien to the language of poetry of the 20th century.

Analyzing outdated vocabulary in poetic texts O. Mandelstam, you should pay attention to the fact that historicisms are quite rare in them. We noted 36 word usages.

The appearance of this special group of obsolete words, as a rule, is caused by extra-linguistic reasons: social transformations in society, the development of production, the renewal of weapons, household items, etc.

Historicisms, unlike other obsolete words, do not have synonyms in the modern Russian language. This is explained by the fact that the very realities for which these words served as names are outdated. Thus, when describing distant times, recreating the flavor of bygone eras, historicisms perform the function of special vocabulary: they act as a kind of terms that do not have competing equivalents. Words that differ in the time of their appearance in the language become historicisms: they can be associated with very distant eras, and with recent events. In O. Mandelstam's poems, this layer of outdated words is used primarily for historical stylization, to reflect the flavor of the era in which the action takes place.

Of the 36 historicisms, we found only 3 adjectives (morocco, lordly and Persian).

All historicisms found in poetic texts can be divided into several semantic groups, which mean:

1. Positions and titles (prince, duke, khan, nobleman, king, lordly);

1) The whistle of a steam locomotive. The prince is coming.

There is a retinue in the glass pavilion!

And, dragging the saber angrily,

The officer comes out, arrogant, -

I have no doubt - this is the prince.

2) The lamb on the mountain, the monk on the donkey,

To the duke's soldiers, slightly foolish

From wine drinking, plague and garlic,

And in a net of blue flies to a sleeping child.

2. Military vocabulary (chain mail, sword, front, armor, armored cars, rapier, mace);

1) On the square with armored cars

I see a man: he

He scares the wolves with burning brands:

Freedom, equality, law!

2) The shine of the steel of a samurai sword

And all the primordial darkness

They will merge into one nugget,

When more damned than stones

Captivating evil chin

At my little Mary's.

1) Ever flying to the silver trumpets of Asia -

Armenia Armenia!

The sun generously gives away Persian money -

Armenia, Armenia!

2) Ah, Erivan, Erivan! Or a bird painted you,

Or did the lion color like a child from a colored pencil case?

Ah, Erivan, Erivan! Not a city - a hard nut,

I love Babylons of your large-mouthed crooked streets.

4. Clothes (jackets, cap);

1) The skull develops from life

All over the forehead - from temple to temple -

He teases himself with the cleanliness of his seams,

It is clear with an understanding dome,

Foams with thoughts, dreams about himself, -

Cup of cups and fatherland to fatherland,

A star-stitched cap,

The Bonnet of Happiness is Shakespeare's father.

2) Alas, the candle melted

Hardened young men,

That they walked half-shouldered

In green camisoles,

What overpowered the shame

And the plague

And to all kinds of gentlemen

They served us right away.

5. Buildings and their parts (cell, acropolis);

1) In the northern capital a dusty poplar languishes,

The transparent dial got entangled in the foliage,

And in the dark greenery a frigate or an acropolis

Shines from afar - brother to water and sky.

6. Everyday concepts (morocco, ten-kopeck coin, Moskvoshway era):

1) It's time for you to know, I am also a contemporary,

I am a man of the Moscow seamstress era, -

Look how my jacket is puffing up on me,

How can I walk and talk!

2) When you think about how you are connected to the world,

You don’t believe yourself: nonsense!

Midnight key to someone else's apartment,

Yes, a silver ten-kopeck piece in my pocket,

Yes, celluloid films are a thief.

Table 2. 1

Semantic groups Historicisms Quantity

Positions and titles Prince, duke, khan, nobleman, king, lordly 6

Military vocabulary chain mail, sword, front, armor, armored car, rapier, mace, slings, 11

chariots, squads, rook

Name of peoples, countries barbarians, Khazars, Saracens, Persians, Byzantium, Erivan, Janissaries, 9

Scythian, Bedouin

Clothes camisole, cap 2

Cell buildings, acropolis 2

Everyday concepts: morocco, ten-kopeck piece, Moskvoshvey era, veche, spindle 5

Unlike historicisms, archaisms are much more common in Mandelstam’s works. We noted 174 uses. The most common nouns, adjectives and verbs found in texts.

Table 2. 2

Partial characteristics of archaisms in the poems of O. Mandelstam

Parts of speech Examples Percentages

Nouns godina, shelom, tympanum, bonds, apses, exedra, 64%

archangel, seraphim, under the canopy, boundaries, cart, coffee, snare, penates, downing, trees, tithes, spinning wheel, halls, vigils, mob, in radiance, heights, sleds, veks, curtains, flails, canoes, on purple, plebeians , Chaldeans, fiends, lots, barn, influx, quiver, purple, skiffs, tubs, lares, abysses, oblivion, robe, arrogance, lancers, forerunners, disgrace, tabernacles, skald, lightning, Levite, ether, child, shacks, spring , scaffold, hope, palace, barns, bosom, potholes, lists, senets, troublemakers, barber, sorcerer, stench, firmament, dishes, host, food, delight, milkiness, seven-branch, variations, birdhouse, sherbet, devil, hail, men , gulbischa, song, people, lies, holy fool, sleepyhead, judge, fingers, right hand, rumor, forehead, mouth, eyes, cheek, zegzica, head, cage, zephyr, palaces, goad, temple, petition

Adjectives of ethereal, mortal, tawdry, Lord's, 11%

foreign, lush, octagonal, azure, milky, spring, non-silent, Lenten, mortal, blessed, obscene, fragrant, not having, blessed, sweet-voiced, Italian, silvery, prophetic, midnight

Participles stolen, tasted, absent-minded, underpainted, 7%

future, weary, overwhelmed

Verbs and gerunds Collide, cajole, drag around, be ashamed, 12%

floats, devours, descends, reigns, embraces, enters, rests, twists, collides, kuralesit, said, rumor, behold, used to say, having seen, unconscious, judged, orbiting, ascend, reigns, treat, rdeya, prevails

Pronouns se, siya, sei, sii 2%

Adverb a hundred times, today, pleasantly, truly, in vain, 4%

Among the obsolete nouns there are both concrete (riza, skald, lightning, levite, krinitsa, block) and abstract (oblivion, hope, delight, lie).

Archaic verbs more often denote a person’s internal experience (flaunt, drag, be ashamed).

There are even fewer adjectives in poetic texts, mostly relative adjectives(morocco, foreign, bayunny, octagonal, milky), less common quality ones (cool, mortal). There are isolated cases of the use of pronouns and adverbs.

The predominance of archaisms-nouns and archaisms-verbs in O. Mandelstam's poems is apparently due to the fact that in the language there are quantitatively more nouns and verbs than other parts of speech. In Mandelstam's poems, the total number of nouns with the meaning of action, state, quality and abstract concept keeps balance with the number of object nouns. More higher value has the fact that Mandelstam’s noun is one of the main carriers of imagery.

In Mandelstam's early poems, adjective epithets predominate, primarily qualitative ones. They are followed by participles - carriers of action, substitutes for the predicate verb.

Based on the existing classification of archaisms, we have identified the following groups:

1. The first group consists of proper lexical archaisms: lar, abyss, oblivion, robe, arrogance, lancers, forerunners, disgrace, tabernacle, skald, mortal, lightning, Levitom, child, shacks, well, scaffold, hope, palace, rigi, bosom, ruts, forehead, right hand, fingers, compares, lists, senets, petition, troublemaker, tawdry, barber, founded, right hand, fingers, said, rumor, rumor, sorcerer, stench, foreign, firmament, viand, cajole, host, lush, food, lists, delight, sledge, eyes, lips, cheeks, zegzice, palaces, we see, behold, apse, exedra, archangel, seraphim, under the canopy, coming, boundaries, orbiting, hour, shell, tympanums, in vain, goad , arb, treat, tenetah, obuyan, penatov, sbitnya, mob, sled, vekshi, rdeya, flails, canoe, on purple, plebeians, Chaldeans, fiends, influx, quiver, purple, skiffs, sbiten, prevails, on a tub, prophetic , weeks; For example:

1) But clinking the spoon, it’s touching to look at

So that in a cramped gazebo, among dusty acacias,

Accept favorably from the bakery graces

Fragile food in an intricate cup

2) And after how pathetic Sumarokov

He babbled his memorized role,

Like the royal staff in the tabernacle of the prophets,

Solemn pain blossomed among us.

3) And in the inflamed interval,

Where we see nothing -

You pointed in the throne room

Celebration of white glory!

2. The second group includes lexical-phonetic archaisms, words whose phonetic design is outdated and has undergone changes: milkiness, seven-branch, lotions, variations, midnight, judge, azure, in radiance, skvoreshnik, vigil, Lord, octagonal, milky, vernal . The leading place is occupied here by non-vocal combinations, which give poeticization of speech and high expression: hail, before, dragging, head, sweet-voiced, tree, silver; For example:

1) Where is dear Troy? Where is the royal house, where is the maiden house?

It will be destroyed, Priam's tall tower.

And the arrows fall like dry wooden rain,

And other arrows grow on the ground, like hazel trees.

2) I wandered into the toy thicket

And he opened the azure grotto.

Am I real?

Will death really come?

3) When the grass disappears from the mosaics

And the church is echoing and empty,

I'm in the dark, like a crafty serpent,

I am dragging myself to the foot of the Cross.

3. The third group consists of grammatical archaisms: whispers, behold, this, this, these; Lenten, beloved, undecorated, blessed, mortal, blessed; For example:

1) And the fragile shell of the wall,

Like a house of an uninhabited heart,

Fill you with whispers of foam,

Fog, wind and rain

2) I love the priest’s leisurely step,

Wide extension of the shroud

And in the old net the darkness of Gennesaret

Lenten weeks.

3) We are pleased with the dominance of the four elements,

But the fifth was created by a free man.

Doesn't space deny superiority?

This chastely built ark?

4. The fourth group includes lexical-semantic archaisms: men, judged, for example:

1) Like a crane wedge into foreign borders -

On the heads of kings there is divine foam -

Where are you sailing? Whenever Elena

What is Troy alone for you, Achaean men?

2) Hagia Sophia – stay here

The Lord judged nations and kings!

After all, your dome, according to an eyewitness,

As if on a chain, suspended to heaven.

5. The fifth group consists of lexical and word-formative archaisms: silent, be ashamed, turn, hundredfold, of old, gulbischa, song, descends, stolen, entrails, emlet, enters, curly, stones, girdles, golden-haired, people, lies, fool, today, reigns, kindly, ascend, temple, obscene, fragrant, coffee, those who do not have, to their heart's content, Italian, tithes, halls, heights, curtains,

1) And the temple has a small body,

A hundred times more animated

The giant that is whole rock

Helplessly pinned to the ground!

2) Stay foam, Aphrodite,

And return the word to music,

And be ashamed of your heart,

Merged from the fundamental principle of life!

3) And I sing the wine of times -

Source of Italian speech -

And in the cradle of the ancestral Aryans

Slavic and Germanic flax!

Among the archaisms we found, we can distinguish the following lexico-thematic groups:

1) A group of words denoting parts of the human face and body: eyes, mouth, cheeks.

2) A lexical-semantic group of words denoting a person according to some characteristic: lancers, forerunners, skald, Levite, child, troublemaker, barber, sorcerer.

3) A group of traditional poetisms: neg, twist, rumor, delight, ethereal.

4) A group of words denoting the physical or emotional state of a person: oblivion, hope, is based, mortal.

5) Words denoting objects: birdhouse, stones, sledges, chests, potholes.

6) Words related to church vocabulary: robe, tabernacle, palace, firmament, seven-branched candlestick, Lord's, Lenten, week, will enter, holy fool, today, forerunner.

7) Abstract vocabulary: oblivion, arrogance, disgrace, abyss, hope, milkiness, lies.

8) Words denoting a dwelling (room) or part of it: shacks, senets.

Speaking about the stylistic functions that archaisms perform in the poetry of Osip Mandelstam, it should be noted that they play an important role in the formation of his special poetic style.

1. Function of poeticizing speech:

No, not the moon, but a light dial

Shines on me, and what is my fault,

What faint stars do I feel the milkiness?

2) Europe bitterly listens to the mighty splash,

The fat sea boils all around,

It can be seen that the oily sheen of the waters frightens her.

And I would like to slide off the rough cliffs.

2. High expression creation function:

1) You walked through a cloud of fog,

Delicate blush on the cheeks

2) The sound is cautious and dull

The fruit that fell from the tree

Among the incessant chant

Deep forest silence.

3. Historical stylization function:

Offended, they go to the hills,

Like plebeians dissatisfied with Rome,

Old sheep women are black Chaldeans,

Spawn of the night in the hoods of darkness.

4. Function of folklore stylization:

It's night outside. Master's lie:

After me there might be a flood.

What then? The wheeze of the townspeople

And the hustle to the wardrobe.

Thus, in poetic texts O. Mandelstam most often uses lexical, word-formation and phonetic archaisms, because they are more recognizable in the modern Russian language than grammatical archaisms, i.e. outdated forms various parts speech. In particular, most archaisms are expressed by nouns, verbs and adjectives.

We can conclude that the peculiarity of the use of archaisms (their thematic groups) by O. Mandelstam is that, unlike other poets, he does not primarily use words denoting parts of the human face and body, although such also occur, but, above all, , are outdated words meaning church concepts, as well as archaisms that designate a person according to some characteristic. This is due to the theme of the poet’s poems: quite often in his work there are poems on a church theme and poetic works related to philosophical lyrics, which depict people with different spiritual quests and lifestyles. His favorite lexical sources are ancient mythology, the Bible, architectural and musical professional dictionaries. A large number of specifically literary, book words contributes to the creation of a solemn atmosphere, nevertheless, the poet does not fall into a literary template and dead bookishness. IN early work O. Mandelstam there are many more cases of the use of outdated words than in the poetic works of the last years of the author’s life. This change in style may be associated with historical and political changes in Russia: before the revolution of 1917, O. Mandelstam used more historicisms than after it.

Thus, the entire vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into active and passive. Active vocabulary includes all the vocabulary that is familiar and used every day in one or another area of communication. Passive - these are words that have become less common and the range of use of which has narrowed, that is, obsolete or obsolete words. The process of archaization is the emergence of semantic, or semantic, archaisms.

There are two groups of obsolete words: historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms are the names of disappeared or irrelevant objects, phenomena, concepts.

Having analyzed the poetic texts of O. Mandelstam, we noted 36 uses of historicisms. The dominant part of speech is the noun, but adjectives are also found. The historicisms found in the texts can be divided into several semantic groups of words that mean:

1. Positions and titles (princes, duke, khan, nobleman, king, lordly);

2. Military vocabulary (chain mail, sword, front, armor, armored car, rapier);

3. Names of peoples; countries that have now collapsed (Barbarian, Khazars, Saracens, Persians, Byzantium, Erivan);

4. Clothes (camisole, cap);

5. Buildings and their parts (cells);

6. Everyday concepts (morocco, ten-kopeck coin, Moskvoshway era).

The main stylistic function of the use of historicisms in Mandelstam’s works is to recreate the flavor of the depicted era.

Archaisms are found much more often in Mandelstam’s works. We noted 174 word usages. Most often in Mandelstam's poetic texts nouns and adjectives are found. We classified archaisms into several semantic groups: proper lexical archaisms (rizoyu, palace, bosom), lexical-phonetic archaisms (semyvesveshnik, milkiness, skvoreshnik; inconsistency grade, vlachas); grammatical archaisms (whispers, kuralesit; pronouns behold, this; inflections of Lenten, mortal); lexical-semantic archaisms (men); lexical and word-formative archaisms (shame on you, hundredfold, lie);

In the poems of O. Mandelstam, we also identified the following lexico-thematic groups of archaisms, which denote parts of the human face and body (eyes, mouth, cheeks), a person according to some characteristic (skald, child, barber, sorcerer), physical or emotional state person (oblivion, hope, mortal), objects (skvoreshnik, sherbet, lara), housing or part of it (shacks, senets), as well as words related to traditional poetism (neg, kruchinsya, delight, ethereal), church vocabulary (seven-veshchnik , Lenten, week, today) and abstract vocabulary (abyss, hope, milkiness, lie).

We noted that in the poetic works of O. Mandelstam there are more proper lexical, lexical-phonetic and lexical-word-formative archaisms. Frequent cases of the use of words related to church vocabulary or denoting a person on any basis are related to the topic poetic works author. Church or philosophical themes dominate in O. Mandelstam’s work, which reveals the psychologism of the human soul. Also the use of words belonging to data thematic groups, is associated with the vocabulary in the author’s poetic texts, which he draws from ancient mythology, the Bible, musical and architectural dictionaries, which creates high expression in his works.

Archaisms are organically included in the fabric of Osip Mandelstam's works. Archaisms participate in the formation of her unique poetic style and are used to poeticize speech, create a solemn atmosphere, and serve as a method of historical and folklore stylization.

The vocabulary of the Russian language, as in a mirror, reflects the entire historical development of society. Processes of human production activity, economic, social, political, cultural development life - everything is reflected in vocabulary, which is constantly changing and improving. In fact, with the development of science, technology, industry, agriculture, culture, with the emergence and development of new social and international relations new concepts arise, and therefore words for naming these concepts. On the contrary, with the disappearance of any phenomenon of reality or object from life, the words that name them go out of use or change their meaning. After October revolution gone

Section 1. Accuracy of word usage 147

from the use of the word strike, auction, mercy, charity, governor, province, zemstvo, governess, prefecture, worship, gymnasium, philanthropist, merchant, nobleman. Now, with the return of these phenomena to life, these words have again entered our speech.

Depending on how actively words are used in speech, the entire vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into two large groups: active vocabulary (or active vocabulary) and passive vocabulary (passive vocabulary). Active vocabulary consists of everyday words ( common words), the meaning of which is clear to all people who speak Russian. As a rule, they call the concepts modern life. These may be old, but not obsolete words: man, water, work, bread, house and etc.; terms: lawyer, court, industry, science, atom etc.

The passive vocabulary includes vocabulary that is very rarely used in everyday communication. It is, as it were, stored in memory until a convenient, necessary occasion. These are either outdated words or new ones that have not yet received widespread use.

Outdated vocabulary

So, outdated words. If they name objects of old life, culture, old socio-political and economic relations that have disappeared from life, for example: boyar, chain mail, smerd, armyak, serf, then before us historicisms. Some words that arose in the Soviet era and named the phenomena of the first or more later years Soviet power: NEPman, food detachment, food tax, surplus appropriation system, People's Commissar, Stakhanovite, Economic Council, Komsomol etc. In the post-perestroika period, the word becomes historicized kopek.

In addition, outdated words can denote currently existing phenomena and objects, for example: cheeks(cheeks), peeit(poet), airplane(airplane), this(this), hood(robe), youth(teenager), etc., i.e. these are outdated names of modern things and phenomena. And these words are called archaisms. In the process of language development, they were replaced by synonyms: cavalry - cavalry, bed - bed, provinces - periphery, province - region, orphanage - orphanage etc. The last three words seem to be returning to our speech again.

The use of obsolete words in each text must be justified. Historicisms are usually used in special,

148 Part I. Functioning of linguistic units in a lawyer’s speech

scientific and historical literature, which denotes phenomena of past years. Archaisms, as a rule, perform stylistic functions, giving speech a touch of solemnity, pathos or irony. So, F.N. Plevako in famous speech in the case of an old woman who stole a 30-kopeck teapot, deliberately uses an archaic form twelve languages, which not only gives the speech solemnity, but also colors it with an ironic shade. The same function in Ya. S. Kiselev’s defensive speech is performed by the archaic form of the name of the imaginary victim - Natalia Feodorovna and outdated - stolen . In colloquial speech, outdated words most often give an ironic tint and create humor.

In the written speech of a lawyer, which is a type of official business style, outdated words are inappropriate. However, they can be recorded in the interrogation protocol in the responses of the interrogated. The use of outdated words without taking into account their expressive connotation leads to stylistic errors: The accused Shishkin, who committed the beating of household members, is in the arrest house. Inappropriately used outdated words can give the text a purely clerical flavor: A certificate of rent is attached to this application. Their frequent repetition leads to tautology.

There are a large number of archaisms and historicisms in the Criminal Code of 1903 1: exactions, police, excise, gambling house, nobles, merchants, zemstvo service, hard labor, class meetings, demands, alms, fortress, workhouse, usury, code, administration, health, permission, blasphemy, crime, shops, this, these, which, these, natives, midwife, adultery, exchange, therefore, foreign tribes, subjects, trustworthy, prisoner, deanery, arrest, province, district, rank, unrest, extortion, imprisonment, worker, obscenity, legalization. We also find archaic forms here: wandering, drinking, allowed, hypnotism, establish, contagious illnesses, family rights. The Criminal Code of the RSFSR retains from outdated words act , as the most accurately naming a criminal act or omission, commit has a specific legal connotation. Outdated words such (Article 129) concealment (Article 185) emphasize the official language of the law.

In Art. 232 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, which names remnants of local customs, instead of the term relatives used it justifiably

Section 1. Accuracy of word usage 149

obsolete colloquial synonym relatives, denoting members of a clan.

In explanatory dictionaries, obsolete words are given with the mark outdated

§ 2. New words

In addition to outdated vocabulary, passive vocabulary includes neologisms(from Greek neos - new + logos - word) - words that have recently appeared in the language. Neologisms appear along with a new phenomenon, object or thing, and their novelty is felt by speakers. Great achievements in scientific, cultural and industrial development in the post-October period brought to life a large number of new words, for example: collective farm, metro, escalator, Komsomolets... Some new words communicate new achievements and discoveries. Thus, several decades ago, the root was productive for the formation of new words space-: after the word astronaut words appeared with cosmic speed cosmophysicist, spaceship, cosmodrome, space navigation, space vision, geocosmos etc. Many new words appeared from the root body -: television equipment, television tower, teletype, teleconference and etc.

Nowadays, new words are constantly being born. In almost every newspaper, in every magazine you can find a word that has just appeared. Most new words name phenomena of political, economic, social life, and therefore they quickly enter into active composition vocabulary: perestroika, agricultural industry, state acceptance, arrangement, exchange, impact, privatization, involved, informals, denationalization, electorate etc. These can be names of fashionable things and phenomena: mixed fabrics, sneakers, Varenka, disco, impregnation, video salon, negative phenomena that have appeared in life: distortions, homeless people, scourge, morbidity... Became actively used in print spoken words promise, liked, help: Today there is a pronounced increase in delinquency among minors, and this again promises a surge in 2-3 years total number crimes 2.

New words can be formed as a result of changes in the semantics of existing words in the language. So, ambiguous word official denotes 1) an employee government agency... 2) a person who formally relates to his duties -

150 Part P. Functioning of linguistic units in a lawyer’s speech

there. In the Soviet period it was used in the 2nd meaning, in the 1st meaning it was historicism. Nowadays, it again denotes an employee of a government agency. Word shuttle has three meanings: 1. Cheln. 2. Part loom in the form of an oblong oval box or block with wound yarn for laying weft threads. 3. The part of a double-thread sewing machine that feeds the bobbin thread. Nowadays, this word has a new meaning: it refers to people traveling abroad for the purpose of buying and reselling goods. The transfer of the meaning of the word occurred on the basis of the similarity of actions: to move “back and forth.” The words have a new meaning lump, substitute; run over, thimble, get, poured, cool, screw up b and etc.

New words are acquired by the language in different ways. From passive vocabulary they move into active vocabulary and become commonly used if the concepts they denote are firmly established in life. Some of the words do not take root in the language, some remain individually authored. Discordant neologisms such as rsagozh (from react), blackmail(instead of blackmail), kindergartenism, denationalization etc. Neologisms are formed incorrectly heavy, oily, negotiable, although the “authors” used them as terms. Words like these give the speech a comical tone: As a result of prolonged rains, large potholes formed on the roads. Or: Even though the warehouse was special, material values discounted prices 3 . Individual neologisms become obsolete in the language along with the passing away of the phenomena or objects they denote. This is what happened with words nonsense, informals, state acceptance. Perhaps the word is becoming historicist perestroika. Interesting history of the word turtleneck . It entered our language in the 60s, calling a women's sweater fashionable in those years; after a few years it fell out of use as turtlenecks were no longer worn. And now again, along with the fashion for the thing, this word has returned to the active vocabulary. Until it is published this manual, the word may become outdated again.

In general, new words are an inexhaustible source of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

Self-test questions

1. Why is the vocabulary of the Russian language divided into active and passive? 2. What vocabulary is included in the active vocabulary

Section 1. Accuracy of word usage 151

composition, which one - in passive vocabulary? 3. How do historicisms and archaisms differ? What are their functions in speech? 4. What are neologisms? When do they enter the active vocabulary?

Rough plan practical lesson

Theoretical part

1. Uncommon vocabulary. Definition of the concept.

2. Areas of use and functions of historicisms and archaisms.

3. Neologisms, new words.

4. Errors caused by the use of passive vocabulary.

Practical part

Exercise 1. In examples taken from the Criminal Code of 1903 (see p. 148), note historicisms and archaisms; justify the legality of their use in the text of the law. Choose modern synonyms for archaisms.

Task 2. Read 15 articles each from the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, the Criminal Procedure Code of the RSFSR, the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and the Civil Procedure Code of the RSFSR, draw a conclusion about the presence of passive words in them.

Exercise 3. Answer in which procedural acts and why outdated vocabulary and neologisms may be used. Give examples.

Task 4. Read several defensive speeches by Ya.S. Kiseleva, mark outdated words in them. Explain the reasons for using them.

Task 5. Tell us how you perceive the use in print and on the radio of such words as disassembly, soviet, party, collapse, lumps, cheating, chernukha, bucks . What are their meaning , stylistic coloring, sphere of use?

Exercise 6. Fix errors caused by inappropriate use outdated vocabulary and neologisms.

The police department, which received a statement from the victims, filed a lawsuit against the cloakroom attendants. The indicated actions of the suspect allow us to leave the preventive measure the same. The surplus equipment that is owned by the management should be transferred to the inter-factory fund. The confiscated vase, as being of no value, was destroyed by breaking. The accused departed in an unknown direction, where he remained until his arrest.

152 Part P. Functioning of linguistic units in a lawyer’s speech

Task 7. Get acquainted with the works: 1) New words and meanings: Dictionary-reference book. materials of the press and literature of the 70s / E. A. Levashov, T. N. Popovtseva et al. M., 1984. 2) New words and dictionaries of new words: [Sb. Art.] / Rep. ed. 3. N. Kotelova. L., 1983. 3) Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. F. P. Filin. M., 1979 (see dictionary entries: neologism, passive dictionary, obsolete words). Express your opinion on the importance of such dictionaries for a lawyer.

What words belong to passive vocabulary. Active vocabulary

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