What is a unit of the Russian language? Definitely a word. With its help, we communicate, convey thoughts and experiences to each other. The article examines thematic groups of words that make it possible to classify the richness of the Russian language, which has more than 150 thousand nouns, verbs and adjectives in its literary dictionary.
Word meanings
The Russian language studies not actions, not signs, but the words that name them. They have two meanings:
- Grammatical (responsibility lies with the ending of the word).
- Lexical (the stem is responsible for it).
To understand what thematic groups of words are, let’s focus on the second point. Lexical meaning is the content, or the correlation historically fixed in people’s minds between the sounding shell and the phenomenon of reality, formalized according to the laws of grammar. A person is capable of thinking in concepts, that is, abstractly from objects, while a word, with its lexical meaning, separates one concept from another.
Generic and species concepts
When a person says the word “desk,” everyone imagines a desk—a piece of furniture for students to sit during classes. No one imagines an ordinary or dining table, because the word contains a set of distinctive features - a kind of generalization. But when the teacher invites the student to sit at his desk, actual meaning appears in the speech. In front of the student stands a specific object of a certain color, size, shape. This suggests that in the meaning of each word there is a denotation (generalization) and a referent (specification).
Among nouns, more general concepts (generic) and more specific (specific) can be distinguished. An example can be seen in the picture above. Thematic groups of words are a set of specific concepts that are combined into a more general one - generic. To understand, let’s look at the diagram (shown below), which discusses how the lexical meaning of a specific concept is formed. It is explained through a generic concept with the addition of specific differences. What's happened sneakers? These are shoes (generic concept) designed for sports. What else can be classified as shoes? Shoes, boots, slates, slippers, clogs, sandals, boots. All these words are combined into a single thematic group - “shoes”.
Thematic inclusions
What concept can be attributed to the words: fishing rod, net, spinning rod, bait, bloodworm, jig, fishing, hooking, bite? Fishing. The example discussed above is a sample of thematic inclusions. The game: “Find the extra word” best helps to understand what thematic groups of words are. Examples of the game are offered in the table below:
In each column you need to find an extra word that is not included in the thematic group. Answer: hare, worm, fox.
Synonyms
One thematic group, like inclusions, may include various parts of speech. The Fishing example includes nouns and verbs. Synonyms are distinguished by the fact that they are one part of speech: film, film, film, cinema; run, rush, rush, scurry; funny, amusing, hilarious, cool. Do they form thematic groups of words? Examples show that synonyms coincide in their lexical meaning and are used by the author only to give the text or statement a certain expressiveness. Most linguists classify synonyms as thematic groups. On average, they consist of several words, but there are exceptions. Thus, the word “very” has 26 synonyms.
The union occurs on the basis of a common characteristic. Take the adjective “red” as an example. The group will contain synonyms such as: ruby, coral, scarlet, red.
To do this you need to know:
- Lexical meaning of the word.
- Have a certain vocabulary.
- Have a broad outlook.
What can help the student? An explanatory dictionary that provides an explanation for every word used in the Russian language. The most famous authors who have collected all the wealth of Russian vocabulary are S.I. Ozhegov and D.N. Ushakov, although there are more modern publications that have incorporated changes associated with the use of English expressions. For example, T.F. Efremova collected 160 thousand articles.
Thematic groups of words are easy to create for those who read a lot of fiction, actively use synonyms, and are able to identify words with similar meanings in the text. You can take an excerpt from a work of fiction as an example to search for synonyms. This task will also help:
It is necessary to highlight general (generic) concepts for the following words: mother, cow, ruler, calculator, sister, horse, eraser, pencil case, pig, brother, pen, grandfather, goat, grandmother, father, sharpener, sheep, dog.
The following thematic groups of words are distinguished: “Relatives”, “Animals”, “School supplies”.
Examples on the topic “Seasons”
What words can be used to describe phenomena such as seasons? To make it easier to complete the task, subgroups should be distinguished, for example: weather, nature, activities, clothing. They can be expanded. The principle of selection is the selection of generic concepts that underlie the differences between winter, autumn, summer and spring. How to create thematic groups of words? We present the names of the seasons in the table, comparing the subgroups.
| Summer | Autumn | Winter | Spring | |
| Weather | Dankness Frost | Snowfall | Warming Thaw Changeability |
|
| Nature | Forbs | Leaf fall Gilding Bad weather Withering | Awakening Snowdrops Thawed patches Bloom |
|
| Classes | Blanks | Subbotnik Arrival of birds |
||
| Cloth | Swimsuit Sandals | Gloves | Cardigan Windbreaker Ankle boots |
The example describes only objects and phenomena, but by analogy it is quite easy to add actions and attributes of objects.
Lexico-semantic groupings of vocabulary. The concept of LSG. The concept of a thematic group. The concept of a semantic field. The concept of an associative field. Ideographic and associative dictionaries. The concept of lexical category (LC). Types of lexical categories from the point of view of formal semantic oppositions.
As already mentioned, one of the central questions of linguistics is the question of the systematic nature of language, which manifests itself in a set of elements connected by internal relationships. The lexical composition of the language is no exception. It is not a collection of disparate units, but a collection of interconnected relationships, traditionally presented in two perspectives: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. Due to this, it consists of semantic groups with different types of relationships.
The view of vocabulary as a system thus took shape in the so-called. theory semantic field or lexical-semantic groupings. They are also consistent with two approaches to the study of vocabulary: semasiological (from word to concept) and onomasiological (from concept to word), which complement each other and are fundamental in the construction of the semantic field. The result of a description of vocabulary aimed at identifying its systemic connections is its classification, i.e. identification of various lexical-semantic groups of vocabulary.
The very understanding of the lexical-semantic group (LSG) is ambiguous
A lexical-semantic group (in a broad sense) is usually called a group of words “fairly closely related to each other in meaning.” However, this understanding is rather vague, since different semantic groups fit under it: synonyms, and even antonyms, and paronyms, and LSG itself, and thematic fields, etc. - i.e. everything that has semantic proximity. Therefore, it is necessary to define the concepts.
By lexical-semantic group (LSG) in the narrow sense we will understand a group of words united by the commonality of a categorical-generic seme (archiseme) and the commonality of part-verbal reference. For example: pine, oak, spruce, birch... (LSG “trees”), red, yellow, green, blue... (LSG “color”), run, rush, fly, swim... (LSG “move around”), etc.
Let's take a closer look at the last example based on a component analysis of the semantics of the words included in the LSG:
RUN - “quickly” “move” “on the ground” “with your feet”
FLY - 1) “quickly” “move” “through the air” with “wings”
2) “very” “quickly” “move”
SWIM - “move” “through the water” with “arms and legs”
CRAWL - 1) “move” “on the ground” with “the body”
2) “very” “slowly” “move”
RACE - “very” “quickly” “move”
We see that in LSG there is a common generic seme “to move,” but the nature of movement and speed are different. If these words are identical, the words will be synonymous: RUN, FLY-2, RACE. If some features of the named concepts are opposite (for example, speed), the words will be antonyms: CRAWL-2 - FLY-2 (or RACE). Thus, LSG includes more specific semantic groups or series): synonyms and antonyms. All members of the LSG in relation to each other will be cohyponyms (or cohyponyms), because are called species concepts of the same genus (MOVE). The generic word in relation to each member of the LSG will be a hyperonym. And generic pairs (such as RUN - MOVE) are hyponyms. So in LSG there are several more types of relations: identities, oppositions, intersections, inclusions (see types of oppositions in 2.2.2.). And the LSGs themselves can be included in each other, like nesting dolls: “movement” - “movement” - “human movement”, i.e. can be “micro” and “macro”. In LSG, words are combined mainly on the basis of paradigmatics (oppositions).
Wider associations of words are thematic groups (TG): these are groups of words from different parts of speech, united by a common theme (hence the name). Various types of connections are observed in it: both paradigmatic and syntagmatic. For example, TG “sport” (football, goal, score, football, stadium, fan etc.) or “trade” ( trade, haggle, market, shop, buyer, seller, sale, sell and so on.). TG includes different LSGs. For example, LSG “trading establishments” ( shop, shop, kiosk, boutique, supermarket), synonyms ( acquire, buy), antonyms ( expensive - cheap), hyponyms ( grocery store), conversions ( purchase - sale) and so on. in the TG “trade”. Sometimes TG is called a thematic field, but the term “field” is also used in combination with “semantic field” (often as a synonym for thematic).
A semantic field (SF), or lexical-semantic field (LSF), is usually understood as “a group of words of the same language, closely related to each other in meaning” (Yu.N. Karaulov) or “a hierarchical structure of a set of lexical units united by a common ( invariant) meaning and reflecting a certain conceptual sphere in the language” (L.A. Novikov). LSP is a broader association than LSG and even than TG, although it is close to the latter. It also includes several LSGs and other semantic associations of paradigmatic and syntagmatic types: for example, the field “color” includes the LSG of adjectives “color” ( green, red, blue), and LSG verbs “to show color” ( turn blue, turn red, turn yellow), and nouns "color" ( red, blue, yellow). Or LSP “time” includes LSG “segments of time” ( hour, minute, second), and LSG “parts of the day” ( morning, evening, noon), and LSG “time of year” ( Spring Summer Autumn) and so on.
However, a clear distinction between these concepts has not yet emerged. For example, the lexical group “kinship” is called both a lexical-semantic group, a thematic group, and a semantic field, because it is very extensive and includes different types of vocabulary and even phrases like cousin. Therefore, everyone uses these terms to the best of their understanding. We will adhere to the specified distinction between LSG and TG, as well as LSP. The latter are distinguished as subject-logical (TG, reflecting the division of the picture of the world itself, its fragments) and semantic, conceptual (SP, reflecting conceptual spheres and relationships).
The semantic field (for example, in the theory of Yu.N. Karaulov) has field name(his name), core(key words: usually synonyms and antonyms, as well as typical combinations) and periphery(words associated with the core less closely semantically or stylistically). Let us recall the example with the word FRIEND from the Dictionary of Associative Norms of the Russian Language. In fact, almost all the words from the informants’ answers form a field called FRIEND, the core of which will include its synonyms ( comrade, buddy, friend), antonyms ( foe), derivatives ( be friends, friendship), typical and stable compatibility ( faithful, close, best, bosom), and on the periphery there will be words Brother And sidekick.
In linguistics there are various types of semantic fields: lexical-semantic fields (LSF, discussed above), associative-semantic fields (ASF, compiled on the basis of an associative experiment), as well as functional-semantic fields (FSF, including lexical and grammatical meanings). For example, the SP “time” as LSP will include the words hour, year, minute; past present Future etc., as a result of an associative experiment, ASP may also include, for example, words forward, money(as the implementation of precedent texts “time is forward” and “time is money”), and the FSP will also include grammatical forms of expressing time: I walked, I walk, I'll go.
The basic unit of a semantic field (its name) is, as already mentioned, a word in one of its meanings (LSV). Each LSV of a word is included in three types of semantic relations: paradigmatic, syntagmatic and associative-derivative. And around each one forms its own microfield. For example, the SP ZEMLYA-1 (“soil”) will include the words the soil, sand, clay(paradigmatics), dig, dig, plow(syntagmatics), earthen, earthy, digger(derivative); EARTH-2 (“land”) - land, water, sea; saw, opened; terrestrial, underground, amphibious; EARTH-3 (“country”) - a country, homeland, fatherland; dear, someone else's, seaside; countryman, stranger. However, being connected to each other as LSV of one word, these SP will also be included in the common SP EARTH. Those. The field will also include epidigmatic relationships between PSWs.
Thus, from the point of view of onomasiology, the entire lexical composition of a language is presented as a system of interacting semantic fields that form a complex and specific linguistic picture of the world for each language (more about LCM will be discussed in a special topic): names of time, space, movement, degree of kinship, colors, plants, animals, humans, etc. The organization of the joint venture is based on generic (hyponymic) relations.
Units that are homogeneous in meaning are combined into lexical-semantic groups (elementary microfields) and other lexical categories (synonyms, antonyms, etc.).
Lexical categories are divided into two aspects: semasiology and onomasiology. IN semasiological aspect, categories such as polysemy (intra-word category) are considered. IN onomasiological- categories such as synonymy and antonymy (interword categories).
Lexical categories are determined on the basis of one or another opposition, semantic or formal. Depending on the consideration of PS or PV words (or both), LC can be divided into three types: 1) semantic(identified on the basis of PS, identity, similarity of semantics, meaning) - these include synonymy and antonymy, as well as hyponymy and conversion; 2) formal(identified on the basis of only PV, identity of form) - homonymy; 3) formally-semantic(identified on the basis of the similarity of PV and PS) is a paronymy. Using this principle, one can construct a definition of each of the LCs:
Polysemy is the semantic relationship of internally related semes, formally expressed by the identity of the lexeme (PS + PV +): DOM-1/DOM-2.
Synonymy is the relationship of identical (or close) seeds, formally expressed by different lexemes (PS + PV -): EYES / EYES.
Antonymy is the relationship of opposed but intersecting sememes, formally expressed by different lexemes (PS + PV -): YES / NO.
Hyponymy is a relationship of generic inclusion, formally expressed by different lexemes (PS + PV -): HOUSE / BUILDING.
Paronymy is the relationship of similar, but not identical semes, formally expressed by similar, but not identical lexemes (PS + PV +): FACT / FACT OR.
Conversion is a semantically inverse relationship, formally expressed by different lexemes (PS + PV -): BUY / SALE.
Homonymy is a relationship between internally unrelated semes, formally expressed by identical lexemes (PS - PV +): KEY (1) / KEY (2).
We will learn more about each lexical category in the next topic.
Semantic fields and other groupings of vocabulary are described in special ideographic (thematic) dictionaries, see, for example, “Thematic Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. V.V. Morkovkin or “Russian Semantic Dictionary”, ed. N.Yu. Shvedova, in which words are distributed into semantic groups.
Questions for self-control:
What is a lexical system?
What types of systemic connections are distinguished in vocabulary?
What is paradigmatics in lexicology?
What are the types of semantic oppositions?
What is syntagmatics in lexicology?
What are the strong and weak positions of a word in context?
What is semantic derivation? What is the question of its relationship to the lexical system?
What is a lexical-semantic group?
What is a thematic group (thematic class)?
What is a lexical-semantic field? What is its difference from the thematic group and from the functional-semantic field?
LITERATURE
Kobozeva I.M. Linguistic semantics. – M., 2000. Section. 2, chapter 4; 7.
Krysin L.P. Modern Russian language. Lexical semantics. Lexicology. Phraseology. Lexicography. – M., 2009. - §32-34, 40-42.
Popova Z.D., Sternin I.A. Lexical system of language. – Voronezh, 1984; 2nd ed., add. - M., 2010.
Ufimtseva A.A. Experience in learning vocabulary as a system. - M., 2010.
Shmelev D.N. Modern Russian language. Vocabulary. – M., 1977. - Ch. 3.
Back in the last century, Russian semasiologist M.M. Pokrovsky (1868-1942) drew attention to the fact that “words and their meanings do not live a life separate from each other,” but are united in our soul, regardless of our consciousness, into various groups. The basis for combining words into lexical-semantic groups are verbal associations that reflect the connections of objects in the surrounding world. Unlike polysemy, which is characterized by a semantic connection within the meanings of one word, these associations arise on the basis of semantic connections between different words, as a result of comparison, identification and differentiation of their meanings. There are three main types of semantic connections between words - the absence of common elements of meaning, proximity of meanings, opposition of meanings. MM. Pokrovsky pointed out that in the lexical system of a language there are various groups or “fields of words.” Some of them are intralingual associations, others are extralinguistic associations. These ideas by M.M. Pokrovsky were developed in modern linguistics when developing the issue of semantic organization of the vocabulary of a language, in particular, in the theory of semantic fields, lexical-semantic and thematic groups. A lexical-semantic group is a set of words belonging to the same part of speech, united by intralingual connections based on interdependent and interconnected elements of meaning. A thematic group is a set of words united on the basis of the extra-linguistic commonality of the objects or concepts they denote. The basis for identifying a thematic group is a collection of objects or phenomena of the external world, united according to a certain characteristic and expressed in different words. A semantic field is a set of linguistic units united by a common meaning and representing the subject, conceptual or functional similarity of the designated phenomena. Words included in the semantic field are characterized by the presence of a common semantic feature, on the basis of which this field is formed.
Object work is the lexical system of the language.
Subject works are lexical-semantic groups of words.
Target course research is that lexical-semantic groups of words are identified in the names of service points in the city of Tolyatti. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
· consider the lexical-semantic system of the Russian language;
· analyze the names of bars, cafes, clubs and restaurants;
· select groups of names of points serving the city of Tolyatti.
The purpose and objectives determine the structure of this course work. The course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, conclusions for each chapter, a conclusion, a list of references and an appendix.
This work used the works of the following authors: Vendina T.I., Girutskaya A.A., Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A., Maslov Yu.S., Mechkovskaya N.B.
Chapter 1. Lexico-semantic system of the Russian language
1.1 General characteristics of the lexical-semantic system of the Russian language
Words within the lexical system of a language do not exist in isolation, but in close connection with each other, forming systems built on various bases: semantic-grammatical (parts of speech), word-formation (word-formation nests), semantic (synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, semantic fields , lexical-semantic groups, etc.).
A system (in the philosophical and linguistic sense) is a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity. (4, p.146) The integrity of the system is achieved by the internal coherence of linguistic elements of different levels, their dependence on their place and function in the language.
Language, having a communicative and cognitive function, serves as a means of expressing knowledge verified by the socio-historical practice of people. The significant vocabulary of any language contains a whole world of lexical meanings, since the word is the simplest symbolic means of naming a fragment of reality (object, property, action, state, etc.). At the same time, “words and their meanings do not live a life separate from each other, but are united in our soul, regardless of our consciousness, into various groups, and the basis for grouping is similarity or direct opposition in basic meaning,” wrote the famous Russian semasiologist M.M. . Pokrovsky, one of the first to realize the systematic nature of vocabulary. (6, p.82)
In modern linguistics, the view of vocabulary as a system of systems has been firmly established. It found its expression in the recognition of the fact of the existence in the language of various groups of words, contrasted in meaning, form, degree of similarity of forms and meanings, in the nature of the relationships that develop between words forming one group or another, etc. However, the systematic nature of vocabulary is manifested not only in the presence of certain semantic groups, semantic fields, classes or oppositions (such as native - borrowed, active - passive, neutral and stylistically marked), but also in the very nature of the use of lexical units, where certain patterns are also observed (for example , antonyms can be used often in the same contexts, the same picture is observed with synonyms, and different meanings of the same word (LSV) are used, as a rule, in divergent contexts).
Recognition of the lexical composition of a language as a system of systems is also consistent with the postulates of the general theory of systems, the main concepts of which are “integrity”, “element”, “structure”, “connections”. Language, as is known, is a long-evolving system, because As society and its culture develop and become more complex, the lexical system of the language grows, branches and differentiates; moreover, this system evolves along with the development of the grammatical and phonetic systems of the language. At the same time, as recent studies by linguists at the Institute of the Russian Language (N.Yu. Shvedova’s group) have shown, the lexical system of the language is even more stable than the grammatical one (since deep Indo-European antiquity, such words have existed in the Russian language: like mother, son, brother, sister, earth, water etc., although the grammatical structure of the language has undergone significant changes).
The systematic nature of the vocabulary greatly simplifies the search for the right words, since the speaker searches for the word he needs not in the entire vocabulary of the language, but within a small part of it - a synonymous series, a semantic field, a lexical-semantic group (LSG), to which he is guided by the situation and the logic itself thinking.
A characteristic feature of the lexical system of a language is its openness, since vocabulary is the most mobile level of language, it most reflects changes in various spheres of life (some words become obsolete and leave the language, others are born or borrowed), since the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is system, the words included in it are united by two types of relationships - syntagmatic and paradigmatic.
Syntagmatic relations (Greek syntagma “together constructed, connected”) are linear relations that arise between members of horizontal series, corresponding, according to the theory of F. de Saussure, as determined and determining. Linguistic units, following one after another, form a linguistic chain - a syntagma, within which they are in syntagmatic relationships (cf. groupings of words of the syntagmatic type part - whole, object - attribute, object and associated action, etc., relationships between which can be called relations of inherence, for example, pine - pine - pine cone; dog - shaggy - barks - bites or a child's hand, a pencil and a pen, the arm of a chair, etc.). (4, p.148)
Paradigmatic relations (Greek paradeigma “sample”) are vertical relations that arise between opposing linguistic units - members of vertical rows. Each paradigm makes it possible to identify common and differential semantic features of the linguistic units included in it. As a rule, the lexical-semantic paradigm combines words connected by relations of equivalence (cf. synonyms sad - sad), opposites (cf. antonyms day Night), juxtaposition (cf. semantic series pine - spruce - larch - cedar from words included in the group of coniferous trees or arm - hand - elbow - shoulder in the names of the hand), inclusions (cf. generic term - specific term: tree - pine). (4, p.149)
Syntagmatic relations of lexical units are based on the concept of position, and paradigmatic relations I - on the concept of opposition. (4, p.149)
Position is the position of a lexical unit in the text, in which its relationship to other units that are semantically close to it is manifested. (4, p.149) There are strong and weak positions. Strong positions are positions of distinguishing words or their lexical-semantic variants (LSV), cf. a fresh cucumber, a fresh issue of a newspaper and a fresh wind. Weak positions are positions of non-discrimination, positions of neutralization of the meanings of words or their LSV (cf. narrow fields: notebooks, hats, peasant plots).
Opposition is the opposition of a lexical unit to other lexical units that are included with it in the paradigm (the words goat, cat, dog, cow are included in the paradigm based on the common attribute “domestic animals”, but they also form an opposition, since cow refers to cattle, a goat to small animals, and a cat to the cat family). (4, p.149)
The whole variety of relations of lexical units can be reduced to four main types of oppositions and distributions:
1st type of relationship - coinciding: lexical units A and B completely coincide in use and meaning, since they are absolute synonyms [linguistics (A) - linguistics (B)]. They have an equivalent (Latin aequalis “equal”), i.e. coinciding distribution and zero opposition.
2nd type of relationship - inclusive, generic: the value of unit A includes the value of unit B [cf. linguistics (A) and science (B)], however, the meaning of unit B (science) is broader than A (linguistics), therefore the distribution of unit A is included in the distribution of unit B. This type of distribution is called inclusive, and opposition is called privative, i.e. . private, because one member of the opposition has some semantic attribute, and the other is deprived of it (cf. science is not only linguistics, but also other types of sciences), this type of opposition is often called tense.
Type 3 of relationships - partially coinciding, crossing (it is most clearly represented in antonyms): lexical units A and B only partially coincide (for example, the words brother and sister only partially coincide in the common seme “blood relatives”, in other semes they diverge, therefore these lexical units have a contrasting distribution and equipollent (Latin aequipollens “having the same meaning”), i.e. equivalent opposition (distinctive features are, as it were, in balance), therefore this opposition is often called unstressed;
4th type of relationship - not coinciding either in meaning or in use, these words are external (for example, table and will), such relationships can also be observed in homonyms (key “tool for opening a lock” and key “spring” or in words with a polysemantic meaning, cf. delicate taste and a thin slice of bread), therefore these lexical units have additional (non-matching) distribution and disjunctive (Latin disjunctio “separation, division, difference”) opposition. (4, p.150)
Academician D.N. Shmelev proposed to distinguish another type of relationship between words of the lexical-semantic system of a language - epidigmatic (or formal and semantic word formation). Epidigmatic relations are relations that reveal the word-formation connections of a word, thanks to which it is able to enter into various lexical-semantic paradigms. Epidigmatic relations are most often relations of equivalence, relations of parallel derivation between derivatives of the same level (cf. teach - teacher //student //teaching //studies), or relations of inclusion, subordination, relations of sequential derivation (cf. teach -> teacher -> teaching -> teach). (4, p.150)
The existence of groups of words that are opposed to each other in terms of expression and content is evidence of systemic relationships in vocabulary. From the point of view of the plan of expression in the vocabulary, homonyms are distinguished ( onion "garden plant" and onion "weapon"), homographs ( flour - flour), homophones ( fruit - raft), homoforms ( bake- noun and bake- verb), paronyms ( pay - pay), word-forming nests ( water - water - underwater). From the point of view of the content plan, synonyms are distinguished in the vocabulary ( hurry - hurry up), antonyms ( thick - thin), synonymous rows, lexical-semantic and thematic groups, semantic fields, etc. The members of these associations are connected by a common relationship either to the subject area (the so-called subject or denotative fields, for example, names of plants, animals, color terms, etc.), or to the conceptual area (the so-called conceptual or significative fields, for example, names of states of mind: feelings of joy, grief, duty, thinking processes, perception). Since many words are polysemantic, they can be included in different semantic fields and groups, as a result of which relationships arise that hold these fields and groups together: not only close, but also distant, even opposite meanings are connected.
1.2 Lexico-semantic groups of words in the Russian language
The linguistic acquisition of objects and phenomena of the external world consists not only of naming them, but also of the desire to classify them. The structuring of the vocabulary of a language occurs on different grounds - strictly linguistic and extra-linguistic. Also M.M. Pokrovsky pointed out that in the lexical system of a language there are various groups or “fields of words.” Some of them are intralingual associations (“by spheres, representations”), others are extralinguistic associations (“by subject areas”). These ideas by M.M. Pokrovsky were developed in modern linguistics when developing the issue of semantic organization of the vocabulary of a language, in particular, in the theory of semantic fields, lexical-semantic and thematic groups. The problem of the semantic organization of the lexical system of a language is today one of the most difficult in linguistics, which has not yet received its final solution, despite the vast literature. That is why there is still no strict definition of each of the named semantic categories, much less their exhaustive description (despite the fact that no one doubts their linguistic reality). Despite the difference in approaches to the description of these semantic categories, in linguistic works of recent decades there is a clear desire to reveal the interconnectedness and interdependence of their members. The following definitions are usually used as workers. (4, p.151)
Based on linguistic and extra-linguistic features, various groups of words are distinguished. Lexico-semantic group - one and the same part of speech, united by intralingual connections based on interdependent and interconnected elements of meaning. (4, p.152)
Members of the LSG are connected by certain semantic-paradigmatic relations (synonymy, antonymy, all kinds of inclusions, clarifications, differentiation, generalizations of close and/or adjacent meanings). A classic illustration of LSG and the procedure for its isolation was the example of A.A. Ufimtseva, which she cites in her monograph “Experience in studying vocabulary as a system.” In modern Russian, the word “earth” is a polysemantic word. Among its meanings the following stand out: 1) planet; 2) top layer of earth; 3) territory owned by someone; 4) country, state, etc. If you try to schematically represent the semantic structure of this word, you will get a rectangle: the polysemantic word itself is designated by the letter A, its lexical meanings (or LSV) by the letters ai, bi, ci, di, etc. Synonyms for these LSVs are indicated by the letters a2,b2,c2,d2,a3,b3,c3...
A thematic group is a set of words united on the basis of the extralinguistic commonality of the objects or concepts they denote. (4, p. 153) The basis for identifying a thematic group is a set of objects or phenomena of the external world, united according to a certain characteristic and expressed in different words (cf., for example, a thematic group cow, combining words bull, calf, cowshed, cow shed, shepherd, beef etc.). One of the important features of a thematic group is the heterogeneity of linguistic relations between its members or the absence thereof at all, therefore the loss of one or another word of the thematic group or a change in its meaning does not affect the meanings of other words of this group (for example, the word khrebet in Russian in the thematic group the names of parts of the human body were gradually replaced by the word back, but this did not in any way affect the meanings of the words arm, leg, knee, etc.). The absence of linguistic connections between members of a thematic group does not mean, however, that they have no extra-linguistic connections. Thanks to these extra-linguistic connections, words are combined into thematic groups (in the Russian language, for example, the words spruce, pine, fir, larch are combined, first of all, subject-wise, since the language does not have a separate word to designate coniferous trees, which is one of the features of Russian lexical systems). Thus, a thematic group is a combination of words based not on linguistic lexical-semantic connections, but on extra-linguistic ones, i.e. on the classification of the objects and phenomena of the external world themselves.
The lexical-semantic group (LSG) is the most extensive organization of words in terms of the number of its members, which is united by a common (basic) semantic component. The semantic component includes the same class - the meaning of a word’s belonging to a particular part of speech and the same lexogrammemes - semes, denoting the lexico-grammatical categories of this part of speech. LSG includes, for example, nouns denoting “room furnishings” ( table, chair, sofa, wardrobe, dishes, carpet, refrigerator, TV), adjectives meaning “physical characteristic of a person” ( tall, thin, fat, handsome, old, clumsy), verbs of “visual perception” ( look, look, contemplate, admire, glance, watch, look out) etc.
The main feature of LSG is that its basic component is not represented by the same hyperseme; it usually includes several different generic families ( sofa, chair, armchair o - hyperseme “furniture for lying and sitting”; refrigerator, buffet- hypersema “cabinet for storing food, drinks, etc.”). LSG may include several thematic, hypero-hyponemic and synonymous paradigms. For example: “apartment furnishings” (basic component): sofa, table, chairs, armchairs, cabinet f (hyperseme “furniture”); carpet, rug, path, tapestry(hypersema “covering walls and floors”); lamp, chandelier, sconce(hyperseme “lighting fixtures”) - three thematic paradigms.
Having studied the theory, the following conclusions can be drawn.
Firstly, the lexical-semantic system is characterized by paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations. The lexical-semantic system is a set of interconnected elements.
Secondly, lexical-semantic groups of words are characterized by linguistic and non-linguistic relations. Members of the LSG are connected by certain semantic-paradigmatic relations: synonymy, antonymy, clarification, differentiation, etc.
Thirdly, within lexico-semantic groups there are: thematic group, hypernyms and hyponyms. Words within lexical-semantic groups are united by semantic polysemy.
Chapter 2. Groups of words in the names of service points in Tolyatti
2.1 Generic and specific relations of words
In our work, we analyzed the names of cafes, bars, clubs and restaurants, and also identified the following generic and specific relationships of words:
Cafe " Eighth Mile"(Appendix 1, card 49)
A mile is a travel measure of length.
Species concept: mile.
Generic concept: unit measure of length.
Bar « Baobab"(Appendix 1, card 2)
Baobab is a tropical tree.
Species concept: baobab.
Generic concept: tree.
Club " Tower"(Appendix 1, card 1)
A tower is a tall and narrow architectural building.
Species concept: tower.
Generic concept: structure.
Cafe " Night rendezvous"(Appendix 1, card 8)
Rendezvous - date.
Species concept: rendezvous.
Generic concept: meeting.
Cafe "Gzhel"(Appendix 1, card 7)
Species concept: Gzhel.
Generic concept: artistic painting.
Cafe "Conversation"(Appendix 1, card 6)
Conversation - conversation, exchange of opinions.
Species concept: conversation.
Generic concept: communication between people.
Cafe "Birch""(Appendix 1, card 12)
Birch is a deciduous tree with white bark and heart-shaped leaves.
Species concept: birch.
Generic concept: tree.
Cafe "Volzhanka"(Appendix 1, card 10)
Volzhanka is a native or resident of the Volga region.
Species concept: Volzhanka.
Generic concept: resident.
Bar "Charles"(Appendix 1, card 9)
Karl is a male name.
Species concept: Karl.
Generic concept: name.
Bar "Clara"(Appendix 1, card 9)
Clara is a feminine name.
Species concept: Clara.
Generic concept: name.
Restaurant "Harlequin"(Appendix 1, card 15)
Harlequin is a traditional character in the Italian comedy of masks.
Species concept: harlequin.
Generic concept: jester.
Bar "Mirage"(see Appendix 1, card 14)
Mirage is an optical phenomenon, the appearance of imaginary images in the atmosphere.
Species concept: mirage.
Generic concept: phenomenon.
Cafe "Hearth"(see Appendix 1, card 17)
Hearth - a device for setting fire.
Species concept: hearth.
Generic concept: adaptation.
Cafe "Cork"(see Appendix 1, card 47)
Cork is the light and soft porous outer layer of the bark of some trees.
Species concept: cork.
Generic concept: device for blocking.
Club "Sail"(see Appendix 1, card 45)
A sail is a vessel attached to a mast and a cloth inflated by the wind.
Species concept: sail.
Generic concept: means of transportation.
Cafe "Hope"(see Appendix 1, card 21)
Nadezhda is a female name.
Specific concept: Hope.
Generic concept: name.
Restaurant "Mill"(see Appendix 1, card 28)
A mill is a building enterprise with facilities for grinding grain.
Species concept: mill.
Generic concept: structure.
Cafe "Friendship"(see Appendix 1, card 27)
Friendship is a close relationship based on mutual trust.
Species concept: friendship.
Generic concept: relationships between people.
Club "Pyramid"(see Appendix 1, card 26)
A pyramid is a polyhedron whose base is a polygon, and the remaining faces are triangles with a common vertex.
Species concept: pyramid.
Generic concept: building for burial.
Bar "Cleopatra"(see Appendix 1, card 25)
Cleopatra is a feminine name.
Species concept: Cleopatra.
Generic concept: name.
Restaurant "Red Dragon"(see Appendix 1, card 32)
The dragon is a fairy-tale monster in the form of a winged fire-breathing serpent.
Species concept: dragon.
Generic concept: snake.
Restaurant "Effect"(see Appendix 1, card 31)
Effect is the impression made by something on someone.
Species concept: effect.
Generic concept: impressions.
Hotei is the name of a deity.
Species concept: Hotei.
Generic concept: deity.
Cafe "Sogdiana"(see Appendix 1, card 36)
Sogdiana is a female name.
Species concept: Sogdiana.
Generic concept: name.
Cafe "Grad"(see Appendix 1, card 35)
Hail is precipitation in the form of rounded particles of ice.
Specific concept: hail.
Generic concept: type of precipitation.
Cafe "Hippopotamus"(see Appendix 1, card 33)
The hippopotamus is a large artiodactyl mammal living in the freshwater basins of tropical Africa.
Species concept: hippopotamus.
Generic concept: animal.
Cafe "Picnic"(see Appendix 1, card 39)
Picnic is a country pleasure outing for groups.
Species concept: picnic.
Generic concept: type of recreation.
Restaurant "Aquarius"(see Appendix 1, card 38)
Aquarius is a person who is multi-layered and vacuous in his speeches.
Species concept Aquarius.
Generic concept: zodiac sign.
Restaurant "Tolyatti"(see Appendix 1, card 37)
Togliatti is a surname.
Species concept: Tolyatti.
Generic concept: city name, surname.
Cafe "Marusya"(see Appendix 1, card 44)
Marusya is a female name.
Species concept Marusya.
Generic concept: name.
Bar "Northern lights"(see Appendix 1, card 43)
Radiance is a bright light emitted or reflected by something.
Species concept: radiance.
Generic concept: natural phenomenon.
Cafe "Pelican"(see Appendix 1, card 42)
The pelican is a large waterfowl with a long beak and a pouch underneath.
Species concept: pelican.
Generic concept: bird.
Restaurant "Highlander"(see Appendix 1, card 41)
A mountaineer is a resident of the mountains.
Species concept: highlander.
Generic concept: resident.
Cafe "Pier"(see Appendix 1, card 48)
A berth is a place near the shore equipped for parking and servicing ships.
Species concept: pier.
Generic concept: structure.
Cafe - bar "The Golden Fleece"(see Appendix 1, card 18)
Fleece is sheep's wool.
Species concept: fleece.
Generic concept: subject.
Thus, we see that different specific concepts can be attributed to one generic concept. The same word can have different generic and specific meanings.
2.2 Thematic groups of words
Based on the analysis of genus-species relationships, we identified the following thematic groups:
Female names: Nadezhda, Clara, Marusya, Sogdiana, Cleopatra.
Male names: Karl, Togliatti.
Animal names: hippopotamus, pelican.
Names of gods: Hotei.
Colors: red dragon, golden ball, golden field, golden fleece.
Structures: tower, pyramid, mill, pier, Big Ben.
Fairy-tale theme: near Lukomorye, there once was a red dragon, a forest fairy tale.
Plant names: baobab, birch.
Units of length: eighth mile.
Artistic painting: Gzhel.
Relationships between people: friendship, conversation, night rendezvous.
Names of inhabitants: Highlander, Volzhanka.
Characters: harlequin, red dragon.
Natural phenomena: northern lights, hail.
Types of recreation: picnic.
Imaginary phenomena: mirage.
Name of vehicle: sail.
Lovers of gourmet food: gourmets.
Zodiac sign name: Aquarius.
Means of creating an impression: effect.
Geographical names: Madagascar, Togliatti, Ogni Zhiguli, forest area.
Walk-in and drive-through location: Broadway.
City names: Togliatti.
Plugging for small holes: stopper.
Foreign names: Gambrinus.
A plot of land near a forest plantation: forest area.
Particles of speech: oh, my.
As a result of the analysis, twenty-six thematic groups were identified.
2.3 Lexico-semantic groups of words
Based on the analysis of generic and species relations, thematic groups, the following lexical-semantic groups were identified:
Proper names: Karl and Clara, Big Ben, Zhiguli Lights, Rusich, Nadezhda, Cleopatra, Hotey, Sogdiana, Togliatti, Marusya, Broadway.
The surrounding world includes: hippopotamus, hail, pelican, baobab, birch, forest.
Item characteristics: red dragon, golden field, golden fleece, golden ball.
Fauna: hippopotamus, pelican.
Flora: birch, baobab, woodland.
Visual images: mirage, effect.
Artistic images: Gzhel, Golden Field, Golden Fleece, forest fairy tale, once upon a time, red dragon.
Activities: picnic, night rendezvous.
Objects associated with water: Aquarius, pier, pelican, sail.
Natural phenomenon: northern lights, hail.
Architectural structure: pier, Big Ben, tower, pyramid, mill.
Having studied the practical part, it turned out that the same word can be used in generic and species relations, lexical-semantic and thematic groups. Thus, after analyzing the names of cafes, bars, restaurants and clubs, the following conclusions were made:
Firstly, the words are sorted according to generic and species relations.
Secondly, by thematic groups.
Thirdly, by lexical-semantic groups.
Conclusion
Summing up the results of our research, it can be noted that the assigned tasks were completed.
In the first chapter, we found out that the lexical-semantic system is characterized by paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships and is a set of interconnected elements. A lexical-semantic group is a set of words belonging to the same part of speech, united by intralingual connections based on interdependent and interconnected elements of meaning. Members of the LSG are connected by certain semantic-paradigmatic relations: synonymy, antonymy, clarification, differentiation, etc. Within the lexical-semantic groups, they distinguish: thematic group, hyperonyms and hyponyms. Words within lexical-semantic groups are united by semantic polysemy. A thematic group is a set of words united on the basis of the extra-linguistic commonality of the objects or concepts they denote. The basis for identifying a thematic group is a collection of objects or phenomena of the external world, united according to a certain characteristic and expressed in different words.
The second chapter was devoted to practical research, where it turned out that many words can be simultaneously used in lexical-semantic and thematic groups, generic and species relations.
As a result of the analysis, we found out that restaurants, cafes, bars and clubs use male and female names, names of plants, characters, phenomena, animals, and buildings as names.
Bibliography
1. “Introduction to linguistics”, Yu.S. Maslov - M.: “Higher School”, 1998. - With. 87; With. 96-98.
2. “General linguistics: Structural and social typology of languages”, N.B. Mechkovskaya - M.: “Flinta”, “Science”, 2001. – p.268.
3. “Modern Russian language”, D.E. Rosenthal, I.B. Golub, M.A. Telenkova-M.: “Iris – press”, 1998. – p.11-12.
4. “Introduction to linguistics”, T.I. Vendina – M.: “Higher School”, 2001. - With. 146-150.
5. “General linguistics”, A.A. Girutsky - Minsk: Tetrasites, 2003. - With. 131-132.
6. “Semasiological research in the field of ancient languages”, M.M. Pokrovsky - M.: 1986. – p.82.
7. “Modern Russian language: Lexicon”, D.N. Shmelev - M.: 1977
8. “Introduction to linguistics”, L.R. Zinder – M.: “Higher School”, 1987
9. “Modern Russian language”, P.A. Lekant – M.: “Droba”, 2001. - With. 31-32.
10. “Modern Russian language”, E.I. Dibrova - M.: "Academy", 2001.
11. “Introduction to linguistics”, A.A. Reformatsky – M.: “Aspect - Press”, 1998
12. “Modern Russian language: Vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Russian literary language”, Yu.P. Solodub, F.B. Albrecht - M.: “Flinta”, “Science”, 2002.
13. “Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language”, S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova – M.: “Azbukovnik”, 2002.
14. www. Bankreferatov/ search/ referat. ru
15. www. Yandex/search/magazinbook. ru
16. www. Rambler/ search/ ref/ ru
Application
Words in the names of service points in Tolyatti.
Harlequin– a traditional character of the Italian “comedy of masks”; clown, jester.
Baobab- a tropical tree with a very thick trunk.
Tower- a tall and narrow architectural structure.
Hippopotamus- a large artiodactyl mammal living in the freshwater basins of tropical Africa.
Birch- a deciduous tree with white bark and heart-shaped leaves.
Conversation- conversation, exchange of opinions.
Aquarius- a person who is verbose and meaningless in his speeches and writings.
Volzhanka- a native or resident of the Volga region.
Gzhel– products of folk art ceramics.
Highlander- resident of the mountains
hail– precipitation in the form of rounded ice particles.
Gourmet– a lover and connoisseur of gourmet food.
The Dragon- a fairy-tale monster in the form of a winged fire-breathing serpent.
Friendship– close relationships based on mutual trust, affection, and common interests.
Mill- an enterprise, a building with equipment for grinding grain.
mile– a travel measure of length, different in different countries.
Mirage– optical phenomenon; the appearance in the atmosphere of imaginary images of distant objects.
Niva- sown field.
Hearth- a device for starting and maintaining a fire.
Sail- a vessel mounted on a mast and a wind-blown canvas made of canvas or dense fabric.
Pelican- a large waterfowl with a long beak and a sac under it.
Pyramid– a polyhedron, the base of which is a polygon, and the remaining faces are triangles with a common vertex.
Planet- a celestial body moving around the sun and glowing with its reflected light.
Berth- a place near the shore, equipped for parking and servicing of ships, for mooring boats.
Cork– the light and soft porous outer layer of the bark of some woody plants.
Rendezvous– a meeting, mainly by appointment, of two or more persons.
Fleece- sheep's wool.
Shine- bright light emitted or reflected by something.
Fairy tale- a narrative, usually folk-poetic work about fictional persons and events, mainly involving magical, fantastic forces.
Ball– part of space limited by a sphere.
Effect- an impression made by someone or something on someone.
Lingua mobilis No. 3 (17), 2009
THEMATIC GROUP AS A PARADIGMATIC ASSOCIATION OF WORDS
I. V. Kremenetskaya
The article is devoted to an urgent problem of modern linguistics - systematization of the vocabulary of the language. Structural-semantic relations are considered in one of the paradigmatic associations of words - in the thematic group. An attempt is made to prove that words are combined into thematic groups not only on the basis of extralinguistic factors, but also purely linguistic features.
Key words: vocabulary, paradigmatics, thematic groups of words.
The vocabulary of a language is not a simple collection of many individual elements. Each lexical unit, being independent, is characterized by certain relationships with other units of the same and different levels of the linguistic structure. Paradigmatic groupings of the entire vocabulary as a whole have not been described for any language. Therefore, research in this direction seems justified with the ultimate goal of creating a dictionary of lexical-semantic paradigms, taking into account previous developments in this area.
The thematic group of words is one of the paradigmatic groupings of the language. A thematic group is a combination of lexical units used when communicating on a specific topic without taking into account the characteristics and conditions of the act of communication. The basis for the integration of a thematic group is the connections between objects in the real world, which are denotations of the verbal signs that make up the thematic group.
The task of describing the meanings of words like “table, cup, eye” gives rise to debate about what should be considered strictly semantic information and what should be considered encyclopedic. Echoes of these thoughts are reflected in the terminology of different authors, including
Linguistics
calling such names “denotative”, vocabulary “identifying”, “specific”.
Obviously, there is no reason to strive for their exhaustive decomposition into semantic components when analyzing some words, and to abandon such attempts in advance when analyzing others. However, the fact is that these attempts lead to different results in different cases. Some lexical units actually allow decomposition into elementary semantic features, while others clearly resist such decomposition. The boundary between different parts of the vocabulary does not quite coincide with the boundary that could be drawn on the basis of an a priori exclusion of “specific” vocabulary from the semantic analysis.
Three main criteria for combining words into a thematic group have been identified. Words can be combined in one thematic group if there is:
1) connections between objects indicated by words;
2) relationships between these words, such as genus-species, part-whole;
3) related contexts.
Based on these criteria, we can combine the English nouns face, eye, mouth, nose into the thematic group “face and its parts.” The semantics of units determines the semantics of their relations, i.e. defines both intra-paradigmatic and inter-paradigmatic connections. In this regard, the study should begin with an analysis of the semantics of lexical-semantic options.
A word is a system of forms and meanings. Only the lexical-semantic variant is characterized by the unity of sound, morphological structure, meaning and system of forms, and the word is presented as an invariant of several lexical-semantic variants (LSV) belonging to the same part of speech, having a common morphological composition and similar components of lexical meaning.
The lexical-semantic version of a word is a two-sided linguistic sign, which is determined by the unity of sound and meaning, maintaining an unchanged lexical meaning within
Lingua mobilis No. 3 (17), 2009
its inherent paradigms and systems of syntactic connections.
By seme is meant the following: each seme is a reflection in the minds of native speakers of distinctive features that are objectively inherent in the denotation, or attributed to it by a given linguistic environment and, therefore, are objective in relation to each speaker.
The status of LSV is determined based on all the words of the thematic group “Face and its parts”. In this case, only those semantic units that are associated with other relations of intersection and semantic homonymy are recognized as meanings of independent LSVs. For example, mouthj mouth - mouth2 glutton
Intersection; face; impudence - face2 surface - semantic homonymy.
Semantic units connected by the relations of inclusion and general denotative reference are combined and considered as one LSV: eye-part of the face - organ of vision - general denotative reference; nose - something similar to a nose
Kettle spout - switch on.
Thus, the following LSV nouns are defined -
new face, eye, mouth, nose:
face1 - face eye1 - part of the face - organ of vision mouth1 - part of the face - digestive organ, organ of speech nose1 - part of the face - organ of smell
face2 - facial expressions eye2 - glance mouth2 - grimace nose2 - sense of smell
face) - grimace eue3 - vision mouthy - glutton, eater nose3 - spy, detective
face4 - impudence eye4 - something similar to an eye mouth4 - talker, speaker nose, - something similar to a nose
faces - dignity, honor mouth5 - speech, pronunciation
face6 - surface, front side mouth - something 6 similar to a mouth
Linguistics
As a result of the contextological analysis of the studied nouns, it was discovered that not all semes that make up the content of LSVs are equally involved in their implementation. The degree of their activity, their ratio changes depending on the environment, on combination with words of one or another semantic group. Moreover, the ratio of the seven main LSVs of English nouns denoting a person and its parts is approximately the same in similar syntagmatic models in combination with words of the same semantic groups.
In this work, it has been established that the most significant model for determining the semantic components of nouns is the “subject attribute” model. Reflecting objective reality, the phrases A + N are units of language in which the adjective - “sign”, as it were, attracts to itself one or another component of the content of the noun - “subject”.
For example, sad face is a sad face, happy face is a happy face. The main component of the adjectives sad and happy is an emotional state.
In phrases with these adjectives, the semantic component “reflection of the emotional state” of the noun face is revealed.
Moreover, among the considered contexts of use of the noun face, there are also those in which this word is used in the meaning of man, person.
She was in a group of jolly faces all apparently emitting great clouds of heavy smoke. (F.S. Fitzgerald. Selected Short Stories., p. 12)
Since the noun eye enters into phrases with adjectives and participles that characterize a person, it can be assumed that eye, like face, specifically designates the entire person as a whole.
To test this assumption, consider the context of the noun eye, which implements the “subject - action” model, which is diagnostic for nouns denoting a living being.
Those eyes would not kick_a dog or beat a child or do anything of that kind. (J. Aldrige. The Sea Eagle., p. 69)
Lingua mobilis No. 3 (17), 2009
The verb to kick (to hit) with the noun eye “part of the face - the organ of vision” is semantically incompatible. Eye is used in this sentence to mean “man” and is a contextual synonym for the noun man.
Thus, it can be stated that the noun eye, like the noun face, can be used in the meaning of man. It is not recorded in English dictionaries, since it does not have sufficient frequency of use in speech and is not fixed by these nouns. LSV face, eye “person” are in hyper-hyponymic relationships with LSV mouth “glutton”^ “chatterbox”2 and LSV nose “detective”, i.e. they are members of a thematic group with the archeme “man”.
In general, the study of the nouns face, eye, mouth, nose confirmed the hypothesis that words denoting objects related to each other have similar structural and semantic features; general patterns of functioning in speech. They are included in two thematic groups:
1) with the dominant seme “part of the head that expresses emotions”; There is a “whole-part” relationship between group members;
2) with the archeme “man”; between group members there are “genus-species” relationships (hyper-hyponymous).
Members of the first thematic group are the LCB: face1 - front part of the head, mouth1 - part of the head/face - digestive organ, organ of speech, nose1 - part of the head/face - organ of smell, eye1 - part of the head/face - organ of vision.
Members of the second thematic group are LCB: face, - person, eye - person, mouth1 - glutton, mouth2 - chatterbox, nose - detective.
Back in the last century, Russian semasiologist M.M. Pokrovsky (1868-1942) drew attention to the fact that “words and their meanings do not live a life separate from each other,” but are united in our soul, regardless of our consciousness, into various groups. The basis for combining words into lexical-semantic groups are verbal associations that reflect the connections of objects in the surrounding world. Unlike polysemy, which is characterized by a semantic connection within the meanings of one word, these associations arise on the basis of semantic connections between different words, as a result of comparison, identification and differentiation of their meanings. There are three main types of semantic connections between words - the absence of common elements of meaning, proximity of meanings, opposition of meanings. MM. Pokrovsky pointed out that in the lexical system of a language there are various groups or “fields of words.” Some of them are intralingual associations, others are extralinguistic associations. These ideas by M.M. Pokrovsky were developed in modern linguistics when developing the issue of semantic organization of the vocabulary of a language, in particular, in the theory of semantic fields, lexical-semantic and thematic groups. A lexical-semantic group is a set of words belonging to the same part of speech, united by intralingual connections based on interdependent and interconnected elements of meaning. A thematic group is a set of words united on the basis of the extra-linguistic commonality of the objects or concepts they denote. The basis for identifying a thematic group is a collection of objects or phenomena of the external world, united according to a certain characteristic and expressed in different words. A semantic field is a set of linguistic units united by a common meaning and representing the subject, conceptual or functional similarity of the designated phenomena. Words included in the semantic field are characterized by the presence of a common semantic feature, on the basis of which this field is formed.
Object work is the lexical system of the language.
Subject works are lexical-semantic groups of words.
Target course research is that lexical-semantic groups of words are identified in the names of service points in the city of Tolyatti. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
· consider the lexical-semantic system of the Russian language;
· analyze the names of bars, cafes, clubs and restaurants;
· select groups of names of points serving the city of Tolyatti.
The purpose and objectives determine the structure of this course work. The course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, conclusions for each chapter, a conclusion, a list of references and an appendix.
This work used the works of the following authors: Vendina T.I., Girutskaya A.A., Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A., Maslov Yu.S., Mechkovskaya N.B.
Chapter 1. Lexico-semantic system of the Russian language
1.1 General characteristics of the lexical-semantic system of the Russian language
Words within the lexical system of a language do not exist in isolation, but in close connection with each other, forming systems built on various bases: semantic-grammatical (parts of speech), word-formation (word-formation nests), semantic (synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, semantic fields , lexical-semantic groups, etc.).
A system (in the philosophical and linguistic sense) is a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity. (4, p.146) The integrity of the system is achieved by the internal coherence of linguistic elements of different levels, their dependence on their place and function in the language.
Language, having a communicative and cognitive function, serves as a means of expressing knowledge verified by the socio-historical practice of people. The significant vocabulary of any language contains a whole world of lexical meanings, since the word is the simplest symbolic means of naming a fragment of reality (object, property, action, state, etc.). At the same time, “words and their meanings do not live a life separate from each other, but are united in our soul, regardless of our consciousness, into various groups, and the basis for grouping is similarity or direct opposition in basic meaning,” wrote the famous Russian semasiologist M.M. . Pokrovsky, one of the first to realize the systematic nature of vocabulary. (6, p.82)
In modern linguistics, the view of vocabulary as a system of systems has been firmly established. It found its expression in the recognition of the fact of the existence in the language of various groups of words, contrasted in meaning, form, degree of similarity of forms and meanings, in the nature of the relationships that develop between words forming one group or another, etc. However, the systematic nature of vocabulary is manifested not only in the presence of certain semantic groups, semantic fields, classes or oppositions (such as native - borrowed, active - passive, neutral and stylistically marked), but also in the very nature of the use of lexical units, where certain patterns are also observed (for example , antonyms can be used often in the same contexts, the same picture is observed with synonyms, and different meanings of the same word (LSV) are used, as a rule, in divergent contexts).
Recognition of the lexical composition of a language as a system of systems is also consistent with the postulates of the general theory of systems, the main concepts of which are “integrity”, “element”, “structure”, “connections”. Language, as is known, is a long-evolving system, because As society and its culture develop and become more complex, the lexical system of the language grows, branches and differentiates; moreover, this system evolves along with the development of the grammatical and phonetic systems of the language. At the same time, as recent studies by linguists at the Institute of the Russian Language (N.Yu. Shvedova’s group) have shown, the lexical system of the language is even more stable than the grammatical one (since deep Indo-European antiquity, such words have existed in the Russian language: like mother, son, brother, sister, earth, water etc., although the grammatical structure of the language has undergone significant changes).
The systematic nature of the vocabulary greatly simplifies the search for the right words, since the speaker searches for the word he needs not in the entire vocabulary of the language, but within a small part of it - a synonymous series, a semantic field, a lexical-semantic group (LSG), to which he is guided by the situation and the logic itself thinking.
A characteristic feature of the lexical system of a language is its openness, since vocabulary is the most mobile level of language, it most reflects changes in various spheres of life (some words become obsolete and leave the language, others are born or borrowed), since the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is system, the words included in it are united by two types of relationships - syntagmatic and paradigmatic.
Syntagmatic relations (Greek syntagma “together constructed, connected”) are linear relations that arise between members of horizontal series, corresponding, according to the theory of F. de Saussure, as determined and determining. Linguistic units, following one after another, form a linguistic chain - a syntagma, within which they are in syntagmatic relationships (cf. groupings of words of the syntagmatic type part - whole, object - attribute, object and associated action, etc., relationships between which can be called relations of inherence, for example, pine - pine - pine cone; dog - shaggy - barks - bites or a child's hand, a pencil and a pen, the arm of a chair, etc.). (4, p.148)
Paradigmatic relations (Greek paradeigma “sample”) are vertical relations that arise between opposing linguistic units - members of vertical rows. Each paradigm makes it possible to identify common and differential semantic features of the linguistic units included in it. As a rule, the lexical-semantic paradigm combines words connected by relations of equivalence (cf. synonyms sad - sad), opposites (cf. antonyms day Night), juxtaposition (cf. semantic series pine - spruce - larch - cedar from words included in the group of coniferous trees or arm - hand - elbow - shoulder in the names of the hand), inclusions (cf. generic term - specific term: tree - pine). (4, p.149)
Syntagmatic relations of lexical units are based on the concept of position, and paradigmatic relations I - on the concept of opposition. (4, p.149)
Position is the position of a lexical unit in the text, in which its relationship to other units that are semantically close to it is manifested. (4, p.149) There are strong and weak positions. Strong positions are positions of distinguishing words or their lexical-semantic variants (LSV), cf. a fresh cucumber, a fresh issue of a newspaper and a fresh wind. Weak positions are positions of non-discrimination, positions of neutralization of the meanings of words or their LSV (cf. narrow fields: notebooks, hats, peasant plots).
Opposition is the opposition of a lexical unit to other lexical units that are included with it in the paradigm (the words goat, cat, dog, cow are included in the paradigm based on the common attribute “domestic animals”, but they also form an opposition, since cow refers to cattle, a goat to small animals, and a cat to the cat family). (4, p.149)
The whole variety of relations of lexical units can be reduced to four main types of oppositions and distributions:
1st type of relationship - coinciding: lexical units A and B completely coincide in use and meaning, since they are absolute synonyms [linguistics (A) - linguistics (B)]. They have an equivalent (Latin aequalis “equal”), i.e. coinciding distribution and zero opposition.
2nd type of relationship - inclusive, generic: the value of unit A includes the value of unit B [cf. linguistics (A) and science (B)], however, the meaning of unit B (science) is broader than A (linguistics), therefore the distribution of unit A is included in the distribution of unit B. This type of distribution is called inclusive, and opposition is called privative, i.e. . private, because one member of the opposition has some semantic attribute, and the other is deprived of it (cf. science is not only linguistics, but also other types of sciences), this type of opposition is often called tense.
Type 3 of relationships - partially coinciding, crossing (it is most clearly represented in antonyms): lexical units A and B only partially coincide (for example, the words brother and sister only partially coincide in the common seme “blood relatives”, in other semes they diverge, therefore these lexical units have a contrasting distribution and equipollent (Latin aequipollens “having the same meaning”), i.e. equivalent opposition (distinctive features are, as it were, in balance), therefore this opposition is often called unstressed;
4th type of relationship - not coinciding either in meaning or in use, these words are external (for example, table and will), such relationships can also be observed in homonyms (key “tool for opening a lock” and key “spring” or in words with a polysemantic meaning, cf. delicate taste and a thin slice of bread), therefore these lexical units have additional (non-matching) distribution and disjunctive (Latin disjunctio “separation, division, difference”) opposition. (4, p.150)
Academician D.N. Shmelev proposed to distinguish another type of relationship between words of the lexical-semantic system of a language - epidigmatic (or formal and semantic word formation). Epidigmatic relations are relations that reveal the word-formation connections of a word, thanks to which it is able to enter into various lexical-semantic paradigms. Epidigmatic relations are most often relations of equivalence, relations of parallel derivation between derivatives of the same level (cf. teach - teacher //student //teaching //studies), or relations of inclusion, subordination, relations of sequential derivation (cf. teach -> teacher -> teaching -> teach). (4, p.150)
The existence of groups of words that are opposed to each other in terms of expression and content is evidence of systemic relationships in vocabulary. From the point of view of the plan of expression in the vocabulary, homonyms are distinguished ( onion "garden plant" and onion "weapon"), homographs ( flour - flour), homophones ( fruit - raft), homoforms ( bake- noun and bake- verb), paronyms ( pay - pay), word-forming nests ( water - water - underwater). From the point of view of the content plan, synonyms are distinguished in the vocabulary ( hurry - hurry up), antonyms ( thick - thin), synonymous rows, lexical-semantic and thematic groups, semantic fields, etc. The members of these associations are connected by a common relationship either to the subject area (the so-called subject or denotative fields, for example, names of plants, animals, color terms, etc.), or to the conceptual area (the so-called conceptual or significative fields, for example, names of states of mind: feelings of joy, grief, duty, thinking processes, perception). Since many words are polysemantic, they can be included in different semantic fields and groups, as a result of which relationships arise that hold these fields and groups together: not only close, but also distant, even opposite meanings are connected.
1.2 Lexico-semantic groups of words in the Russian language
The linguistic acquisition of objects and phenomena of the external world consists not only of naming them, but also of the desire to classify them. The structuring of the vocabulary of a language occurs on different grounds - strictly linguistic and extra-linguistic. Also M.M. Pokrovsky pointed out that in the lexical system of a language there are various groups or “fields of words.” Some of them are intralingual associations (“by spheres, representations”), others are extralinguistic associations (“by subject areas”). These ideas by M.M. Pokrovsky were developed in modern linguistics when developing the issue of semantic organization of the vocabulary of a language, in particular, in the theory of semantic fields, lexical-semantic and thematic groups. The problem of the semantic organization of the lexical system of a language is today one of the most difficult in linguistics, which has not yet received its final solution, despite the vast literature. That is why there is still no strict definition of each of the named semantic categories, much less their exhaustive description (despite the fact that no one doubts their linguistic reality). Despite the difference in approaches to the description of these semantic categories, in linguistic works of recent decades there is a clear desire to reveal the interconnectedness and interdependence of their members. The following definitions are usually used as workers. (4, p.151)
Based on linguistic and extra-linguistic features, various groups of words are distinguished. Lexico-semantic group - one and the same part of speech, united by intralingual connections based on interdependent and interconnected elements of meaning. (4, p.152)
Members of the LSG are connected by certain semantic-paradigmatic relations (synonymy, antonymy, all kinds of inclusions, clarifications, differentiation, generalizations of close and/or adjacent meanings). A classic illustration of LSG and the procedure for its isolation was the example of A.A. Ufimtseva, which she cites in her monograph “Experience in studying vocabulary as a system.” In modern Russian, the word “earth” is a polysemantic word. Among its meanings the following stand out: 1) planet; 2) top layer of earth; 3) territory owned by someone; 4) country, state, etc. If you try to schematically represent the semantic structure of this word, you will get a rectangle: the polysemantic word itself is designated by the letter A, its lexical meanings (or LSV) by the letters ai, bi, ci, di, etc. Synonyms for these LSVs are indicated by the letters a2,b2,c2,d2,a3,b3,c3...
A thematic group is a set of words united on the basis of the extralinguistic commonality of the objects or concepts they denote. (4, p. 153) The basis for identifying a thematic group is a set of objects or phenomena of the external world, united according to a certain characteristic and expressed in different words (cf., for example, a thematic group cow, combining words bull, calf, cowshed, cow shed, shepherd, beef etc.). One of the important features of a thematic group is the heterogeneity of linguistic relations between its members or the absence thereof at all, therefore the loss of one or another word of the thematic group or a change in its meaning does not affect the meanings of other words of this group (for example, the word khrebet in Russian in the thematic group the names of parts of the human body were gradually replaced by the word back, but this did not in any way affect the meanings of the words arm, leg, knee, etc.). The absence of linguistic connections between members of a thematic group does not mean, however, that they have no extra-linguistic connections. Thanks to these extra-linguistic connections, words are combined into thematic groups (in the Russian language, for example, the words spruce, pine, fir, larch are combined, first of all, subject-wise, since the language does not have a separate word to designate coniferous trees, which is one of the features of Russian lexical systems). Thus, a thematic group is a combination of words based not on linguistic lexical-semantic connections, but on extra-linguistic ones, i.e. on the classification of the objects and phenomena of the external world themselves.
The lexical-semantic group (LSG) is the most extensive organization of words in terms of the number of its members, which is united by a common (basic) semantic component. The semantic component includes the same class - the meaning of a word’s belonging to a particular part of speech and the same lexogrammemes - semes, denoting the lexico-grammatical categories of this part of speech. LSG includes, for example, nouns denoting “room furnishings” ( table, chair, sofa, wardrobe, dishes, carpet, refrigerator, TV), adjectives meaning “physical characteristic of a person” ( tall, thin, fat, handsome, old, clumsy), verbs of “visual perception” ( look, look, contemplate, admire, glance, watch, look out) etc.
The main feature of LSG is that its basic component is not represented by the same hyperseme; it usually includes several different generic families ( sofa, chair, armchair o - hyperseme “furniture for lying and sitting”; refrigerator, buffet- hypersema “cabinet for storing food, drinks, etc.”). LSG may include several thematic, hypero-hyponemic and synonymous paradigms. For example: “apartment furnishings” (basic component): sofa, table, chairs, armchairs, cabinet f (hyperseme “furniture”); carpet, rug, path, tapestry(hypersema “covering walls and floors”); lamp, chandelier, sconce(hyperseme “lighting fixtures”) - three thematic paradigms.
Having studied the theory, the following conclusions can be drawn.
Firstly, the lexical-semantic system is characterized by paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations. The lexical-semantic system is a set of interconnected elements.
Secondly, lexical-semantic groups of words are characterized by linguistic and non-linguistic relations. Members of the LSG are connected by certain semantic-paradigmatic relations: synonymy, antonymy, clarification, differentiation, etc.
Thirdly, within lexico-semantic groups there are: thematic group, hypernyms and hyponyms. Words within lexical-semantic groups are united by semantic polysemy.
Chapter 2. Groups of words in the names of service points in Tolyatti
2.1 Generic and specific relations of words
In our work, we analyzed the names of cafes, bars, clubs and restaurants, and also identified the following generic and specific relationships of words:
Cafe " Eighth Mile"(Appendix 1, card 49)
A mile is a travel measure of length.
Species concept: mile.
Generic concept: unit measure of length.
Bar « Baobab"(Appendix 1, card 2)
Baobab is a tropical tree.
Species concept: baobab.
Generic concept: tree.
Club " Tower"(Appendix 1, card 1)
A tower is a tall and narrow architectural building.
Species concept: tower.
Generic concept: structure.
Cafe " Night rendezvous"(Appendix 1, card 8)
Rendezvous - date.
Species concept: rendezvous.
Generic concept: meeting.
Cafe "Gzhel"(Appendix 1, card 7)
Gzhel is a product of folk artistic ceramics.
Species concept: Gzhel.
Generic concept: artistic painting.
Cafe "Conversation"(Appendix 1, card 6)
Conversation - conversation, exchange of opinions.
Species concept: conversation.
Generic concept: communication between people.
Cafe "Birch""(Appendix 1, card 12)
Birch is a deciduous tree with white bark and heart-shaped leaves.
Species concept: birch.
Generic concept: tree.
Cafe "Volzhanka"(Appendix 1, card 10)
Volzhanka is a native or resident of the Volga region.
Species concept: Volzhanka.
Generic concept: resident.
Bar "Charles"(Appendix 1, card 9)
Karl is a male name.
Species concept: Karl.
Generic concept: name.
Bar "Clara"(Appendix 1, card 9)
Clara is a feminine name.
Species concept: Clara.
Generic concept: name.
Restaurant "Harlequin"(Appendix 1, card 15)
Harlequin is a traditional character in the Italian comedy of masks.
Species concept: harlequin.
Generic concept: jester.
Bar "Mirage"(see Appendix 1, card 14)
Mirage is an optical phenomenon, the appearance of imaginary images in the atmosphere.
Species concept: mirage.
Generic concept: phenomenon.
Cafe "Hearth"(see Appendix 1, card 17)
Hearth - a device for setting fire.
Species concept: hearth.
Generic concept: adaptation.
Cafe "Cork"(see Appendix 1, card 47)
Cork is the light and soft porous outer layer of the bark of some trees.
Species concept: cork.
Generic concept: device for blocking.
Club "Sail"(see Appendix 1, card 45)
A sail is a vessel attached to a mast and a cloth inflated by the wind.
Species concept: sail.
Generic concept: means of transportation.
Cafe "Hope"(see Appendix 1, card 21)
Nadezhda is a female name.
Specific concept: Hope.
Generic concept: name.
Restaurant "Mill"(see Appendix 1, card 28)
A mill is a building enterprise with facilities for grinding grain.
Species concept: mill.
Generic concept: structure.
Cafe "Friendship"(see Appendix 1, card 27)
Friendship is a close relationship based on mutual trust.
Species concept: friendship.
Generic concept: relationships between people.
Club "Pyramid"(see Appendix 1, card 26)
A pyramid is a polyhedron whose base is a polygon, and the remaining faces are triangles with a common vertex.
Species concept: pyramid.
Generic concept: building for burial.
Bar "Cleopatra"(see Appendix 1, card 25)
Cleopatra is a feminine name.
Species concept: Cleopatra.
Generic concept: name.
Restaurant "Red Dragon"(see Appendix 1, card 32)
The dragon is a fairy-tale monster in the form of a winged fire-breathing serpent.
Species concept: dragon.
Generic concept: snake.
Restaurant "Effect"(see Appendix 1, card 31)
Effect is the impression made by something on someone.
Species concept: effect.
Generic concept: impressions.
Restaurant "Hotei"(see Appendix 1, card 29)
Hotei is the name of a deity.
Species concept: Hotei.
Generic concept: deity.
Cafe "Sogdiana"(see Appendix 1, card 36)
Sogdiana is a female name.
Species concept: Sogdiana.
Generic concept: name.
Cafe "Grad"(see Appendix 1, card 35)
Hail is precipitation in the form of rounded particles of ice.
Specific concept: hail.
Generic concept: type of precipitation.
Cafe "Hippopotamus"(see Appendix 1, card 33)
The hippopotamus is a large artiodactyl mammal living in the freshwater basins of tropical Africa.
Species concept: hippopotamus.
Generic concept: animal.
Cafe "Picnic"(see Appendix 1, card 39)
Picnic is a country pleasure outing for groups.
Species concept: picnic.
Generic concept: type of recreation.
Restaurant "Aquarius"(see Appendix 1, card 38)
Aquarius is a person who is multi-layered and vacuous in his speeches.
Species concept Aquarius.
Generic concept: zodiac sign.
Restaurant "Tolyatti"(see Appendix 1, card 37)
Togliatti is a surname.
Species concept: Tolyatti.
Generic concept: city name, surname.
Cafe "Marusya"(see Appendix 1, card 44)
Marusya is a female name.
Species concept Marusya.
Generic concept: name.
Bar "Northern lights"(see Appendix 1, card 43)
Radiance is a bright light emitted or reflected by something.
Species concept: radiance.
Generic concept: natural phenomenon.
Cafe "Pelican"(see Appendix 1, card 42)
The pelican is a large waterfowl with a long beak and a pouch underneath.
Species concept: pelican.
Generic concept: bird.
Restaurant "Highlander"(see Appendix 1, card 41)
A mountaineer is a resident of the mountains.
Species concept: highlander.
Generic concept: resident.
Cafe "Pier"(see Appendix 1, card 48)
A berth is a place near the shore equipped for parking and servicing ships.
Species concept: pier.
Generic concept: structure.
Cafe - bar "The Golden Fleece"(see Appendix 1, card 18)
Fleece is sheep's wool.
Species concept: fleece.
Generic concept: subject.
Thus, we see that different specific concepts can be attributed to one generic concept. The same word can have different generic and specific meanings.
2.2 Thematic groups of words
Based on the analysis of genus-species relationships, we identified the following thematic groups:
Female names: Nadezhda, Clara, Marusya, Sogdiana, Cleopatra.
Male names: Karl, Togliatti.
Animal names: hippopotamus, pelican.
Names of gods: Hotei.
Colors: red dragon, golden ball, golden field, golden fleece.
Structures: tower, pyramid, mill, pier, Big Ben.
Fairy-tale theme: near Lukomorye, there once was a red dragon, a forest fairy tale.
Plant names: baobab, birch.
Units of length: eighth mile.
Artistic painting: Gzhel.
Relationships between people: friendship, conversation, night rendezvous.
Names of inhabitants: Highlander, Volzhanka.
Characters: harlequin, red dragon.
Natural phenomena: northern lights, hail.
Types of recreation: picnic.
Imaginary phenomena: mirage.
Name of vehicle: sail.
Ignition device: hearth.
Lovers of gourmet food: gourmets.
Zodiac sign name: Aquarius.
Means of creating an impression: effect.
Geographical names: Madagascar, Togliatti, Ogni Zhiguli, forest area.
Walk-in and drive-through location: Broadway.
City names: Togliatti.
Plugging for small holes: stopper.
Foreign names: Gambrinus.
A plot of land near a forest plantation: forest area.
Particles of speech: oh, my.
As a result of the analysis, twenty-six thematic groups were identified.
2.3 Lexico-semantic groups of words
Based on the analysis of generic and species relations, thematic groups, the following lexical-semantic groups were identified:
Proper names: Karl and Clara, Big Ben, Zhiguli Lights, Rusich, Nadezhda, Cleopatra, Hotey, Sogdiana, Togliatti, Marusya, Broadway.
The surrounding world includes: hippopotamus, hail, pelican, baobab, birch, forest.
Item characteristics: red dragon, golden field, golden fleece, golden ball.
Fauna: hippopotamus, pelican.
Flora: birch, baobab, woodland.
Visual images: mirage, effect.
Artistic images: Gzhel, Golden Field, Golden Fleece, forest fairy tale, once upon a time, red dragon.
Activities: picnic, night rendezvous.
Objects associated with water: Aquarius, pier, pelican, sail.
Natural phenomenon: northern lights, hail.
Architectural structure: pier, Big Ben, tower, pyramid, mill.
Having studied the practical part, it turned out that the same word can be used in generic and species relations, lexical-semantic and thematic groups. Thus, after analyzing the names of cafes, bars, restaurants and clubs, the following conclusions were made:
Firstly, the words are sorted according to generic and species relations.
Secondly, by thematic groups.
Thirdly, by lexical-semantic groups.
Conclusion
Summing up the results of our research, it can be noted that the assigned tasks were completed.
In the first chapter, we found out that the lexical-semantic system is characterized by paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships and is a set of interconnected elements. A lexical-semantic group is a set of words belonging to the same part of speech, united by intralingual connections based on interdependent and interconnected elements of meaning. Members of the LSG are connected by certain semantic-paradigmatic relations: synonymy, antonymy, clarification, differentiation, etc. Within the lexical-semantic groups, they distinguish: thematic group, hyperonyms and hyponyms. Words within lexical-semantic groups are united by semantic polysemy. A thematic group is a set of words united on the basis of the extra-linguistic commonality of the objects or concepts they denote. The basis for identifying a thematic group is a collection of objects or phenomena of the external world, united according to a certain characteristic and expressed in different words.
The second chapter was devoted to practical research, where it turned out that many words can be simultaneously used in lexical-semantic and thematic groups, generic and species relations.
As a result of the analysis, we found out that restaurants, cafes, bars and clubs use male and female names, names of plants, characters, phenomena, animals, and buildings as names.
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Application
Words in the names of service points in Tolyatti.
Harlequin– a traditional character of the Italian “comedy of masks”; clown, jester.
Baobab- a tropical tree with a very thick trunk.
Tower- a tall and narrow architectural structure.
Hippopotamus- a large artiodactyl mammal living in the freshwater basins of tropical Africa.
Birch- a deciduous tree with white bark and heart-shaped leaves.
Conversation- conversation, exchange of opinions.
Aquarius- a person who is verbose and meaningless in his speeches and writings.
Volzhanka- a native or resident of the Volga region.
Gzhel– products of folk art ceramics.
Highlander- resident of the mountains
hail– precipitation in the form of rounded ice particles.
Gourmet– a lover and connoisseur of gourmet food.
The Dragon- a fairy-tale monster in the form of a winged fire-breathing serpent.
Friendship– close relationships based on mutual trust, affection, and common interests.
Mill- an enterprise, a building with equipment for grinding grain.
mile– a travel measure of length, different in different countries.
Mirage– optical phenomenon; the appearance in the atmosphere of imaginary images of distant objects.
Niva- sown field.
Hearth- a device for starting and maintaining a fire.
Sail- a vessel mounted on a mast and a wind-blown canvas made of canvas or dense fabric.
Pelican- a large waterfowl with a long beak and a sac under it.
Picnic– a country pleasure walk with a group.
Pyramid– a polyhedron, the base of which is a polygon, and the remaining faces are triangles with a common vertex.
Planet- a celestial body moving around the sun and glowing with its reflected light.
Berth- a place near the shore, equipped for parking and servicing of ships, for mooring boats.
Cork– the light and soft porous outer layer of the bark of some woody plants.
Rendezvous– a meeting, mainly by appointment, of two or more persons.
Fleece- sheep's wool.
Shine- bright light emitted or reflected by something.
Fairy tale- a narrative, usually folk-poetic work about fictional persons and events, mainly involving magical, fantastic forces.
Ball– part of space limited by a sphere.
Effect- an impression made by someone or something on someone.