Examples of psychological parallelism in literature. A.N

In this article we will look at such a literary concept as psychological parallelism. Often this term causes some problems in interpreting its meaning and functions. In this article we will try to explain as clearly as possible what this concept is, how to apply it in artistic analysis of a text, and what you should pay special attention to.

Definition

Psychological parallelism in literature is one of its essence: the plot of a work is built on a consistent comparison of motives, pictures of nature, relationships, situations, and actions. Typically used in poetic folk texts.

As a rule, it consists of 2 parts. The first depicts a picture of nature, conventional and metaphorical, creating an emotional and psychological background. And in the second, the image of a hero already appears, whose state is compared with the natural one. For example: a falcon is a good fellow, a swan is a bride, a cuckoo is a yearning woman or a widow.

Story

However, it is necessary to delve a little deeper into the past in order to fully understand what psychological parallelism is. The definition in the literature, by the way, usually begins with a little historical background.

So, if this technique came into literature from folklore, then it has quite deep roots. Why did it occur to people to compare themselves with animals, plants or natural phenomena? This phenomenon is based on naive syncretic ideas that the world around us has its own will. This is confirmed by pagan beliefs that endowed all life phenomena with consciousness. For example, the sun is an eye, that is, the sun appears as an active living being.

Such parallels consisted of:

Complex similarity of characteristic features to life or action.
The relationship of these signs with our understanding of reality and the laws of the surrounding world.
Adjacencies of various objects that could be similar based on identified characteristics.
The vital value and completeness of the described object or phenomenon in relation to humanity.

That is, initially psychological parallelism was built on a person’s subjective idea of the world.

Kinds

We continue to study psychological parallelism. We have already given the definition, now let’s talk about its types. There are several different approaches to the study of this stylistic phenomenon and, accordingly, several classifications. We will present here the most popular of them - the authorship of A. N. Veselovsky. According to her, psychological parallelism occurs:

two-term;
formal;
polynomial;
monomial;
negative.

Parallelism binomial

It is characterized by the following construction method. First there is an image of a picture of nature, then a description of a similar episode from a person’s life. These two episodes seem to echo each other, although they differ in objective content. You can understand that they have something in common by certain consonances and motives. This feature is what distinguishes psychological parallels from simple repetitions.

For example: “When they want to pick roses, they must wait until spring; when they want to love girls, they must be sixteen years old” (Spanish folk song).

It is worth noting, however, that folklore parallelism, which most often happens to be two-term, is built mainly on the category of action. If you remove it, then all other elements will lose their meaning. The stability of this design is ensured by 2 factors:

To the basic similarity are added bright similar details of the action category that will not be contradicted.
Native speakers liked the comparison, it became part of the cult and remained there for a long time.

If both of these points are met, then parallelism will turn into a symbol and acquire a household name. However, this fate does not await all binomial parallelisms, even those constructed according to all the rules.

Formal parallelism

There are cases when psychological parallelism is not immediately clear and to understand it it is necessary to hear the entire text. For example: one of the folk songs begins with the following line: “The river flows, it will not stir,” then there is a description of the bride, to whom many guests came to her wedding, but no one can bless her, since she is an orphan; Thus, the similarity can be traced - the river does not stir, but the bride sits sad and silent.

Here we can talk about silence, and not about lack of similarity. The stylistic device becomes more complex, making it difficult to understand the work itself, but the structure acquires greater beauty and poetry.

Polynomial parallelism

The concept of “psychological parallelism,” despite its apparent complexity, is quite simple. It's another matter when we talk about the varieties of this stylistic device. Although, as far as polynomial parallelism is concerned, usually there are no problems with its detection.

This subtype is characterized by the one-sided accumulation of several parallels that come simultaneously from several objects. That is, one character is taken and compared with a number of images at once. For example: “Don’t caress, O dove, with a dove; don’t get used to a blade of grass, O grass; don’t get used to a girl, well done.” That is, the reader already has three objects for comparison.

Such a one-sided increase in images suggests that parallelism gradually evolved, which gave the poet greater freedom of writing and the opportunity to demonstrate his analytical abilities.

That is why polynomial parallelism is called a relatively late phenomenon of folk poetic stylistics.

Single-Term Parallelism

Single-term psychological parallelism is aimed at developing imagery and strengthening its role in the work. This technique looks like this: Imagine the usual two-term construction, where the first part talks about the stars and the month, and in the second they are compared to the bride and groom. Now let’s remove the second part, leaving only the images of the stars and the month. Based on the content of the work, the reader will guess that we are talking about a girl and a boy, but there will be no mention of them in the text itself.

This omission is similar to formal parallelism, but unlike it, there will be no mention of the human characters who are meant. Therefore, here we can talk about the appearance of a symbol. Over the centuries, established allegorical images have appeared in folklore, which are identified with only one meaning. Such images are used in single-term parallelism.

For example, a falcon is identified with a young man, a groom. And often the works describe how a falcon fights with another bird, how he is kidnapped, how he leads the falcon down the aisle. There is no mention of people here, but we understand that we are talking about human relationships between a boy and a girl.

Parallelism negative

Let's proceed to the description of the last type, which can be psychological (given in the article). The negative constructions of our stylistic device are usually used to create riddles. For example: “It is roaring, not a bull, strong, not a rock.”

This construction is constructed as follows. First, the usual binomial or polynomial parallelism is created, and then the characterized image is removed from it and a negation is added. For example, instead of “roars like a bull” - “roars, not a bull.”

In Slavic folklore, this technique was especially popular and loved. Therefore, it can be found not only in riddles, but also in songs, fairy tales, etc. Later, it migrated into author’s literature, being used mainly in fairy tales and stylistic attempts to recreate folk poetry.

From a conceptual point of view, negative parallelism seems to distort the very formula of parallelism, which was created to bring images together, and not to separate them.

From folklore to author's literature

When did psychological parallelism migrate from folk poetry to classical literature?

This happened during the time of vagants, wandering musicians. Unlike their predecessors, they graduated from classical music and poetry schools, so they learned the basic image of a person, which was characterized by great abstraction. They lacked specificity and connection with reality. At the same time, like all traveling musicians, they were quite familiar with folklore. Therefore, they began to introduce its elements into their poetry. Comparisons with natural phenomena of the character’s character appeared, for example, winter and autumn - with sadness, and summer and spring - with fun. Of course, their experiments were rather primitive and far from perfect, but they laid the foundation for a new style, which later migrated to medieval literature.

Thus, in the 12th century, folk song techniques gradually began to intertwine with the classical tradition.

What is the function of similes, epithets and metaphors of psychological parallelism?

To begin with, it is worth saying that without metaphors and epithets there would be no parallelism itself, since this technique is completely based on them.

Both of these paths serve to transfer the attribute of one object to another. Actually, already in this function it is clear that without them it is impossible to compare nature with man. Metaphorical language is the writer’s main tool when creating parallelisms. And if we are talking about the function of these tropes, then it consists precisely in the transfer of characteristics.

Basic concepts (psychological parallelism) are associated with descriptions, so it is not surprising that metaphors and epithets occupy the main place among them. For example, let's take the epithet “the sun has set” and make parallelism out of it. We will succeed: just as the sun has set, so has the life of the clear falcon set. That is, the fading of the sun is compared to the fading of the life of a young man.

Psychological parallelism in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”

An excellent example of folk stylistic devices is the “Word”, since it itself is part of folklore. For example, let's take the main character Yaroslavna, since her image is associated with nature and is often compared with it. Let's take the episode of the heroine crying. One day she “at dawn calls with a lonely tap dance” - a parallelism between Yaroslavna and the bird.

Then you can remember the image of the narrator himself. His fingers, resting on the strings, are compared to ten falcons swooping down on doves.

And one more example: the retreat of the Galicians to the Don is described as “not a storm carried the falcons across the wide fields.” Here we see a pattern of negative parallelism.

For the first time: ZhMNP. 1898. No. 3. Part 216. Dept. 2. P. 1-80. Subsequent publications: Collection. op. T. 1. P. 130-225; IP. pp. 125-199; Poetics. pp. 603-622. Printed according to: IP - with abbreviations.

As V.M. points out. Zhirmunsky, poets (I.V. Goethe, L. Uhland, A. von Chamisso) were the first to notice psychological parallelism in folk poetry. So Goethe in 1825 noted the “natural beginning” of Serbian songs: “Introductions are mostly descriptions of nature, moody landscapes or elemental things (Goethe I.V. Serbian songs Ts Goethe I.V. About art. M., 1975. P. 487). This phenomenon has become the object of research by a number of scientists - V. Scherer (see note 8 to article 1), G. Mayer, O. Bekkel; in: the 80s of the last century, “natural origin” was at the center of controversy between opponents (V. Wilmans) and supporters (K. Burdakh, A. Berger, etc.) of the theory of the origin of medieval lyrics from folk songs. A.N. Veselovsky “deepens the problem of psychological parallelism in two directions: he reveals its cognitive content associated with primitive animism, and considers it as a source of folk poetic imagery.” He first addressed this problem back in the 80s (see: Notes / Academy of Sciences. 1880. T. 37. P. 196-219: Appendix No. 4; ZhMNP. 1886. March. Part 244. P. 192-195; Collected works T. 5. P. 24-25; IP. P. 401 et seq.).- See: IP. pp. 623-624. In the latest scientific literature, the development of the ideas that formed the basis of this work by A.N. Veselovsky, who B.M. Engelhard called it “brilliant” (see: Engelhardt B.M. Alexander Nikolaevich Veselovsky. Pg., 1924. P. 108.), in particular, the following works appeared: Jacobson P.O. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects // Jacobson P.O. Works on poetics / Vsgup. Art. Vyach. Sun. Ivanova; Comp. and general ed. M.L. Gasparova, M., 1987. P. 99-132 (see here for bibliography of the issue); Fox J.J. Roman Jakobson and the comparative study of parallelism // Jakobson R. Echoes of his scholarship. Lisse, 1977. P. 59-70; Lotman Yu.M. Analysis of poetic text. L., 1972. S. 39-44, 89-92; BoevskyB. C. The problem of psychological parallelism // Siberian folklore. Novosibirsk, 1977. Issue. 4. P. 57 - 75; Broitman S.N. The problem of dialogue in Russian lyrics of the first half of the 19th century. Makhachkala, 1983.

1 Wed. at A.A. Potebny: “The initial state of consciousness is complete indifference between I and not me. The process of objectification of objects can be otherwise called the process of forming a view of the world.<...>It is obvious, for example, that when the world existed for humanity only as a series of living, more or less humanoid creatures, when in the eyes of man the luminaries walked across the sky not due to the mechanical laws governing them, but guided by their own considerations, it is obvious that then man emphasized less himself from the world, that his world was more subjective, that thereby its composition I was different than now" (Potebnya AL. Thought and language // Potebnya A.A. Aesthetics and poetics / Comp., intro. art., bibliographer, note. I.V. Ivano, A.I. Kolodnoy. M., 1976. pp. 170-171).

2 Animistic worldview(from Latin anima - soul, spirit) - archaic religious ideas about spirits and the soul, accordingly with which the transfer of human properties to natural phenomena was carried out. - See, for example: Fraser D.D. Golden branch. pp. 112-118. The term “animism” was introduced into ethnographic science by E.B. Taylor, who considered belief in spirits separable from the body to be the basis for the emergence of religion. Animistic ideas are inherent in every religious consciousness.

3 These ideas were subsequently developed by V.Ya. Propp in his work “Morphology of a Fairy Tale” (L., 1928; M., 1969), which laid the foundation for the structural study of folklore in Soviet and world science, including through the construction of appropriate models on computers; this entire area of research, ultimately going back to the thoughts of A.N. Veselovsky, is now rightfully considered the most developed in the entire set of modern scientific disciplines that study text (including literary, in particular folklore) with precise methods.

Various fairy-tale characters and motifs were reviewed and classified by V.Ya. Propp from the point of view of their functions, as a result of which “on the basis of action” it turned out to be possible to combine heterogeneous motives and characters. Perhaps partly thanks to this work of V.Ya. Propp ideas of A.N. Veselovsky became known to foreign scientists of the second half of the 20th century. (see for example: Lévi-StraussK. Structure and form: Reflections on one work of Vladimir Propp // Foreign studies on the semiotics of folklore / Comp. EAT. Meletinsky, S.Yu. Neklyudov; Per. T.V. Tsivyan. M., 1985. P. 9-34.

V.B. Shklovsky noted, referring to the statements of A.N. Veselovsky in lectures on the history of lyrics (see: IP. pp. 400-402), attempts to “sharply distinguish between psychological and tautological parallelism. Concurrency type:

Elinochka is cheerful in winter and summer,

Our Malanka is very cheerful -

is, according to A.N. Veselovsky, an echo of totemism and the time when individual tribes considered trees to be their forefathers. Veselovsky thinks that if a singer compares a man and a tree, then he confuses them or his grandmother confused them.” - Cm.: Shklovsky V.B. About the theory of prose. P. 30.

Trees, just for you,

And for your beautiful eyes,

I'm living in the world for the first time,

Looking at you and your beauty.

I often think - God

Your living paint with a brush

Took it from my heart

And transferred to your leaves<…>

- Pasternak B. Favorites: In 2 volumes / Compiled, prepared. text, comment. E.V. Pasternak, E.B. Pasternak. M., 1985. T. 2. P. 419.

4 As B.C. points out. Baevsky, A.N. Veseloesky “caught the existing features of ancient artistic thinking: man had already isolated himself from nature (before this, no creativity, obviously, was possible<...>; man does not yet oppose himself to nature; and man does not think of himself outside of nature. The subjective principle is opposed to nature, which is mastered by the mind and aesthetic sense of man as an objective principle. Psychological parallelism develops from the dialectical contradiction between object and subject, when the opposition between the objective and the subjective is clarified, and the consciousness of the connection between them is sharpened. Psychological parallelism serves as an aesthetic solution to this fundamental dialectical contradiction. Consciousness develops through interiorization of the objective world. The antinomy of the objective/subjective on the philosophical plane corresponds to psychological parallelism (the antinomic relationship between man and nature) on the aesthetic plane.” (BaevskyB. C. The problem of psychological parallelism. P. 59).

5 Apologist(from the gr. απόλογος - parable, story) - a short prose or poetic allegorical and moralizing work.

6 See note. 32 to Art. 3.

7 See the Russian translation of this drapery by S.V. Petrova: Poetry of the skalds. P. 46.

8 Wed. from Potebnya: “To understand our own and external nature, it is not at all indifferent to how this nature appears to us, through what kind of comparisons its individual elements became perceptible to the mind, how true these comparisons themselves are for us<...>science in its present form could not exist if, for example, comparisons of mental movements with fire, water, air, the whole person with a plant, etc., which left a clear trace in the language, did not receive for us the meaning of only rhetorical embellishments or were not forgotten completely...” - See: Potebnya A.A. Thought and language. P. 171.

9 In modern science, “the question of the relationship between mythology and religion is not easily resolved<...>. Primitive mythology, although it was in close connection with religion, was by no means reduced to it. Being a system of primitive worldview, mythology included, as an undivided, syncretic unity, the beginnings of not only religion, but also philosophy, political theories, pre-scientific ideas about the world and man, and also - due to the unconsciously artistic nature of myth-making, the specifics of mythological thinking and language (metaphorical, translation of general ideas in a sensually concrete form, i.e. imagery) - and various forms of art, primarily verbal” (Tokarev S.A., Meletinsky E.M. Mythology // Myths of the peoples of the world. T. 1. P. 14). To a large extent, mythology included elements of pre-science (in particular, “hypotheses” expressed in figurative language about the origin of the world, man, and material culture). In recent years, the attention of many researchers has again focused on the reflection in myths and the real history of the corresponding peoples (A.N. Veselovsky has already partially touched upon these problems, for example, in his studies of the Icelandic sagas, which anticipated modern work in this area).

10 We are talking about the so-called anthropogonic myths, i.e. myths about the origin (creation) of man. - See about this: Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Anthropogonic myths // Myths of the peoples of the world. T. 1. pp. 87-89.

11 See more about this: Toporov V.N. Animals // Myths of the peoples of the world.

T. 1. P. 440-449; him. Plants // Myths of the peoples of the world. T. 2. P. 368-371; Fraser D.D. Golden branch. 2nd ed. M., 1986. P. 110-121, 418-449, etc. P. 105

12 Eilhart von Oberg(Oberge) - German poet of the 12th century, author of a poetic adaptation (1180) of the French novel about Tristan and Isolde. Other monuments that reflected this legend in literature are collected in: The Legend of Tristan and Isolde / Ed. prepared HELL. Mikhailov. M., 1976. (LP).

13 Abelard Pierre (1079-1142) - French philosopher and poet. The drama of his love was reflected in correspondence (1132-1135) with his beloved Eloise, became the basis of legends about the power of feeling that overcomes separation. In Russian language cm.: Abelar P. The story of my disasters. M., 1959.

14 Hamadryad(from gr. γάμος - marriage and δρυάδα - dryad, forest nymph) - in Greek mythology, a nymph of a tree, born and dies with it.

15 Macrocosm(or macrocosm; gr. μακρόκοσμος) lit.: big world, universe. In the light of the most ancient natural philosophical concepts, man was understood as a microcosm (μακρόκοσμος - small world), co-natural with the macrocosm and built by analogy with it, equally holistic and complete. It could “be understood only within the framework of the parallelism of the “small” and “large” universe, but if all the main features of the universe can be found in a person, then nature is thought of in human form, thus the structure of the universe and the structure of man are understood as analogous, related . - Cm.: Gurevich A.Ya. Categories of medieval culture. M., 1972. S. 52-55. The presence of this natural philosophical concept can be traced throughout many changing eras of cultural development - in Vedic mythology and ancient philosophy, in Greek patristics and medieval mystical teachings, in the humanistic thought of the Renaissance and in occultism. If the science of the 17th-18th centuries. ideas about the parallelism of the micro- and macrocosm were recognized as untenable, this did not mean their final exclusion from the development of human thought: in one form or another they are revived in the concepts of European thinkers of later eras (Herder, Goethe, romantics).

16 Wed. about it: Afanasyev A.N. Poetic views of the Slavs on nature: Experience in a comparative study of Slavic legends and beliefs in connection with the mythical tales of other related peoples. M., 1866 - 1869. T. 1-3. (See the modern abridged reprint of this work: Afanasyev A.N. Tree of Life / Entry. Art. B.P. Kirdana; Comment. Yu.M. Medvedeva, M., 1982.) Considering myth as the most ancient poetry, Afanasyev considered the “primordial word” the embryo of a mythical legend [T. 1. P. 15; compare: Potebnya A.A. From notes on the theory of literature // Potebnya A.A. Aesthetics and poetics. pp. 429-448. According to Potebnya, myth (understood as the simplest formula, a mythical representation, and as its further development, a mythical legend) “belongs to the field of poetry in the broad sense of the word. Like any poetic work, it a) is the answer to a well-known question of thought<…>; b) consists of an image and a meaning, the connection between which is not proven, as in science, but is directly convincing, taken on faith; c) considered as a result<…>myth is originally a verbal work, i.e. always precedes in time the pictorial or plastic depiction of a mythical image.” - P. 432].

17 Quintilian Marcus Fabius (c. 35 - c. 96) - Roman orator, theorist of eloquence. Veselovsky here refers to his work “Twelve Books of Rhetorical Instructions” (St. Petersburg, 1834. Parts 1-2).

18 Huysmans Georges Karl (present, name - Charles Marie Georges; 1848-1907) is a French writer whose work is characterized by a desire for “spiritualistic naturalism.” - See: Huysmans J.K. Poly. collection op. M., 1912. T. 1-3.

19 See note. 20 to st. 4.

20 Recognizing the need to carefully distinguish “serial parallelism used to construct successive lines” from “single similes that convey the theme of lyrical songs,” P.O. Yakobson saw in this demarcation among A.N. Veselovsky “a series of inconsistencies. Although figurative comparisons of pictures of nature and human life are quite common for poetic models of sequential parallelism, Veselovsky considers each such parallel as a typical example of the meaningful”, i.e. psychological, parallelism. - Cm.: Jacobson P.O. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects. P. 122. See also note. 24.

21 Example from “Divinations of the Völva”, the most famous of the songs of the Elder Edda. In the modern Russian translation by A.I. Korsun this place sounds like this:

The sun didn't know

where is his house

the stars did not know

where should they shine?

I didn't know for a month

of his power.

Elder Edda. P. 9. The quoted 5th stanza is interpreted as a description of the summer polar night: the sun rolls along the horizon, as if not knowing where to set, and the stars and the moon do not shine at full strength. - Elder Edda. P. 216: Commentary.

22 “Callimachus and Chrysorrhoia”- a Byzantine poetic novel of the 14th century, the alleged author of which was Andronikos Komnenos, cousin of Emperor Andronikos II. The only surviving manuscript of the novel (in Leiden) dates from 1310 - 1340. Fragments of this novel in Russian translation by F.A. Petrovsky published in: Monuments of Byzantine literature. M., 1969. pp. 387-398.

23 Symbolism of the rose in antiquity, the Christian Middle Ages, and folk poetry A.N. Veselovsky dedicated a separate work, “From the Poetics of the Rose,” written in the same year, 1898, as “Psychological Parallelism...” (published: Hello. Artistic and Literary Collection. St. Petersburg, 1898. pp. 1-5; Veselovsky A.N. Selected articles. pp. 132-139). What A.N. Veselovsky called the “capacity of the image”, provided the international character of the literary symbol of the rose, which is known to both Greek and Roman literature, formed the basis of the allegorical constructions of the famous medieval “Roman of the Rose” (XIII century) by Guillaume de Lorris and Jean Clopinel de Maine, was used in Christian literature (“divine rose” - Christ). In modern fiction, dedicated to the reconstruction of human psychology in the Middle Ages, the symbolism of the rose plays a key role in the construction of the lyrical plot of the novel “The Name of the Rose” by the Italian writer and scientist Umberto Eco. (Eco U. Il nome della rosa. Milano, 1980; rus. lane E.A. Kospokovich in: Foreign. literature. 1988. No. 8-10).

24 P.O. Jacobson objects to this assessment of the weakening of correspondences between

between the details of parallels as the decline and decomposition of initially meaningful parallelism, against “the preconceived idea of the genetic relationship of these two types of parallelism.” - Cm.: Jacobson P.O. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects. P. 122. See also note. 20.

25 Regarding this example, P.O. Yakobson notes that it could become a vivid illustration of metaphorical parallelism, and not at all “musical-rhythmic balancing”, as in A.N. Veselovsky, if the scientist had applied here his “insightful criterion” of comparison on the basis of action. According to Jacobson, “parallelistic comparison is determined not so much by the participants in the process as by their syntactically expressed relationships. The above Chuvash song serves as a warning regarding the underestimation of latent correspondences; in the topology of parallelistic transformations, invariants hidden from view behind variants lying on the surface occupy an important place” (See: Jacobson P.O. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects. pp. 122-123).

26 Riche Edward(1792-1834) - French writer, follower of Swedenborg.

27 Musset Alfred de (1810-1857) - French writer, poet, playwright - See: Musset A. Selected works / Intro. Art. M.S. Treskunova. M., 1957. T. 1-2.

28 A.N. Veselovsky points here to a problem that later found itself in the center of attention as artists of words (cf., for example, the idea of \u200b\u200b“abstruse language” by V. Khlebnikov, the search for futurists: Kruchenykh A., Khlebnikov V. The word as such. M., 1913, etc.), and researchers of verbal art (Shklovsky V.B. Resurrection of the word. Pg., 1914; Collections on the theory of poetic language. Pg., 1916. Issue. 1; 1917. Issue. 2; Poetics: Collection on the theory of poetic language. Pg., 1919; works by R.O. Jacobson).

29 The idea of primacy and dominance of the rhythmic-musical component compared to the verbal one in the early stages of the development of poetry raises objections in modern science. Among the weak links in the theory of A.N. Veselovsky today includes “the idea of the absolute dominance of the rhythmic-melodic principle over the text in primitive syncretism,” the absolutization of the formal syncretism of art forms and the underestimation of the ideological syncretism of primitive culture, the dominant of which was myth. Modern science recognizes that primitive poetry was not an unsophisticated expression of personal impressions or emotions, or even a spontaneous self-expression of “collective subjectivism,” as Veselovsky believed. It was a purposeful activity based on belief in the magical power of the word, therefore the textual component of the ritual, “even when it consisted of one word or was transmitted in a poorly understood archaic language,<...>had a huge magical, sacred and purely meaningful load, often due to symbolic associations.” - Cm.: Meletinsky E.M. Introduction to the historical poetics of epic and novel. P. 6. At the same time, on the basis of modern neuropsychological data, a hypothesis is put forward that the earliest systems for transmitting information (not only artistic, but also mythological, legal and other texts) in ancient society were based on combining the musical side with the verbal, and For memorization, music was initially of greater importance. - Cm.: Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Even and odd. Asymmetry of the brain and sign

kovy systems. M., 1978; compare: him. Essays on the history of semiotics in the USSR. pp. 33-34.

30 See note. 40 to st. 4. Wed. also: Epics / Intro. art., prepared, note. B.N. Putilova. L., 1986. (BP); Skaftymov A.P. Poetics and genesis of epics. M.; Saratov, 1924.

31 For the relationship between the chorus and the main text of northern ballads, see: Steblin-Kamensky M.I. Ballad in Scandinavia // Scandinavian ballad / Ed. prepared G.V. Voronkova, Ign. Ivanovsky, M.I. Steblin-Kamensky. L., 1978. S. 222-223.

32 Snatch - an ancient ritual of forcibly abducting a bride, one of the earliest forms of marriage.

33 See note. 21 to Art. 4.

34 Christina de Pizan(c. 1364-1430?) - French poetess, author of a large number of lyrical works, rondos, ballads, didactic teachings, biographies of historical figures, poems about Joan of Arc.

35 The complex problem of the origin of modern European lyrics and its origins is a constant subject of discussion in the scientific literature. Compare: Dronke P. Medieval Latin and the rise of European love-lyric. Oxford, 1965. An important place in this discussion is occupied by the technique of parallelism: “Rhythmic-syntactic parallelism underlies the poetic form of many peoples (Finno-Ugric, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu, in ancient Semitic poetry, for example parallelismus membrorum of the Old Testament psalms, etc. )". Folk quatrains are ubiquitous - a universal genre built on the open A.N. Veselovsky “psychological parallelism” between natural phenomena and the emotional experiences of a person or the events of his life. From a comparative typological and genetic perspective, this is the oldest genre of love lyrics in general. A.N. Veselovsky and his school (V.F. Shishmarev, A.A. Smirnov and others) looked for in these quatrains the folk origins of medieval knightly love poetry of the Provençal troubadours and German minnesingers; the traditional “natural beginning” of both testified to these connections. - Cm.: Zhirmunsky V.M. Turkic heroic epic. L., 1974. P. 652.

36 Vagantas(from Lat. vagatio - wandering, wandering, wandering) - medieval Latin poets, wandering clerics or scholars of the 12th-13th centuries, who worked in satirical and lyrical genres, combining scholarship gleaned from early European universities and a humorous, “carnival” beginning . The sources of their lyrics were ancient and Christian culture, as well as folk songs. - Cm.: GasparovM. JI. Poetry of the Vagants // Poetry of the Vagants / Ed. prepared M.L. Gasparov. M., 1975. (LP). pp. 425-430.

37 Minnesang (minnesang) - German courtly poetry of the 12th-14th centuries. About its creators - the Minnesingers, see note. 17 to Art. 2. In Minnesang there were two movements: actually courtly and folk. Here A.N. Veselovsky speaks of an early movement in the German Minnesang, which gravitated not to the tradition of troubadours with its exquisite form, the cult of the beautiful lady, but to the poetics of German folk songs, often “women’s”, going back to the ancient folk tradition. - Cm.: Purishev B.N. Lyric poetry of the Middle Ages // Troubadour poetry. Poetry of the Minnesingers. Poetry of the Vagants. pp. 19-20.

38 This refers to the following passage from Wolfram von Eschenbach’s song (see note 36 to v. 1):

Filled with dew

Pure shine and sparkle,

Flowers are renewed.

The forest choir sings in the spring,

To lull you to sleep with a song

All chicks before dark.

Only the nightingale will not fall asleep:

I'm on guard again

At night with your song.

Poetry of the Troubadours. Poetry of the Minnesingers. Poetry of the Vagants. P. 314: Per. N. Grebelnoy.

39 “Parcival”>(or “Perceval”) - probably refers to the novel by the French trouvère of the 12th century. Chretien de Troyes, written on the theme of the tale of the Grail. This novel, unfinished by Chrétien, was repeatedly written and rewritten in France, both by anonymous authors and by those known by name (for example, Robert de Boron). For the German version of the novel, see note. 36 to Art. 1. - See: Mikhailov A.D. French chivalric novel. M., 1976; Weston J.L. From ritual to romance. London, 1957.

40 Insightful foresight of A.N. Veselovsky found its embodiment and development in later scientific research. Wed. the mentioned works of M. Parry and A. Lord (note 1 to article 4), E.R. Curtius (note 44 to article 1); Lechner J.M. Renaissance concepts of common places, N.Y., 1962; Propp V.Ya. Morphology of a fairy tale. 2nd ed. M., 1969; Grintser P.A. Ancient Indian epic: Genesis and typology. M., 1974.

41 One of the genres of Sumerian literature that developed in Mesopotamia at the end of the State University - the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Sumerian spells were directed against evil demons that caused disease, and included spell formulas associated with the ritual of the god Enki. - See: Literature of Sumer and Babylonia / Intro. art., comp. V. Afanasyeva; Per. V. Afanasyeva, I. Dyakonova, V. Shileiko // Poetry and prose of the Ancient East / Ed. and entry Art. I. Braginsky. M., 1973. (BVL). pp. 115-165, 672-673; Shoots of eternity / Intro. Art. Vyach. Sun. Ivanova. M., 1987.

42 It is noteworthy that these observations, as well as other works of A.N. Veselovsky, addressed by A.A. Blok, preparing the article “Poetry of Spells and Spells” (published in: History of Russian Literature / Edited by E. Anichkov and D. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky. M., 1908. T. 1; Blok A.A. Collection Op.: In 8 vol. M.; L., 1962. T. 5. P. 36-65).

43 In the manuscript of the Merseburg Cathedral, two texts from the 10th century containing incantations were preserved. Perhaps in the mentioned A.N. Veselov’s conspiracy involves not three, as he believes, but two pagan gods - Pfohl, the god of spring, and Wodan (Odin) - the god of storm and battle, while Balder (Baldr) is one of the names of Pfohl. - Wed: Meletinsky EM. Balder // Myths of the peoples of the world. T. 1. P. 159-160; him. One // Ibid. T. 2. P. 241-243; Dumezil J. Supreme gods of the Indo-Europeans / Trans. T.V. Tsivyan. M., 1986. S. 137-152; Toporov V.N. Toward the reconstruction of Indo-European ritual and ritual-poetic formulas (based on conspiracies) // Works on sign systems. IV. Tartu, 1969; Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. T. II. P. 833.

44 Longinus(or Loggan) - the centurion of the guard during the execution of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; Luke 23:47), after the resurrection of Jesus, he believed in him, was baptized and suffered martyrdom under the emperor Tiberius.

45 See note. 25 to st. 3.

46 See: Serbian folk songs and fairy tales from the collection of Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic / From article, preface. and note. Yu.I. Smirnova. M., 1987.

47 Anacreon(or Anacreon; c. 540 - 478 BC) - an ancient Greek poet who sang the joys of life, to whose tradition the “Anacreontic)” lyrics of the 15th-19th centuries go back. Here A.N. Veselovsky has in mind the following text: Young mare, Honor of the Caucasian brand, Why are you rushing, daring one? And your time has come; Don’t glance with a timid eye, Don’t throw swords into the air, Don’t gallop willfully in a smooth and wide field...

Ancient lyrics / Comp. and note. S. Apt, Y. Schultz. M., 1968. (BVL). pp. 73-74: Per. A.S. Pushkin.

48 “ Minne- Fatkner”, (German; lit.: falconry love) is a 19th-century German allegorical poem depicting love in the form of falconry. Wed. also Kürenberg’s songs “This falcon is clear...”, “Just lure the woman and the falcon!” and Heinrich von Mügeln “The lady said: “The clear falcon...” - See: Poetry of the Troubadours. Poetry of the Minnesingers. Poetry of the Vagants. pp. 186,187, 405.

49 Pascha Rosantm (lat.) - Easter of Roses, a religious holiday celebrated by the Jews in honor of the giving of the law to them on Mount Sinai on the 50th day after Easter. Since the Holy Spirit descended on the apostles during Pentecost, this holiday passed into Christianity. Other names are the holiday of the Holy Spirit, the Holy Trinity. According to custom, temples and houses of believers are decorated with flowers at this time.

50 See: Dante Alighieri. The Divine Comedy. P. 449 (Paradise. XXX, 115-129). pp. 141 51 Selam - floral greeting, allegorical “language of flowers” in the countries of the Muslim East.

52 See note. 14.

53 Wed: Vygotsky L.S. Psychology of art. pp. 115-186,515.

54 E.M. Meletinsky notes from A.N. Veselovsky underestimates myth, pointing out: “Psychological parallelism was also undoubtedly not only formed according to the laws of mythological thinking, but was largely based on existing mythological ideas, perhaps already fixed by “legend.” - Cm.: Meletinsky E.M.“Historical Poetics” A.N. Veselovsky and the problem of the origin of narrative literature. P. 34. Compare: Golosovker Ya.E. The logic of myth. M., 1987.

55 Aristotle, Poetics. 1457b 30 - 32 // Aristotle and ancient literature. P. 148.

56 Aristotle. Rhetoric. 1412b 11 - 14 // Ibid. pp. 202-203.

57 See: Aristotle. Poetics. 1457b 19 - 25 // Ibid. pp. 147-148.

58 cm, note. 30 to st. 3.

59 in the newest Russian translation by S.S. Averintsev’s passage goes like this: “Excellent metaphors can be taken from well-written riddles; for metaphors contain a mystery.” - Aristotle. Rhetoric. 1405b // Aristotle and ancient literature. P. 174.

60 “Comparison, as was said earlier, is the same metaphor, but differs in the addition<вводящего слова>; therefore it is not so pleasant, because it is longer; and she does not claim that “that is this”, and<наш>the mind does not seek this.” - Aristotle. Rhetoric.1410 b 3 - 4 // Ibid. P. 194.

61 “And comparison (εικών) is a kind of metaphor; they differ slightly. After all, if someone says about Achilles (“Iliad.” XX, 164): Like a lion, he stood up... - this is a comparison, and if “the lion stood out” is a metaphor; since both are brave, he would transfer the name of a lion to Achilles.” - Aristotle. Rhetoric. 1406 b 1 - 2 // Ibid. P. 179.

62 McPherson James (1736-1796) was a Scottish writer whose interest in folk epic resulted in the famous literary hoax - the publication of The Works of Ossian (1765), the legendary Celtic bard of the 3rd century, allegedly found and translated by Macpherson. To the features of MacPherson’s style that A.N. is referring to here. Veseloesky, refers to the lack of connection between the constituent parts of the whole, often united by thematic or structural parallelism, the abundance of stylistic cliches and their indispensable connection with nature. - Cm.: Levin Yu.D.“The Poems of Ossian” by James Macpherson // McPherson J. Poems of Ossian / Ed. prepared Yu.D. Levin. L., 1983. (LP). pp. 470-471.

Chateaubriand Francois Rene de (1768-1848) - French writer, whose sentimental and romantic work was influenced by Macpherson's Ossianic poetics.

63 Retardatio, retardation is a compositional technique based on conscious pushing back, distance, or delay of a plot event due to the introduction of a description or situational complications that slow down the action. - Wed: Shklovsky V.B. About the theory of prose. pp. 28-35.

64 Song of Roland. P. 83: Per. Yu. Korneeva.

65 It should be noted that some modern folklorists tend to study folklore works in their entirety, and accordingly - “not the history of poetic techniques (cf. the classic works of A.N. Veselovsky “From the history of the epithet”, “Psychological parallelism and its forms in the reflection of poetic style ”, etc.), but the aesthetic attitude of works of different stages to reality. In other words, a question of a completely different scope and content is being taken up.<...>. The traditional question about the properties of this or that poetic phenomenon is transformed into a question about the extent and intensity of its qualitative manifestations.” The material studied by the group for the study of folk poetic creativity (IMLI named after A.M. Gorky of the USSR Academy of Sciences) showed how complex the problem of parallelism is, extremely important for historical poetics: “It could be assumed that the juxtaposition of images (in particular, the parallel of man - nature) will be original. In any case, this idea was developed by A.N. Veselovsky, A.A. Potebney, etc. However, the data from the material involved makes us think that this is not entirely true”; in stages

earlier texts presented “not parallelism, but a sequence of actions and enumerations, a cumulative, descriptive way of representation,” therefore the staged state, the materials of which Veselovsky used, seems to be a new, evolutionarily subsequent quality. - Cm.: Alieva A.I., Astafieva L.A., Gatsak V.M., Kardan B.P., Pukhov I.V. Experience of a systematic analytical study of the historical poetics of folk songs // Folklore: Poetic system. M., 1977. S. 42-43, 86-87.

In turn, B.M. Sokolov points out the need to take a restrictive approach to assessing the dominance of psychological parallelism over other techniques, because in Russian folk song lyrics only a fifth of the songs are formed through it. - Cm.: Sokolov B.M. To the study of the poetics of folk songs // Folklore: Poetic system. P. 302.

66 Detritus(Latin detritus - worn out) - a collection of elements of different origins, belonging to different eras, rudiments of a once disintegrated unity.

67 In Russian free translation by M.Yu. Lermontov's poem from 1780. entitled “From Goethe.”

68 Verlaine Paul (1844-1896) - French poet, literary critic, one of the founders of symbolism. - Cm.: Verlen P. Lyrics / Comp., preface. and note. E. Etkind. M., 1969.

69 Lendu N. The sadness of heaven // From European poets of the 16th - 19th centuries / Trans. B. Levika. M., 1956. P. 421.

70 “Pigeon Book” - a spiritual verse about a wise (“deep”) book containing information about the origin of the world, animals, etc. A spiritual verse about the Dove Book, preserved in several versions, arose on the basis of apocryphal legends. One of the published options. in: Collection of Kirsha Danilov. 2nd ed. / Ed. prepared A.P. Evgenieva, B.N. Putilov, M., 1977. (LP). pp. 208-213. At the same time, traces of a very ancient mythological heritage (Indo-European or reflecting ancient Indian-Old Slavic connections) are also found in the “Dove Book”. -Cm.: Toporov V.N. Introduction // Dhammapada / Trans., intro. and comment. V.N. Toporova. M., 1960; Toporov V.N.“The Dove Book” and “To the Flesh”: The composition of the world and its disintegration // Ethnolinguistics of the text. Semiotics of small forms of folklore. 1. M., 1988. S. 169-172; Arkhipov A.A. On the interpretation of the title “Pigeon Book” // Ethnolinguistics of the text. pp. 174-177.

71 Wordsworth William (Wardsworth, 1770-1850) - English romantic poet, one of the masters of the sonnet. - See: Poetry of English Romanticism in the 19th century. / Intro. Art. D. Urnova. M., 1975. S. 219-254.

72 Korolenko V.G. Collection Op.: V. 6t. M., 1971. T. 1. P. 59-60.

73 Rückert Friedrich (Rickert; 1788-1866) - German poet, author of the books “German Poems” (1814), “Songs about Dead Children” (1872); Gustav Mahler wrote music for some of them. - See: Poetry of the German Romantics. pp. 333-341.

Wolf Julius(1834 - 1910) - German writer, author of stories in verse on historical and fairy-tale themes (“The Pied Piper of Gammeln”, 1876, “The Wild Hunter”, 1877, etc.).

74 Garth Julius(Hart; 1859-1930) - German writer, critic, author of

the three-volume epic “Songs of Humanity” (1887 - 1906), lyrical collections, short stories, dramatic works.

75 “...Old age is to life as evening is to day, so we can call evening “old age of day”<...>, and old age is “the evening of life”, or “the sunset of life” (Aristotle. Poetics.1457 b 19 - b 25 // Aristotle and ancient literature. P. 148).

76 Rus. lane A. Geleskula see: Verlen P. Lyrics. P. 44.

77 Petrarch Francesco (1304-1374) - Italian poet, the founder of the humanistic culture of the Renaissance, who influenced new European poetry, giving rise to an entire literary movement - Petrarchism - in the poetry of many European countries in the 15th-16th centuries. A.N. Veselovsky dedicated his work, especially the “Book of Songs” (“Canzoniere”), which for a long time became a model in the development of European lyricism, and a separate work (1905) - “Petrarch in the poetic confession “Canzoniere”. 1304-1904.” This work has been repeatedly published (see: journal “Scientific Word”. 1905. Books 3, 5, 6; Collected works. T. IV. Issue 1. P. 483-604; separate edition - St. Petersburg, 1912) refers to the late period of scientific activity of A.N. Veselovsky. As noted in the comments to her last publication (Veselovsky A.N. Selected articles. P. 153-242) M.P. Alekseev, at this time Veselovsky’s scientific method noticeably leans towards psychologism, the problem of “personal initiative”, an individual contribution to the history of poetic style, begins to sound more acute. At the same time, Veselovsky has a long-standing interest in Petrarch, associated with his early work on the Italian Renaissance, with understanding the problem of personal emancipation in this era (Ibid. pp. 538-539). A work dedicated to Petrarch by A.N. Veselovsky has not lost its scientific significance even today; modern researchers of the life and work of the Italian poet certainly turn to it. For the latest Russian translation of “The Book of Songs” see: Petrarch F. Lyrics / Intro. art., comp. and note. N. Tomashevsky. M., 1980.

Rousseau Jean Jacques (1712-1778) - French philosopher, writer, composer. An original thinker, he had a significant influence with his multifaceted creativity on contemporary European thought, laying the foundation for “Rousseauism.” He was characterized by the “cult of nature” and the preaching of “natural man.” - Cm.: Rousseau J.J. Favorite cit.: In 3 vols. M., 1961; Lévi-Strauss K. Rousseau - the father of anthropology // UNESCO Courier. 1963. No. 3. P. 10-14.

78 Francis of Assisi(1181 or 1182-1226) - Italian religious figure and writer, founder of the monastic order, named after him Franciscan, canonized by the Catholic Church. Contrary to the medieval condemnation of nature, the understanding of Christianity as “the asceticism of fear and contrition,” Francis preached “asceticism of joy,” which did not require condemnation of nature, glorifying all its phenomena as the creations of God. The influence of the ideas of St. Francis is also found in the works of a number of representatives of art and literature of the 20th century. - See: Flowers of St. Francis of Assisi / Trans. A.P. Pechkovsky; Entry Art. S.N. Durylina. M., 1913, Boehmer H. Analecten zur Gesehichte des Franciscus von Assisi. Leipzig, 1904; Lambert M.D. Franciscan Poverty. Allenson, 1961.

79 Developing these ideas A.N. Veselovsky, B.C. Baevsky significantly expands the scope of psychological parallelism in literature, considering it “a remarkably capacious form of manifestation of poetic consciousness, associated with the past and image.”

committed to the future.” The scientist attributes psychological parallelism to the deep structures of the human psyche, explaining its universality by the stability of the genetic code. “The principle of psychological parallelism underlies the most important categories and means of the art of speech. This statement is true both genetically and structurally-typologically. Historically, psychological parallelism is the womb that gave birth to the main verbal artistic categories and means,” and therefore all of them can be ordered in relation to psychological parallelism as the center of the system and build a typology of artistic categories and means in the field of verbal art. - Cm.: BaevskyB. C. The problem of psychological parallelism. P. 63.

We involuntarily transfer to nature our self-awareness of life, expressed in movement, in the manifestation of force directed by the will; in those phenomena or objects in which movement was noticed, signs of energy, will, and life were once suspected. We call this worldview animistic; when applied to poetic style, and not to it alone, it would be more accurate to talk about parallelism. The point is not about identifying human life with natural life and not about comparison, which presupposes the consciousness of the separateness of the objects being compared, but about comparison on the basis of action, movement: a tree is frail, a girl bows, as in a Little Russian song. The idea of movement, action underlies the one-sided definitions of our word: the same roots correspond to the idea of intense movement, penetration of an arrow, sound and light; the concepts of struggle, torment, destruction are expressed in words such as mors, tag<...>, German Mahlen.

So, parallelism rests on the comparison of subject and object in the category of movement, action, as a sign of volitional life activity. The subjects, naturally, were animals; they most closely resembled humans: here are the distant psychological foundations of the animal apologist; but the plants also pointed to the same similarity: they were born and bloomed, turned green and bowed from the force of the wind. The sun also seemed to move, rise, set; the wind drove the clouds, lightning rushed, the fire engulfed, devoured the branches, etc. The inorganic, motionless world was involuntarily drawn into this string of parallelisms: it also lived<...>

The following pictures of nature belong to the usual, once figurative, but giving us the impression of abstract formulas: the landscape spreads across the plains, sometimes suddenly rising into a steep slope; a rainbow spread across the clearing; lightning rushes, a mountain range stretches in the distance; the village lies in the valley; the hills reach towards the sky. To stagger, to rush, to strive - all this is figurative, in the sense of the application of a conscious act to an inanimate object, and all this has become for us an experience that poetic language will revive, emphasizing the element of humanity, illuminating it in the main parallel.

Thus, in the Lusatian song, the lovers bequeath: “Bury us both there under the linden tree, plant two grapevines. The vines grew and bore many berries; they loved each other, intertwined together.” In Lithuanian lamentations the idea of identity was preserved fresher, not without hesitation: “My daughter, my bride, command; what leaves will you turn green, what flowers will you bloom! Alas, I planted strawberries on your grave!” Or: “Oh, if only you grew up and were planted as a tree!” Let us recall the custom indicated in the Babylonian Talmud: to plant cedar trees at the birth of a son.<...>tree.

<...>The more he (man - E.F.) got to know himself, the more the line between him and the surrounding nature became clear, and the idea of identity gave way to the idea of specialness. Ancient syncretism was removed before dismembering feats of knowledge: the equation lightning - bird, man - tree was replaced by comparisons: lightning is like a bird, a man is like a tree, etc., mors, mare, etc.<...>Further development of imagery took place in other ways.

The isolation of personality, the consciousness of its spiritual essence (in connection with the cult of ancestors) should have led to the fact that the vital forces of nature became isolated in fantasy, as something separate, life-like, personal; it is they who act, will, influence in the waters, forests and phenomena of the sky; Each tree has its own hamadryad, its life is connected with it, it feels pain when the tree is cut down, and it dies with it. So it is with the Greeks; Bastian encountered the same idea among the Oschibwas tribe; it exists in India, Annam, etc.

At the center of each set of parallels that gave content to the ancient myth, there became a special force, a deity: the concept of life is transferred to it, the features of the myth were drawn to it, some characterize its activity, others become its symbols.<...><...>The language of poetry continues the psychological process that began on prehistoric paths: it already uses the images of language and myth, their metaphors and symbols, but it also creates new ones in their likeness.<...>I will review some of his (parallelism - E.F.) poetic formulas.

I’ll start with the simplest, folk-poetic, with<...>binomial parallelism. Its general type is as follows: a picture of nature, next to it is the same from human life; they echo each other when there is a difference in objective content, consonances pass between them, clarifying what they have in common.<...>

<...>This kind of tautology made the image seem clearer; distributed over uniform rhythmic lines, it acted musically. Formulas of psychological parallelism, examples of which I give: 1.

A. The Big cherry was growing from top to root,

Kommersant Take a bow Marusya Through cmiA to my friend. 2.

A. Don't be sick, little one, you're still green,

Kommersant Don’t blame me, little Cossack, you’re still young. 3.

(That jackdaw flew from the green nut,

The jackdaw fell on the green pine tree, the wind blows, the pine tree is hit...). a.

Don't hesitate, pine, because that's not the way it is, b.

Don't complain, sweetly, because it's so less bitter,

Don’t be lowly, dumb and close to your family. 4.

A. Curly apple tree, where did it go?

Not immediately the apple tree scoffed,

Violent winds blew over the apple tree,

Violent winds, sporadic rain.

b. My dear Dunichka, where are you going?

No wiser, mother, you yourself know:

Sprinkled soap on our burners,

The light brown braid was so full. 5.

A. Green little duck

I will bow to the ground,

b. What about you, boy?

Single, not getting married? 6.

A. Oh, a white cobweb hung over the mud,

Kommersant Marusechka and Ivashechka understood, understood.

<...>I will only touch upon the phenomenon in passing<...>polynomial parallelism, developed from two-term parallelism by one-sided accumulation of parallels, obtained not from one object, but from several, similar ones. In the two-term formula, there is only one explanation: the tree is leaning towards the tree, the young man is clinging to his sweetheart, this formula can vary in versions of the same song: “The sun is not red (or rather: it has rolled up) - My husband has fallen ill”; instead of: “As the oak tree staggers in the polepole, as my dear one struggles”; or: “Like a blue, flammable stone, it burns up, and my dear friend gets crushed.” A polynomial formula brings these parallels together, multiplies explanations and together the materials of analysis, as if opening up the possibility of choice:

Don't let the grass tangle with the blade of grass,

Do not caress the dove with the dove,

Don't get used to the girl.

Not two, but three kinds of images, united by the concept of twisting, bringing together. So it is in our No. 3, although it is not so clear: the pine tree is frail from the wind, the jackdaw sitting on it is frail, and I am also frail, sad, because I am far from my own. Such a one-sided multiplication of objects in one part of the parallel indicates greater freedom of movement in their composition: parallelism became a stylistic and analytical device, and this should have led to a decrease in its imagery, to mixtures and transfers of all kinds.<...>

<...>If our explanation is correct, then polynomial parallelism belongs to the late phenomena of folk poetic stylistics<...>this is the same sign as the accumulation of epithets or comparisons in Homeric poems, like any pleonasm that dwells on the particulars of the situation<...>In one Northern Russian story, a recruit’s wife wants to go to the forest and mountains and to the blue sea to get rid of the grief; Pictures of forests and mountains and the sea surround her, but everything is colored by her sadness: the sadness cannot be avoided, and the affect expands in the descriptions:

And I’d rather go from the great steepness into the dark forests, burning, and dense...

And even though in these dark dense forests And there the trees stagger from the wind, And the trees bow down to the damp earth,

And even though these green leaves rustle,

And the birds are singing there, and they’re quite pitiful, And now my sadness doesn’t go away...

And I can stand on the hills and on the high ones And look at the forest above and across the sky, The clouds are coming and quietly,

And in the foggy oven this sun is red,

And I am sad, grieving, annoyed,

And now my sadness doesn’t go away...

And I should go from grief to the blue sea,

And to the blue one, to the glorious Onegushka...

And on the blue sea the water sways,

And the water became clouded with yellow sand,

And now the wave hits steeply and excessively,

And she hits this steep bank steeply,

And the wave crumbles over the pebbles,

And here my sadness doesn’t go away.

This is an epic Nastgetdapd, a polynomial formula of parallelism, developed into a patch: the widow is sad, the tree is bowing, the sun is clouded, the widow is annoyed, the waves are diverging, and the storm is diverging.

We said that polynomial parallelism tends to destroy imagery;<...>mononomial singles out and develops it, which determines its role in the isolation of certain stylistic formations. The simplest type of monomiality is the case when one of the terms of the parallel is silent, and the other is its indicator; this is pars pro toto; since in the parallel significant interest is given to the action of human life, which is illustrated by a rapprochement with some natural act, then the last member of the parallel stands for the whole.

The following Little Russian song represents a complete binary parallel: zorya (star) - month = girl - well done (bride - groom): a.

Sala dawn until the month:

Oh, a moment, comrade,

Don't come to me,

Let's get rid of both at once,

Let us sanctify heaven and earth... b.

Slala Marya to Ivanka:

Oh, Ivanka, msh contractions,

Don't go to jail,

On posuda rant mene, etc.

Let's discard the second part of the song (b), and the habit of well-known comparisons will suggest, instead of the month and the star, the bride and groom.<...>

In an Estonian wedding song, timed to coincide with the moment when the bride is hidden from the groom, and he is looking for her, it is sung about a bird, a duck that has gone into the bushes; but this duck “put on her shoes.” Either: the sun has set: the husband has died; Olonets lament:

The great desire rolled into the waters, desire, into the deep,

In the wild, dark forests, and in the dense forests,

For the mountains it is, desire, for the crowds.

<...>It was indicated above in what ways, from the convergences on which binary parallelism is built, those that we call symbols are selected and strengthened; their closest source were short one-term formulas in which the linden tree strives for the oak tree, the falcon leads the falcon with him, etc. They taught us to constant identification, brought up in the age-old song tradition; This element of legend distinguishes a symbol from an artificially selected allegorical image: the latter may be accurate, but is not extensible for new suggestiveness, because it does not rest on the basis of those consonances of nature and man on which folk-poetic parallelism is built. When these consonances appear or when the allegorical formula passes into the circulation of folk tradition, it can approach the life of the symbol: examples are offered by the history of Christian symbolism.

The symbol is extensible, just as the word is extensible for new revelations of thought. The falcon rushes at the bird and kidnaps it, but from another, silent member of the parallel, the rays of human relations fall onto the animal image, and the falcon leads the falcon to the wedding; in the Russian song the falcon is clear - the groom flies to the bride, sits on the window, “on the oak chin”; in the Moravian, he flew under the girl’s window, wounded, chopped up: this is her darling. The young falcon is groomed, cleaned up, and the parallelism is reflected in its fantastic decoration: in the Little Russian Duma the young falcon was taken into captivity; they entangled him there in silver shackles, and hung expensive pearls near his eyes. The old falcon found out about this, “the Tsar-City poured out upon the city,” “howled and howled pitifully.” The little falcon spun, the Turks took off its fetters and pearls to disperse its melancholy, and the old falcon took it on its wings and raised it to a height: it is better for us to fly across the field than to live in captivity. Falcon - Cossack, captivity - Turkish; the correspondence is not expressed, but it is implied; fetters were put on the falcon; they are silver, but you can’t fly away with them. A similar image is expressed in the double parallelism of one wedding song from the Pinsk region: “Why are you, falcon, flying low? - “My wings are lined with silk, my legs are lined with gold.” - “Why did you arrive late, Yasya? " - "The father is careless, he equipped his squad late."

<...>The riddle built around switching off turns us to one more type of parallelism that remains for us to dissect: negative parallelism. “Strong is not a rock, roars is not a bull,” says the Vedas; this can serve as an example of the same construction of parallelism, especially popular in Slavic folk poetry. The principle is this: a two-nomial or polynomial formula is set up, but one or some of them are eliminated in order to allow attention to focus on the one to which the negation does not extend; the formula begins with a negation or with a position, which is often introduced with a question mark.

It is not the white birch tree that bends down,

The not-tottering aspen began to make noise,

The good fellow is killed by the pain.

Like a white birch tree intertwined with a linden tree,

How, at the age of fifteen, a girl got used to a young man.

It’s not the birch tree that’s staggering,

Not curly curls,

How it staggers, twists,

Your young wife.

<...>

Why didn’t the linen turn white in the field?

The heroic rate turned white,

That it’s not the blue in the fields that has turned blue,

The damask swords turned blue.

<...>

Negative parallelism is found in Lithuanian and modern Greek songs, less often in German; in Little Russian it is less developed than in Great Russian. I distinguish from it those formulas where the negation falls not on the object or action, but on the quantitative or qualitative determinations accompanying them: not so much, not so, etc. So in the Iliad (XIV, 394), but in the form of comparison : “With such fury, a wave raised on the sea by a strong blow of the north wind does not roar, hitting the rocky shore; The flame does not howl like that, approaching with hissing tongues of fire; no hurricane<...>how loudly the voices of the Trojans and Danaans were heard when, with a terrible cry, they raged against each other.” Or in the VII sestina of Petrarch: “There are not so many animals hidden in the depths of the sea, not so many stars that a clear night sees above the circle of the month, not so many birds are found in the forest, not so many grains in a wet meadow, but how many thoughts come to me every evening.”

One can imagine reducing a two- or polynomial negative formula into a single-nomial one, although the negation should have made it difficult to suggest the silent term of the parallel: there would be no winds, but they blew (if there were no boyars, but they would come in large numbers): or in “The Tale of Igor’s Host”: no storm the falcons flew across the wide fields (the herds ran to the great Don). We have seen examples of negative monomial formulas in riddles.

<...>Comparison has not only taken possession of the stock of connections and symbols developed by the previous history of parallelism, but also develops along the paths indicated by it; old material has merged into a new form, other parallels fit into the comparison, and vice versa, there are also transitional types.<...>

<...>Metaphor and comparison gave content to some groups of epithets; with them we went around the entire circle of development of psychological parallelism, to the extent that it determined the material of our poetic vocabulary and its images. Not everything that was once alive and young has been preserved in its former brightness; our poetic language often gives the impression of detritus, phrases and epithets have faded, just as a word fades, the imagery of which is lost with an abstract understanding of its objective content. While the renewal of imagery and color remains among the pia desideria, the old forms still serve the poet, who seeks self-determination in the consonances or contradictions of nature; and the fuller his inner world, the subtler the echo, the more life the old forms tremble.

Goethe's "Mountain Peaks" are written in the forms of the folk binomial parallel:

Ber allen Gipfeln Ist Ruh,

In allen Wipfeln Sp?rest du Kaum einen Hauch.

Die V?gelein schweigen im Walde;

Warte nur, balde Ruhest du auch!

Other examples can be found in Heine, Lermontov, Verlaine, etc.; Lermontov’s “song” is a copy of the folk song, an imitation of its naive style:

A yellow leaf beats against a stem Before the storm,

The poor heart trembles before misfortune;

If the wind takes away my lonely leaf, will the siraya branch regret it? If fate destined a young man to fade away in a foreign land, will the fair maiden regret him?

A one-term metaphorical parallel, in which two-term images are mixed, a person and a flower, a tree, etc., is represented by Heine: “Ein Fichtenbaum stent einsam” and, for example, by Lenau:

Wie feierlich die Gegend schweigt!

Der Mond bescheint die alten Fichten,

Die sehnsuchtsvoll zum Tod geneigt Den Zweig zur?ck zur Erde richten.

Such images, which isolate human feeling in the forms of extra-human life, are well known in artistic poetry. In this direction, she can sometimes achieve the concreteness of a myth.

Lenau (Himmelsstrasse) has clouds of thoughts:

Am Himmelsantlitz wandert ein Gedanke,

Die d?stre Wolke dort, so bang, so schwer.

(Sk. Fofanov, “Small Poems”: “Clouds float like thoughts, Thoughts rush in clouds”). This is almost an anthropomorphism of the “Dove Book”: “our thoughts are from the clouds of heaven,” but with the content of personal consciousness. The day tears the veils of the night: the bird of prey tears the veil with its claws; in Wolfram von Eschenbach, all this merged into a picture of clouds and the day, piercing their darkness with its claws: Sine klawen durch die wolken sint geslagen. An image reminiscent of the mythical bird - lightning, demolishing heavenly fire; All that is missing is the moment of belief.

The Sun - Helios belongs to his anthropomorphic pore; poetry knows him in a new light. In Shakespeare (sonnet 48) the sun is the king, the ruler; at sunrise he proudly sends his greetings to the mountain heights, but when low-lying clouds distort his face, he darkens, turns his gaze away from the lost world and hurries towards the sunset, shrouded in shame. For Wordsworth, this is the conqueror of the dark night (Hail, orient conqueror of gloomy night). Let me also remind you of the image of the sun - the king in Korolenko’s excellent description of the sunrise (“Makar’s Dream”): “First of all, like the first beats of a mighty orchestra, several bright rays ran out from behind the horizon. They quickly ran across the sky and extinguished the bright stars.

And the stars went out and the moon set. And the snowy plain darkened. Then the mists rose above her and stood around the plain, like an honorary guard. And in one place, in the east, the fogs became lighter, like warriors dressed in gold. And then the mists began to sway, and the golden waves bent down. And from behind them the sun came out and stood on their golden ridges and looked around the plain. And the whole plain shone with an unprecedented, dazzling light. And the fogs solemnly rose in a huge round dance and broke in the west and, wavering, rushed upward. And Makar thought he heard a wonderful song. It was as if it was the same long-familiar song with which the earth greets the sun every time.”

Along with this, the most ancient ideas come to life in poetry, such as the sun as an eye, the face of God (for example, in the Vedas), etc. R?ckert talks about the golden tree of the sun (Bl?ht der Sonne goldner Baum), Julius Wolf about the trees of light - the rays of the rising sun, fanned out in the east; neither one nor the other knew or did not remember the myth about the solar or light tree, but they saw it themselves, this is the same figurative apperception of the phenomena of the external world that created the old myths. A golden, wide-winged falcon soars over its azure nest (Denn der goldne Falke, breiter Schwingen, ?berschwebet sein azurnes Nest): this is how one oriental song, retold by Goethe, depicts the sunrise. In Heine (Die Nordsee, 1-er Cyclus: Frieden) the sun is the heart of Christ, whose gigantic image walks across sea and land, blessing everything, while his flaming heart sends light and grace to the world.<...>

Somewhere in the distance one can hear the naive cantilena of our verse about the “Dove Book”: “Our bones are strong from stone, our blood-ore from the black sea, the red sun from the face of God, our thoughts from the clouds of heaven.”

The era of romanticism was marked, as we know, by the same archaistic renovations that we observe now. “Nature is filled with allegories and myths,” says Kepi regarding modern symbolists; the fairies have returned; they seemed to have died, but they only hid, and then they appeared again.”

Questions 1.

What is the basis of parallelism? 2.

Name the main types of parallelism. 3.

Does the “comparison” trope matter in development?

psychological parallelism? 4.

Explain what polynomial parallelism is? 5.

Give examples of negative parallelism.

Omri Ronen

Allegories*

In an essay on puns in the January issue of Zvezda, I briefly mentioned that Alexander Vvedensky, whose centenary we recently celebrated in Belgrade, built, among others, a topical poem in 1929, “Two Birds, Woe, a Lion,” on an absurd play on words and night". It resembles a fable in its title, and the deliberately instructive allegorical nature of the narrative, and the conclusion - with an obvious “moral” at the end:

Then both birds got scared, where we are running from fate, battles came, hostility and skirmishes and madness, the pillars grew up in the field with lean steam and it ended in a fire.

In recent months I have been rereading Vvedensky almost as often as Annensky. Their worlds touch like two rows tending to infinity, negative and positive. The Bottomless Star of Vvedensky - “The star of nonsense is burning / it is the only one without a bottom” - extends its rays to the One Star of Annensky, about which some say that it is death, others that it is Stella maris, others that it is poetry, others that it is an ideal, - because the meaning of the symbol in Annensky, as befits a real symbol, is inexhaustible:

Among the worlds, in the twinkling luminaries of the One Star, I repeat the name...

Not because I loved her,

But because I languish with others.

And if doubt is hard for me,

I am looking to Her alone for an answer,

Not because it’s light from Her,

But because there is no need for light with Her.

So Annensky translated Sully-Prudhomme’s poem “The Ideal” into the language of symbols, which he himself translated into Russian:

The heights are ghostly. The moon burns with its copper armor Among the bright stars and gentle planets. And here, on the pale field, I am full of dreams about the one who does not exist;

I am full of dreams about the one whose diamond tear is invisible to us behind the fog,

But whose ray, the promised land,

Other people's eyes will be saturated.

When paler and purer than the stars of the ether She rises among the luminaries alien to her, -

Let one of you, the last of the world, Tell her that I loved her.

Whoever takes the time to compare the translation with the original will see that Annensky does not have the “soul of the world” and the light that is already on the way, but his star is not only a distant and therefore not yet visible Sully-Prudhomme star, but something alien to others to the stars, perhaps not a star at all, but a diamond tear of the ideal’s pity for the world, which will become visible before its end.

In the final verses of the play “God is Possible All Around,” when “the world has been slaughtered” and the bottomless “star of nonsense” lights up,

The dead gentleman bets and silently deletes time.

My main methodological premise when reading Vvedensky and Kharms, in comparison, for example, with the difficult poems of the Acmeists, is the position that Oberiu’s poetics puts forward as artistic value the destruction or compromise of subject-referential or literary-historical ones recognizable in a diachronic cultural perspective meanings, while Acmeism aimed at their new construction459. Acmeists decipher the subtext to determine what the poem is written about and what it means. But if the Oberiuts destroy meaning, then why are we looking for their hidden, coded meaning? Isn’t it redundant in the study of the poetics of Kharms and Vvedensky to establish and analyze the subtexts of their work in order to decipher the content?

The point is that when the destruction of meaning occurs with the aesthetic task of creating a “real” word-object, meaning only itself and identical to itself, in contrast to the word-sign, not “real”, since it means something different from itself, then it is required know exactly what meaning is being destroyed. It is much more difficult to use subtext to destroy the meaning than to build it: the meaning is firmly held in the word. To become a thing, a word must go through self-diminution. By sacrificing himself, Logos redeems things, as in Gumilyov and Heine, who predicted: “Someday, when the whole world is liberated, then all other creatures will receive the gift of speech...”460. Having gained speech, objects will be subjected to a test of fire, which is worse than death itself, and they will be visited by God. This is the “theme of the event” in the finale of the play “God is Possible All Around,” before the departure of the doubting Thomas, who sees a “contradiction” in the “system of death”:

If you are objects gods Where are the objects your speech.

I'm afraid of such a road I'll never cross.

Items

(mutter)

Yes, this is a special Rubicon. Special Rubicon.

Here the red-hot tables stand like eternal cauldrons, and the chairs, like those sick with fever, blacken in the distance like a living bundle.

However, this is worse than death itself, before that everything is toys.

Day by day everything is getting worse and worse.

Calm down, sit lightly,

This is the last warmth.

The theme of this event is God visiting objects.

But the redemption of things that acquire speech should not give the language of objects meaning as an other being, different from their creator, because “Only God can be.” Malevich warned against secondary comprehension in his article “On Poetry”461, comparing the danger that threatens both the poetry of words, “neither the mind nor the mind can comprehend,” and non-objective painting. The forms of nature, heated in the artist’s brain and turned into steam, are ready to rise to their full height “as the creative, with a whole avalanche of colors, to go back into the real world and create a new form. But it turns out to be a completely unexpected case. The mind, like a cooling hood, turns the steam back into drops of water, and the stormy steam, which formed something other than what it was, turned into water.”

“The same avalanche of formless color masses again finds those forms from which its motivators came. The Artist’s brush paints over the same forests, sky, roofs, skirts, etc.”

The mind of the reader and researcher, knowing “what is in the world,” “like a barman his cupboard,” in the words

Malevich, “beautifies his objects”, fitting them to the models known to him; The “refrigeration hood” condenses the steam of new and unprecedented forms into familiar and recognizable ones.

Therefore, in order to determine the poetic significance of the Oberiut text, there is no need to build meaning where it should not exist according to the very artistic task of “real art”, but we need to study where, how and what meaning is destroyed, and for what aesthetic purpose. This is the apparent paradox of Oberiu and Oberiu-knowledge.

From time immemorial, one of the methods of hesitation and compromise of meaning has been a pun. Ilona Svetlikova462 recently recalled that the expression “the mind works with puns,” which Osip Brik found in Alexander Veselovsky, actually belongs to the great physiologist Sh.-R. Richet, the author, by the way, of the pamphlet “Unreasonable Man” (1919) - about the erosion of meaning from human activity. The subject of Oberiu’s research should be a pun in the narrow sense, built on the conflict between different meanings of one word (“That death looked untouched on his wife”) or on an unexpected contrast between similar meanings of different words (“A writer for others, I am a scribe for you” ), and paronomasia, in the broad sense, that is, the semantic comparison of words that are similar in sound composition, regardless of their etymological connection463. A special case of paronomasia, especially important for Oberiu, is the collision in the internal form of a word of its potential meanings in other sign systems, for example, an interlingual pun. It plays a prominent role, of course, in both Mandelstam and Pasternak, but in Kharms and Vvedensky it functions differently.

“Everyone’s favorite wife, - / Not Elena, the other one, - how long did she embroider?” At first glance, Mandelstam is talking about Penelope, but the “other”, die andere, also suggests Andromache at her needlework, the favorite of Baudelaire and Annensky. Bilingual paronomasia shakes the obvious signified, but does not cancel it, but expands it.

In Pasternak’s words “And birds of the same breed I love you,” a bilingual pun, modeled on the old joke about the dog “Kakvas,” replaces one meaning with another. The original meaning, destroyed by substitution, “female swans,” will appear only when solving this charade: I love you - in German liebe dich - that is, swans464; in other respects, the metaphor “flock of keys” - “flock of birds” is complemented by the metonymy of “keys” - “musical expression of love”, which also seems to expand the meaning.

But the name of the hero, represented by the initial “F” - aka “Fomin” and “Sea” - in the poem “God is Possible All Around” dismembers the unity and self-identity of the character, as if iconically quartering him in the course of the plot. Individual components of the character “F” - Thomas (Thomas) More, Thomas the Apostle, Tsar Famine (“Tsar Fomin” - famine), etc. - narrow and negate its general meaning, in accordance with the metaphysical task of the poem: to play out dramatically the theme “man is nothing surrounded by God,” as Cardinal de Bérul wrote.

Nabokov in one place talks about the random similarity of the characters: as pointless as a bad pun, meaningless, like a bad pun (which in itself is a French-English play on words: pointe - pun). In fact, the task of “bad puns” in both English and Russian nonsense poetry is the creation of nonsense as an artistic device * which among the Oberiuts serves to transform the word as a sign carrying a certain conventional meaning into a reality that does not denote a conventional meaning, but possessing existential and absolute significance.

I will not cite Vvedensky’s long poem here - the reader can easily find it in the “Poet's Library”465. According to my interpretation, it was written regarding the expulsion of Trotsky from the USSR in January 1929. A set of seemingly flickering, fragmented semantic features points in this direction. The words “as if marble were a great sea” refer to the Sea of Marmara, the location of both the famous “Gallipoli” camps of the Volunteer Army and its winner Trotsky, settled on the island of Prinkipo. Trotsky himself appears as a “lion”; his “roar” attribute (“the lion bends in an arc / and the roar spreads out tight”) is a punning development of the then most common Soviet abbreviation of the word “revolutionary” (until 1925, Trotsky was the chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council).

Thus, in Pasternak’s poem “Drink and Write...” (1922), another title of Trotsky, People’s Commissar of Military Affairs, is realized against the backdrop of an actual event, when Trotsky, who was working on the book “Literature and Revolution,” sent a motorcyclist for the poet:

Afterwards in Moscow the motorcycle chattered,

Loud to the stars, like the second coming.

It was a pestilence. This was a moratorium of the Last Judgments, which did not gather for the session466.

The fate of the “lion” was predicted by Vvedensky in two versions. The first of them turned out to be prophetic:

but unexpected silence suddenly fills the glass, the lion bends in an arc and the roar spreads tight over the elevated mountain over the human sometimes the lion is killed sometimes it was hot and dark it was boring and the window...

However, the fable plot ends with another option: a picture of madness and world fire. It will obviously be ignited by the exiled leader of the revolution, to the great fear of “Cousin Thursday,” that is, Chesterton’s conspirator-guardian, “the man who was Thursday,” and “both birds,” the predecessors of the “lion” on the way from the north to the Sea of Marmara . From here

the already quoted “moral of this fable”: “battles, enmity and skirmishes came / and pillars of madness / grew up on the field like lean steam / and it ended in fire.”

This destruction of a topical political plot as the overcoming of absurd events or the “irony of history” by purely poetic means of nonsense can be compared with the paronomastic techniques of Khlebnikov and Sologub when applied to the same or a similar topic.

In Zangezi, the entire struggle of the revolution with the state is played out in the “self-proclaimed words of the ABC”:

And the empty palaces darkened.

No, it came out “rtsy”, /... /

This “Ka” was coming!

El's cloud of power has teeth.

El, where is your age-old disgrace!

El-age-old hermit of the underground!

Citizen of the Mouse World /... /

Er in the hands of El /... /

If the people turned into deer,

If we hire a wound on a wound,

If he walks like a deer /... /

And his head -

A dictionary of only El words.

Khorem, who has been scouring a foreign land, wants Holi!

Er, rush at full speed without falling on the floor! /... /

You turn the beggars' shovel into a people's murmur,

Bast bast shoes

Replace it with a murmur of a roar! /... /

It’s nonsense that Kaledin was killed and Kolchak that the shot sounded,

This Ka fell silent, Ka retreated, collapsed to the ground. It is El who builds a mole for the sea, and bold shoals for death.

Khlebnikov’s main technique here is the switching of the functions of code (linguistic “form”) and message (“content” of a given statement): the message is a formal, code opposition of phonemes of the Russian language, for example L and R, and the code for it is the content of the message about doe and wound, about Lenin and the Romanovs. “Er, Ka, El iGe - / Warriors of the alphabet, - / Were the protagonists of these years, / Heroes of the days,” says Zangezi. As we see, the historical plot is not destroyed by Khlebnikov, but is recoded with the help of negative parallelisms (“this is not Kaledin, but Ka”) as Pasternak later described it, comparing poetry and the “high disease” of politics in “High Disease”: “Everything became sound: the sound disappeared." In Khlebnikov, history itself speaks in puns, and political events serve to explain the “prophetic sounds of the world language.”

Compared to the “panpoetic” dominance of thinking with puns in Vvedensky and Khlebnikov, Sologub’s fable “The Horse, the Hounds and the Naughty Man” represents a return to the original comic function of word play, and not a linguistic transformation or, even more so, the destruction of plot and event content. Sologub's allegories are transparent, but based partly on disguised puns and, perhaps, that is why they went unnoticed by commentators467. The model for the fable about a horse and hinnies was, perhaps, Chemnitzer’s “Honored Horse.” It was written in January 1925, after Trotsky, who said he was ill, was dismissed at a plenum of the Central Committee from the post of People's Commissar of Military Affairs. This happened after the publication of his book “Lessons of October”. In Sologub’s fable, the horse, which carried a “mighty rider” “on a peaceful and on a battlefield,” becomes a victim of the envy of the “horses” who roared:

We will not tolerate the evil of conism!

Or rather, the scientific precepts of loshakism! /... /

A zealous horse, not a coward,

Entered the slippery slope of discussions,

But, hoary, tired,

Sneezed -

Our valiant comrade is sick with glanders! -

All the donkeys roar.

The denouement of a short time*

Having huddled together, they take it unceremoniously,

And they take people to distant meadows for treatment. /... /

In short,

Here's the moral of these fables:

When you give October lessons,

Then I agree to leave.

Of course, “conism” here is a punning designation of communism, on behalf of which Trotsky spoke, and “loshakism” means “Leninism,” the “testaments” of which were opposed to “Trotskyism” by Stalin and Zinoviev. The witty pun at the end, predicting Trotsky’s subsequent exile to Central Asia two years later, is based on announcements from home teachers: “I give lessons... I agree to leave.”

A comparison of the development of three similar themes by three poets shows how far Vvedensky’s poetics of the plot, encrypted by destruction, has gone, both from the Aesopian language of Sologub’s civic satire, and from Khlebnikov’s breakthrough into the thoroughly re-semantized “star language” of the future globe. A clear topical plot is taken - revolution in Russia or Trotsky’s disgrace and exile. Khlebnikov's pun rewrites it as a fact of the structure of language. Sologuba's pun rewrites it allegorically. Vvedensky’s pun, in order to compromise the meaningfulness of the plot in its historical eventfulness, does not rewrite it, but breaks it into parts, each of which seems semantically larger than the whole. The result is “nonsense poetry,” in the terminology of Svyatopolk-Mirsky468. This is “nonsense” as meaning with a minus sign. Parts are subtracted from the whole rather than added to it.

Using examples from the analysis of poems by D. Kharms and

A. Vvedensky, justify your point of view (agree or disagree) with the author’s opinion that “... Oberiu’s poetics puts forward as artistic value the destruction or compromise of object-referential or literary-historical meanings recognizable in a diachronic cultural perspective, in while Acmeism aimed at their new construction.”

Definition

Psychological parallelism in literature is one of the stylistic devices. Its essence lies in the fact that the plot of the work is based on a consistent comparison of motives, pictures of nature, relationships, situations, and actions. Typically used in poetic folk texts.

Story

Such parallels consisted of:

Complex similarity of characteristic features to life or action.
The relationship of these signs with our understanding of reality and the laws of the surrounding world.
Adjacencies of various objects that could be similar based on identified characteristics.
The vital value and completeness of the described object or phenomenon in relation to humanity.

That is, initially psychological parallelism was built on a person’s subjective idea of the world.

Kinds

two-term;
formal;
polynomial;
monomial;
negative.

Parallelism binomial

For example: “When they want to pick roses, they must wait until spring; when they want to love girls, they must be sixteen years old” (Spanish folk song).

It is worth noting, however, that folklore parallelism, which most often happens to be two-term, is built mainly on the category of action. If it is removed, then all other elements of the stylistic figure will lose their meaning. The stability of this design is ensured by 2 factors:

To the basic similarity are added bright similar details of the action category that will not be contradicted.
Native speakers liked the comparison, it became part of the cult and remained there for a long time.

Formal parallelism

Polynomial parallelism

Such a one-sided increase in images suggests that parallelism gradually evolved, which gave the poet greater freedom of writing and the opportunity to demonstrate his analytical abilities.

That is why polynomial parallelism is called a relatively late phenomenon of folk poetic stylistics.

Single-Term Parallelism

Parallelism negative

Let us proceed to the description of the last type, which can be psychological parallelism (examples are given in the article). The negative constructions of our stylistic device are usually used to create riddles. For example: “It is roaring, not a bull, strong, not a rock.”

From a conceptual point of view, negative parallelism seems to distort the very formula of parallelism, which was created to bring images together, and not to separate them.

From folklore to author's literature

When did psychological parallelism migrate from folk poetry to classical literature?

This happened during the time of vagants, wandering musicians. Unlike their predecessors, they graduated from classical music and poetry schools, so they learned the basic literary techniques of depicting a person, which were characterized by great abstraction. They lacked specificity and connection with reality. At the same time, like all traveling musicians, they were quite familiar with folklore. Therefore, they began to introduce its elements into their poetry. Comparisons with natural phenomena of the character’s character appeared, for example, winter and autumn - with sadness, and summer and spring - with fun. Of course, their experiments were rather primitive and far from perfect, but they laid the foundation for a new style, which later migrated to medieval literature.

Thus, in the 12th century, folk song techniques gradually began to intertwine with the classical tradition.

What is the function of similes, epithets and metaphors of psychological parallelism?

To begin with, it is worth saying that without metaphors and epithets there would be no parallelism itself, since this technique is completely based on them.

Psychological parallelism in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”

Then you can remember the image of the narrator himself. His fingers, resting on the strings, are compared to ten falcons swooping down on doves.

And one more example: the retreat of the Galicians to the Don is described as “not a storm carried the falcons across the wide fields.” Here we see a pattern of negative parallelism.

A.N. Veselovsky Psychological parallelism and its forms in the reflection of poetic style

A person assimilates images of the external world in the forms of his self-awareness; all the more so is primitive man, who has not yet developed the habit of abstract, non-figurative thinking, although the latter cannot do without a certain accompanying imagery. We involuntarily transfer to nature our self-awareness of life, expressed in movement, in the manifestation of force directed by the will; in those phenomena or objects in which movement was noticed, signs of energy, will, and life were once suspected. We call this worldview animistic; when applied to poetic style, and not to it alone, it would be more accurate to talk about parallelism. The point is not about identifying human life with natural life and not about comparison, which presupposes the consciousness of the separateness of the objects being compared, but about comparison on the basis of action (125), movement: a tree is frail, a girl bows, as in a Little Russian song. The idea of movement, action underlies the one-sided definitions of our word: the same roots correspond to the idea of intense movement, penetration of an arrow, sound and light; concepts of struggle, torment, destruction are expressed in words such as mors, mare<…>, German Mahlen.

So, parallelism rests on the comparison of subject and object in the category of movement, action, as a sign of volitional life activity. The subjects, naturally, were animals; they most closely resembled humans: here are the distant psychological foundations of the animal apologist; but the plants also pointed to the same similarity: they were born and bloomed, turned green and bowed from the force of the wind. The sun also seemed to move, rise, set; the wind drove the clouds, the lightning rushed, the fire engulfed, devoured the branches, etc. The inorganic, motionless world was involuntarily drawn into this string of parallelisms: it also lived.

The further step in development consisted of a series of transfers, attached to the main feature - movement. The sun moves and looks at the earth: among the Hindus, the sun and the moon are the eye<…>; the earth sprouts with grass, the forest with hair<…>; when Agni (fire), driven by the wind, spreads through the forest, it mows down the hair of the earth; the earth is Odin's bride, sang the skald Hallfredr<…>, the forest is her hair, she is the young, broad-faced, forest-covered daughter of Onar.<…>A tree has skin - bark (ind.), a mountain has a ridge (ind.) ... the tree drinks with its feet - roots (ind.), its branches - arms, paws<…>.

The basis of such definitions, which reflected a naive, syncretic view of nature, enslaved by language and belief, is the transfer of a characteristic characteristic of one member of the parallel to another. These are metaphors of language; our vocabulary is replete with them, but we operate many of them unconsciously, without ever feeling their fresh imagery; when “the sun sets,” we do not separately imagine the act itself, undoubtedly alive in the fantasy of ancient man (126): we need to renew it in order to feel it in relief. The language of poetry achieves this by defining or partially characterizing a general act, and here too in application to a person and his psyche. “The sun moves, rolls along the mountain” does not evoke an image in us; otherwise in the Serbian song from Karadzic:

That's all there is to it.

The following pictures of nature belong to the usual, once figurative, but giving us the impression of abstract formulas: the landscape spreads across the plains, sometimes suddenly rising into a steep slope; a rainbow spread across the clearing; lightning rushes, a mountain range stretches in the distance; the village lies in the valley; the hills reach towards the sky. To stagger, to rush, to strive - all this is figurative, in the sense of the application of a conscious act to an inanimate object, and all this has become for us an experience that poetic language will enliven, emphasizing the element of humanity, illuminating it in the main parallel (127).<…>

The man considered himself very young on earth because he was helpless. Where did he come from? This question was posed quite naturally, and the answers to it were obtained on the basis of those comparisons, the main motive of which was the transference of the principle of vitality to the external world (129).<…>And he imagined that his forefathers grew from stones (Greek myth), came from animals (beliefs widespread in Central Asia, among North American tribes, in Australia), and originated from trees and plants.

It is interesting to trace the expression and degeneration of this idea: it accompanies us from the depths of centuries to the modern folk poetic belief, which is deposited in the experiences of our poetic style. I will focus on people – trees – plants.

The Sioux, Damarov, Levi-Lenanov, Yurkasov, and Bazut tribes consider the tree to be their forefather; AmaZulu says that the first man came out of the reeds<…>A partial expression of this idea is the substantiated language (seed-embryo), a motif familiar from myths and fairy tales about the fertilizing power of a plant, flower, fruit (grain, apple, berry, pea, nut, rose, etc.), replacing the human seed .

On the contrary: a plant comes from a living being, especially from a person. Hence a whole series of identifications: people have names borrowed from trees and flowers; they turn into trees, continuing their old life in new forms, lamenting, remembering (130)<…>. Along the way of such identifications, the idea of a close connection between this or that tree or plant and human life could arise.<…>. Thus, the wounded Tristan dies, strangling Isolde in his last embrace; from their graves a rose and a vine grow, intertwined with each other (Eilhard von Oberge), or a green thorn branch came out of the tomb of Tristan and spread across the chapel to the tomb of Isolde (French novel in prose); Later they began to say that these plants were planted by King Mark. The difference between these retellings is interesting: at first, and closer to the ancient idea of \u200b\u200bthe identity of human and natural life, trees - flowers grew from corpses; these are the same people living with the same emotions; when the consciousness of identity weakened, the image remained, but tree-flowers are already planted on the graves of lovers, and we ourselves suggest, updating his ancient idea, that the trees continue to feel and love out of sympathy, like those resting under them (131).

The legend of Abelard and Heloise already dispenses with this symbolism: when Heloise’s body was lowered to the body of Abelard, who had previously died, his skeleton took her into its arms in order to unite with her forever. The image of intertwining trees and flowers disappeared. He and others like him were destined to fade or fade with the weakening of the idea of parallelism, identity, with the development of human self-awareness, with the isolation of man from that cosmic connection in which he himself disappeared as part of an immense, unknown whole. The more he knew himself, the more the line between him and the surrounding nature became clear, and the idea of identity gave way to the idea of specialness. Ancient syncretism was removed before dismembering feats of knowledge: the equation lightning - bird, man - tree was replaced by comparisons: lightning is like a bird, a man is like a tree, etc., mors, mare, etc.<…>Further development of imagery took place in other ways.

At the center of each set of parallels that gave content to the ancient myth, there became a special force, a deity: the concept of life is transferred to it, the features of the myth were drawn to it, some characterize its activity, others become its (132) symbols. Having emerged from direct identity with nature, man reckons with the deity, developing its content to a level with his moral and aesthetic growth: religion takes possession of him, retarding this development in the stable conditions of a cult. But both the delaying moments of the cult and the anthropomorphic understanding of the deity are not capacious enough or too definite to respond to the progress of thought and the demands of growing introspection, yearning for consonance in the secrets of the macrocosm, and not only scientific revelations, but also sympathies. And there are consonances, because in nature there will always be answers to our demands for suggestibility.

These requirements are inherent in our consciousness; it lives in the sphere of convergences and parallels, figuratively assimilating the phenomena of the surrounding world, pouring its content into them and again perceiving them as humanized. The language of poetry continues the psychological process that began on prehistoric paths: it already uses the images of language and myth, their metaphors and symbols, but it also creates new ones in their likeness. The connection between myth, language and poetry is not so much in the unity of legend as in the unity of psychological technique<…>the ancient juxtaposition: sun = eye and groom = falcon of the folk song - all this appeared in different stages of the same parallelism.

I will take up a review of some of his poetic formulas.

I’ll start with the simplest, folk-poetic, with<…>binomial parallelism. Its general type is as follows: a picture of nature, next to it is the same from human life; they echo each other when there is a difference in objective content, consonances pass between them, clarifying what they have in common. This sharply separates the psychological parallel from repetitions explained by the mechanism of song performance (choric or amoebic), and those tautological formulas where the verse repeats in other words the content of the previous or previous ones.<…>To a certain degree of decomposition, the formulas of psychological parallelism, examples of which I give:

a Cherry blossomed

View from top to root,

b Bow down Marusya

through steel to my friend.

And don’t be frail, little green cheek,

b Don’t scold, little Cossack, you’re young (134).

We are heading towards formal parallelism. Let's consider its precedents.

One of them is the omission in one of the members of the parallel of a feature that logically follows from its content in accordance with some feature of the second member. I'm talking about silence - not about distortion: what was silent was suggested at first by itself, until it was forgotten.<…>

The internal logical development corresponds to the external one, which sometimes embraces both members of the parallel, with a formal, meaningless correspondence of the parts.<…>

Ay behind the threshing floor Asina,

Oh, the mother-in-law asked for her son-in-law.

The last parallel is not maintained, as if caused by assonance, the desire to preserve the cadence, the coincidence of stress, not of images.<…>Substantive parallelism turns into rhythmic, the musical element prevails while the intelligible relationships between the details of the parallels are weakened. The result is not an alternation of internally related images, but a series of rhythmic lines without meaningful correspondence (152).

<…>I will only touch upon the phenomenon in passing<…>polynomial parallelism, developed from two-term parallelism by one-sided accumulation of parallels, obtained not from one object, but from several, similar ones. In the two-term formula, there is only one explanation: the tree leans towards the tree, the young man clings to his sweetheart, this formula can vary in variations of the same (175) song: “The sun rolled out not red (or rather: rolled up) - My husband fell ill”; instead of: “As the oak tree staggers in the polepole, as my dear one struggles”; or: “Like a blue, flammable stone, it will flare up, And my dear friend will unwind.” A polynomial formula brings these parallels together in a row, multiplies explanations and together the materials of analysis, as if opening up the possibility of choice:

Don't let the grass tangle with the blade of grass,

Do not caress the dove with the dove,

Don't get used to the girl.

Not two, but three kinds of images, united by the concept of twisting, bringing together.<…>Such a one-sided multiplication of objects in one part of the parallel indicates greater freedom of movement in its composition: parallelism became a stylistic and analytical device, and this should have led to a decrease in its imagery, to mixtures and transfers of all kinds. In the following Serbian example, the rapprochement: cherry - oak: girl - young man is joined by a third: silk-bumbak, eliminating the images of cherry and oak at the end of the song.

If our explanation is correct, then polynomial parallelism belongs to the late phenomena of folk poetic stylistics; it allows choice, efficiency gives way to analysis; this is the same sign as the accumulation of epithets or comparisons in Homer's poems, like any pleonasm that dwells on the particulars of the situation. Only a calming feeling analyzes itself in this way; but here is the source (176) of song and art loci comunes. In one Northern Russian story, a recruit’s wife wants to go to the forest and mountains and to the blue sea to get rid of grief; Pictures of forests and mountains and the sea surround her, but everything is colored by her sadness: the sadness cannot be avoided, and the affect expands in the descriptions:

And I’d better go from the great steepness

I’m in the dark woods, grieving, and dense...

And I am sad, grieving, annoyed,

And now my sadness doesn’t go away...

And I should go from grief to the blue sea,

And to the blue one, to the glorious Onegushka...

And on the blue sea the water sways,

And the water became clouded with yellow sand,

And now the wave hits steeply and excessively,

And she hits this steep bank steeply,

And the wave crumbles over the pebbles,

And here my sadness doesn’t go away.

This is the epic Natureingang, a polynomial formula of parallelism, developed into a patch: the widow is sad, the tree is bowing, the sun is clouded, the widow is annoyed, the waves are diverging, the storm is diverging.

We said that polynomial parallelism tends to destroy imagery;<…>mononomial singles out and develops it, which determines its role in the isolation of certain stylistic formations. The simplest type of monomiality is the case when one of the terms of the parallel is silent, and the other is its indicator; this is pars pro toto; since in the parallel significant interest is given to the action of human life, which is illustrated by a rapprochement with some natural act, then the last member of the parallel stands for the whole.

The following Little Russian song represents a complete binary parallel: zorya (star) - month = girl - well done (bride - groom):

a Sala the dawn until the month:

Oh, month, comrade, (177)

Don’t come in to tyrannize me,

Let's leave both at once,

Let us illuminate heaven and earth...

b Slala Marya to Ivanka:

Oh, Ivanka, my contraction,

Don't sit in the squat,

Early for the landing, etc.

Let's discard the second part of the song (b), and the habit of well-known comparisons will suggest, instead of the month and the star, the bride and groom. So<…>in a Latvian song<…>linden (bends) to the oak (like a fellow to a girl):

Decorate the linden tree, mother,

Which is in the middle of your yard;

I saw in strangers

Painted oak.

Either: the sun has set: the husband has died; sl. Olonets lament:

A great wish rolled away

It is in the air, desire, in the deep,

In wild, dark forests, and in dense forests,

For the mountains it is, desire, for the crowd.

<…>All these are excerpts of abbreviated parallel formulas.

It was indicated above in what ways, from the convergences on which binary parallelism is built, those that we call symbols are selected and strengthened; their closest source were short one-term formulas in which the linden tree strives for the oak tree, the falcon leads the falcon with him, etc. They taught us to constant identification, brought up in the age-old song tradition; This element of legend distinguishes a symbol from an artificially selected allegorical image: the latter may be accurate, but is not extensible for new suggestiveness, because it does not rest on the basis of those consonances of nature and man on which folk-poetic parallelism is built. When these consonances appear or when the allegorical formula passes into the circulation of folk tradition, it can approach the life of the symbol: examples are offered by the history of Christian symbolism.

The symbol is extensible, just as the word is extensible for new revelations of thought. The falcon rushes at the bird and kidnaps it, but from another, silent member of the parallel, the rays of human relations fall onto the animal image, and the falcon leads the falcon to the wedding; in the Russian song the falcon is clear - the groom flies to the bride, sits on the window, “on the oak chin”; in the Moravian, he flew under the girl’s window, wounded, chopped up: this is her darling. The young falcon is groomed, cleaned up, and the parallelism is reflected in its fantastic decoration: in the Little Russian Duma the young falcon was taken into captivity; they entangled him there in silver shackles, and hung expensive pearls near his eyes. The old falcon found out about this, “he poured on the city - the Tsar-City,” “howled and howled pitifully.” The little falcon spun, the Turks took off its fetters and pearls to disperse its melancholy, and the old falcon took it on its wings and raised it to a height: it is better for us to fly across the field than to live in captivity. Falcon - Cossack, Turkish bondage; the correspondence is not expressed, but it is implied; fetters were put on the falcon; they are silver, but you can’t fly away with them. A similar image is expressed in the double parallelism of one wedding song from the Pinsk region: “Why are you, falcon, flying low? “My wings are lined with silk, my legs are lined with gold.” - Why did you arrive late, Yasya? “The father is careless, he equipped his squad late” (179).

<…>The riddle built around switching off turns us to one more type of parallelism that remains for us to dissect: negative parallelism. “Strong is not a rock, roars is not a bull,” says the Vedas; this can serve as an example of the same construction of parallelism, especially popular in Slavic folk poetry. The principle is this: a binomial or polynomial formula is put forward, but one or some of them are eliminated in order to allow attention to focus on the one to which the negation does not extend. The formula begins with a negation or with a position, which is often introduced with a question mark.

It’s not the birch tree that’s staggering,

Not curly curls,

How it staggers, twists,

Your young wife. (185)

<…>One can imagine reducing a two- or polynomial negative formula into a single-term one, although the negation should have made it difficult to suggest the silent member of the parallel: the winds would not come, but they would blow (the boyars would not come, but they would come in large numbers); or in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”: it was not the storm that brought the falcons across the wide fields (the galich herds to run to the great Don). We have seen examples of negative monomial formulas in riddles.

The popularity of this stylistic device in Slavic folk poetry gave rise to some generalizations that will have to be limited, if not eliminated. In negative parallelism they saw something folk or racial, Slavic, in which the special, elegiac cast of Slavic lyricism was typically expressed. The appearance of this formula in other folk lyrics brings this explanation within its proper boundaries; One can only talk about the wide spread of the formula on the basis of Slavic song, which together raises the question of the reasons for this popularity. Psychologically, a negative formula can be looked at as a way out of parallelism, the positive scheme of which it presupposes has been established. It brings actions and images closer together, limiting their pairing or accumulating comparisons: either the tree is sickly or the young man is sad; the negative formula emphasizes one of two possibilities: it is not the tree that is sick, but the fellow who is sad; it affirms by denying, it eliminates duality by singling out the individual. This is, as it were, a feat of consciousness emerging from the vagueness of floating impressions to the affirmation of the individual; that which previously burst into him as proportionate, contiguous, is highlighted, and if it attracts again, then as a reminder that does not imply unity, as a comparison. The process took place in the following sequence of formulas: man – tree; not a tree, but a person; man is like a tree. On the basis of negative parallelism, the last separation has not yet taken place completely: the adjacent image still hovers somewhere nearby, apparently eliminated, but still evoking consonances. It is clear that the elegiac feeling has found a means of expression that corresponds to it in the negative formula: you are amazed by something (188), unexpectedly, sadly, you can’t believe your eyes: it’s not what it seems to you, but something else, you are ready to reassure yourself with the illusion of similarity, but reality hits you in the eye, self-delusion only intensified the blow, and you eliminate it with pain: now it’s not the birch tree that’s twisting, then your young wife is twisting, twisting!

I do not claim that the negative formula was developed in the sphere of such sentiments, but it could be nurtured and generalized in it. The alternation of positive parallelism, with its transparent duality, and negative, with its wavering, eliminating affirmation, gives folk lyricism a special, vague coloring. The comparison is not so suggestive, but it is positive.

On value<…>comparisons in the development of psychological parallelism were indicated above. This is already a prosaic act of consciousness that has dismembered nature; comparison is the same metaphor, but with the addition of (particles of comparison?), says Aristotle (Rhet. Ill, 10); it is more developed (in detail) and therefore less liked; does not say: this = this, and therefore the mind does not seek this either. An example from Chapter 6 can serve as an explanation: the lion (= Achilles) rushed - and Achilles rushed like a lion; in the latter case there is no equation (this = this) and the image of a lion (this) does not stop attention, does not force the imagination to work. In the Homeric epic, the gods have already emerged from nature onto bright Olympus, and parallelism appears in the forms of comparison. Whether it is possible to discern a chronological moment in the last phenomenon, I do not dare say.

Comparison has not only taken possession of the stock of connections and symbols developed by the previous history of parallelism, but also develops along the paths indicated by it; old material has merged into a new form, other parallels fit into the comparison, and vice versa, there are also transitional types. In the song about cherries, for example, to the parallel: cherry and oak = girl - well done, the third rapprochement is added as a comparison (Kat se privi]a - And twisted to the bumbak) (189).

<…>Metaphor and comparison gave content to some groups of epithets; with them we went around the entire circle of development of psychological parallelism, to the extent that it determined the material of our poetic vocabulary and its images. Not everything that was once alive and young has been preserved in its former brightness; our poetic language often gives the impression of detritus, phrases and epithets have faded, just as a word fades, the imagery of which is lost with an abstract understanding of its objective content. While the renewal of imagery and color remains among the pia desideria, the old forms still serve the poet, who seeks self-determination in the consonances or contradictions of nature; and the fuller his inner world, the subtler the echo, the more life the old forms tremble.

Goethe's "Mountain Peaks" are written in the forms of the folk binomial parallel.<…>

Other examples can be found in Heine, Lermontov (194), Verlaine and others; Lermontov’s “song” is a copy of the folk song, an imitation of its naive style:

A yellow leaf hits the stem

Before the storm

The poor heart is trembling

Before misfortune;

If the wind takes away my lonely leaf, will the siraya branch regret it? If fate destined a young man to fade away in a foreign land, will the fair maiden regret him?<…>

Such images, which isolate human feeling in the forms of extra-human life, are well known in artistic poetry. In this direction, she can sometimes achieve the concreteness of a myth.

(Sk. Fofanov, “Small Poems”: “Clouds float like thoughts, Thoughts rush in clouds”). This is almost an anthropomorphism of the “Dove Book”: “our thoughts are from the clouds of heaven,” but with the content of personal consciousness. The day tears the veils of the night: the bird of prey tears the veil with its claws; in Wolfram von Eschenbach, all this merged into a picture of clouds and the day, piercing their darkness with its claws: Sine klawen durch die wolken sint geslagen. An image reminiscent of a mythical bird - lightning, demolishing heavenly fire; All that is missing is the moment of belief.

The Sun - Helios belongs to his anthropomorphic pore; poetry knows him in a new light. In Shakespeare (sonnet 48) the sun is a king, a ruler; at sunrise he proudly sends his greetings to the mountain heights, but when low-lying clouds distort his face, he darkens, turns his gaze away from the lost world and hurries towards the sunset, shrouded in shame.<…>Let me also remind you of the image of the sun - the king in Korolenko’s excellent description of the sunrise (“Makar’s Dream”) (196).

So: metaphorical new formations and - age-old metaphors, developed anew. The vitality of the latter or their renewal in the circulation of poetry depends on their capacity in relation to the new demands of feeling directed by broad educational and social trends. The era of romanticism was marked, as we know, by the same archaistic renovations that we observe now. “Nature is filled with allegories and myths,” says Remi regarding modern symbolists; the fairies have returned; they seemed to have died, but they only hid, and then they appeared again” (197).

IN<…>the search for consonances, the search for man in nature, there is something passionate, pathetic that characterizes the poet and characterized, in different forms of expression, entire periods of social and poetic development (199).