History of the second half of the 19th century. Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century

The abolition of serfdom served as a powerful impetus to cultural development Russian people. Former serfs in the second half of the 19th century were actively involved in market relations and industrial production, which acutely raised the question of their education.

During this period, the ranks of the intelligentsia increased significantly. Became available to society printed publications: books, newspapers, magazines. On the wave of public spiritual growth Theatre, music, painting and literature actively developed.

Education in the second half of the 19th century

With the end of the serf era, it became clear that the level of education of peasants was catastrophically low. In the 70s, the illiteracy rate rural population reached 85%. Urban residents were not far behind, including basic diploma only one in four owned.

The situation was improved thanks to the development of zemstvo and parish schools, in which elementary education received not only children, but also adults. Many parochial schools were created by enthusiastic educators who not only financially supported such institutions, but also personally taught in them.

Secondary education was provided by gymnasiums, in which students studied the humanities and natural sciences. By the end of the century, several gymnasiums were opened that focused on teaching physics and mathematics.

The number of higher educational institutions has increased significantly, and the number of university students has quadrupled compared to the first half of the 19th century. During this period, women had the opportunity to obtain higher education. Previously, this was prohibited at the state level.

The first higher courses for women were opened in St. Petersburg in 1878. Later, similar institutions appeared in all big cities empires. High tempo The educational process in post-reform Russia yielded positive results: as of 1889, the number of illiterate people decreased by 4 times.

Science in the second half of the 19th century

During this period, Russian science also experienced a significant rise. The young educated generation was increasingly attracted to scientific activities. University graduates who have shown good results in educational process, received an internship opportunity in European countries.

During this period, Russian scientists made technical discoveries on a global scale: A. S. Popov invented the world's first radiotelegraph, P. N. Yablochkov and A. N Lodygin created the first incandescent lamp.

The end of the 19th century entered Russian history like the golden age of chemistry. Russian scientists developed a theory chemical structure substances that are still used today. In the early 70s, D.I. made his famous discoveries. Mendeleev. His periodic table of chemical elements became the basis for further study of science. The books written by the scientist during his lifetime were translated into almost all languages ​​of the world.

At this time they were creating outstanding biologists I.I. Mechnikov, I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov. At the end of the 19th century there was the formation historical science in the Russian Empire. For the first time, scientists are beginning to criticize the works of their predecessors and create a new perspective on events taking place in the world since ancient times.

Famous Russian historians were S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, M. M. Kovalevsky - all of them gained fame and recognition not only in Russia, but also far beyond its borders. The main achievement of scientific and educational activities in the Russian Empire there was recognition of our state in 1890 as the cradle of world science.

The culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century experienced a significant rise. Development of new capitalist relations, the abolition of serfdom and social upsurge led to the fact that new movements and new names began to appear in all spheres of art.

However, representatives of the intelligentsia had diverse views on the changes taking place in the country, which led to the emergence of three camps - liberals, conservatives and democrats. Each movement had its own characteristics both in political thought and in ways of expressing itself in art.

In general, the industrial revolution and economic growth led to the fact that culture became more democratic and open to all segments of the population.

Education

There has been an unprecedented increase in the level of education. Numerous schools began to open, education became graded - primary school and secondary school. The secondary included numerous gymnasiums and colleges, where students not only received a general education, but also mastered the necessary skills for further work knowledge. Women's courses have appeared.

Education remained paid, so libraries and museums became increasingly important, where those who did not have money for a lyceum or gymnasium could gain knowledge. Were created Tretyakov Gallery, Historical Museum, Russian Museum and others.

Science also developed actively, several scientific schools were created, which became the foundation for most important discoveries. History and philosophy have received enormous development.

Literature

Literature developed as actively as other branches of culture. Numerous literary magazines began to be published throughout the country, in which writers published their works. The most notable ones are “Russian Bulletin”, “Notes of the Fatherland”, “Russian Thought”. The magazines had different orientations - liberal, democratic and conservative. In addition to literary activity, the authors in them conducted an active political discussion.

Painting

Realist artists gained great fame - E.I. Repin, V.I. Surikov, A.G. Savrasov. Led by I.N Kramskoy, they formed the “Partnership of Itinerants,” which set as its main goal the need to “bring art to the masses.” These artists opened small traveling exhibitions in the most remote corners of Russia to accustom people to art.

Music

The group “Mighty Handful” was formed, led by M.A. Balakirev. It included many prominent composers of that time - M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P. Borodin. At the same time, the great composer P.I. was working. Chaikovsky. In those years, the first conservatories in Russia opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Music also became a national treasure, accessible to all segments of the population.

"Great Reforms" of Alexander II

60s - 70s years XIX century - a time of radical transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of life, both society and the state.

The reason for the transformation was the lost Crimean War. Russia's defeat in the war showed the complete failure of political and economic system Russia. The central place in the transformations of Alexander II is occupied by the abolition of serfdom (peasant reform).

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom:

1. Serfdom was immoral and was condemned by all layers of Russian society.
2. The preservation of serfdom made it impossible to modernize the country and overcome technical and economic backwardness.
3. The labor of serfs was unproductive and therefore unprofitable.
4. Because the dependent peasants were deprived of the opportunity to fully participate in market relations, serfdom caused the narrowness of the domestic market and hindered the development of capitalism.
5. The continuation of the serfdom policy created the threat of a repetition of Pugachevism.
6. The presence of serfdom, very similar to slavery, undermined Russia's international authority.

In January 1857, Alexander II established Secret Committee for Peasant Affairs. At the end of 1857, a decree was issued “On the organization and improvement of the life of landowner peasants” (“ Rescript to Nazimov") according to which in each province from among local landowners provincial editorial commissions were formed to develop a project for the abolition of serfdom. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

The projects drawn up in the provincial committees were submitted for generalization to the editorial commissions formed under the Main Committee in 1859.

A significant role in the commissions was played by liberal-minded figures - Ya.I. Rostovtsev (chairman of the commission) and, who replaced him in this post, N.A. Milyutin.

February 19, 1861 Mr. Alexander II signed “ Provisions on peasants emerging from serfdom" And " Manifesto"on the liberation of the peasants.

The main provisions of the peasant reform:

1. The peasants received personal freedom (without ransom).
2. Peasants received land allotments for ransom. The peasant had to pay about 20% of the ransom amount to the landowner at a time. He received the remaining amount on credit from the state for 49 years.
3. Before the land was redeemed, the peasant was considered " temporarily obliged"in relation to the landowner, i.e. continued to carry feudal duties: paid rent (“ sharecropping") and worked corvee labor (" working off»).
4. The purchased land became the property of the peasant community. Right private property land was the privilege of only noble landowners.
5. The “regulations” determined the minimum amount of land that landowners must keep for themselves. In the chernozem zone it accounted for 2/3 of the land, in the non-chernozem zone - 1/2, in the steppe - 1/3.
6. If the pre-reform peasant land allotment exceeded the post-reform one, then the excess went to the landowner (the so-called “ segments»).
7. The relationship between peasants and landowners was regulated by " By charter" They determined the size of allotments and duties. The landowner signed the letter not with each individual peasant, but with the community.
8. Peasants received the right to engage in business and enter into any legal relations, move to other classes.

In 1863, under the same conditions, the appanage (royal) peasants were freed.

In 1866, state peasants received freedom. They did not have to buy back their land, but were subject to heavy taxes.

Peasant reform was the result of a compromise between the interests of landowners, peasants and the government. Moreover, the interests of the landowners were taken into account as much as possible.

One of the consequences of the reform was the massive ruin of landowners' farms. The nobles simply could not manage the redemption payments correctly and rebuild their production on a capitalist basis.

The burden of peasants with various payments and duties, peasant land shortage, agrarian overpopulation caused by the preservation of the community, and the presence of large landownership became sources constant conflicts between peasants and landowners (so-called agrarian question).

The reform prevented mass protests by peasants, although local ones still took place. The most significant of them date back to 1861 - peasant uprisings in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and Kandeevka, Penza province.

Zemstvo reform of 1864

The main reasons for the zemstvo reform were the need to create an effective system of local self-government and improvement of the Russian countryside. In the provinces and districts, local government bodies were created - provincial and district zemstvo assemblies. Vowel zemstvos (deputies) were elected by curiae. Most of the deputies were representatives of the landowning curia, i.e. zemstvo reform increased political influence landowners (this was one of the goals of the reform), nevertheless, zemstvo bodies were considered all-class.

The zemstvos were in charge of issues of local economy, trade, industry, healthcare, public education, organization of charitable institutions, etc. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. Inter-provincial associations of zemstvos were prohibited.

Zemstvo reform is an attempt to create new system local self-government based on all-class representation. Subsequently, zemstvo institutions became centers of liberal opposition to the government.

IN 1870 The City Reform was carried out, in accordance with which City Dumas were created - an analogue of Zemstvo Assemblies in the city.

Judicial reform of 1864

It was based on the following principles: the muteness of the court, the equality of all subjects before the law, the independence of the court from the administration, the creation of a court jurors and the Institute of Sworn Attorneys (Lawyers).

During the reform process, Magistrates' courts for peasants, established in counties. They tried minor criminal offenses and civil cases. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies.

Decisions in criminal cases in district courts were made by jurors who returned a verdict to the accused. They were elected on special lists from people of different classes.

Functions supreme court received the Senate.

The trial became public and adversarial. This meant that the prosecutor (state prosecutor) was confronted by a lawyer independent from the administration.

In accordance with the judicial reform, the institution of notaries was created.

Judicial reform was the most democratic, radical and consistent among the reforms of the 60s and 70s.

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

Necessity military reform was determined by the general military-technical backwardness of the Russian army, which created a threat to the security of Russia and undermined its international authority. In addition, the army, based on conscription, did not correspond to the new social structure of Russian society. The initiator and leader of the reform was Minister of War D.A. Milyutin.

During the reform, military settlements were abolished, military districts were created (headed by commanders-in-chief), the War Ministry and the main headquarters were reorganized, and cadet and military schools were established. The military industry began to develop rapidly.

The central element of the military reform was the introduction of 1874 general conscription, which applied to everything male population who have reached the age of 20. Service life was 6 years ground forces and 7 years in the Navy. For those who had education and depending on its level, the service life was reduced from 4 years to 6 months.

Transformations in the army began important factor democratization of society, modernization of the army, contributed to an increase in its combat effectiveness - all this was fully manifested in the war with Turkey of 1877 - 1878.

Significant changes have been made to the education system. The University Charter of 1863 expanded the autonomy of universities. In accordance with the Charter of the Secondary School (1864), gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. The former prepared mainly for entering university, the latter - for higher technical education. educational establishments.

In 1865, censorship reform was carried out. Pre-censorship was abolished for most books and literary magazines.

Reforms of the 1860-70s significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization. However, the political reorganization of the country was not completed. Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy. There were no mechanisms for public influence on government policy.

Socio-economic development of post-reform Russia

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. created favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy and the formation of capitalist relations.

Railway construction was the most important area of ​​economic development in post-reform Russia, because this new type of transport made it possible to significantly facilitate the export of grain and strengthen the country's defense capability. IN 1851 the railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow was opened.

In the 60s “railroad fever” began - a real boom in railway construction. Private capital, including foreign capital, was widely attracted to this industry. Moscow became the center of the railway network. In 1869, a road was put into operation connecting Moscow with the southern grain-producing provinces of southern Russia.

A new stage of intensive railway construction began in the 90s. Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte (the author of the monetary reform (the introduction of the gold equivalent of the ruble), later the Chairman of the Government) attached special importance to it. Now it was carried out mainly at public expense. In 1891, construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began. In 1896, construction began in Manchuria of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), the eastern branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

The abolition of serfdom caused a short hitch in the industrial development of the country, because... Possession peasants left the manufactories. Soon, however, industrial development picked up. The most significant successes were observed in textile production, which at that time was the leading branch of Russian industry. Significant growth was observed in Food Industry, especially in the sugar industry.

It was very difficult for the metallurgical industry to adapt to the new conditions, where it was necessary not only to switch to civilian labor, but also to carry out technical re-equipment. Many Ural factories are falling into disrepair. However, at the same time (from the mid-70s) new center industrial production in the Donetsk basin.

The Russian economy gradually entered the global economy and began to experience cyclical fluctuations in its development. IN 1873 Russia was first affected by the global industrial crisis.

In the first post-reform 20th anniversary, the main industrial regions of Russia were finally formed - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ural and Southern (Donbass). The textile industry predominated in the Moscow region. In St. Petersburg - metalworking and mechanical engineering. The Ural and Southern regions were the base of the metallurgical industry.

Back to top 1890 's in Russia is ending, which began back in 1830-40 gg., industrial revolution, i.e. transition from manufactory to factory, from manual labor to the machine one. The industrial revolution had social consequences - there was a transition from the class structure of society to the class one. The main classes of society became the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

The agricultural development of Russia in the post-reform period was not so successful. It was especially difficult in black soil areas, where peasants had difficulty switching to new ways of farming.

Landowner farms remained the main supplier of export grain. This indicates that the development of agriculture in Russia proceeded mainly along Prussian ways.

Signs of the Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Large plot sizes - latifundium.
• The owners of the latifundia are privileged landowners-latifundists.
• The plots are cultivated by numerous low-paid hired workers (farms) or slaves (as in the USA or pre-reform Russia).

Only in the steppe Trans-Volga region and the North Caucasus, where landownership was weak or did not exist at all, did agriculture develop according to American(farmer) way. These areas became the breadbasket of Russia and the main supplier of grain for export.

Signs of the American path of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Small allotment sizes.
• The plot belongs to the farmer. In Russia they are called kulaks.
• The farmer himself and a few farm laborers cultivate the plot.

After the reform of 1861, the Russian village accelerated social differentiation- process of separation from total mass peasantry rural bourgeoisie ( kulaks), owners of strong peasant farms serving their own needs ( middle peasants) and the rural poor ( farm laborers).

The development of capitalism in the countryside was hampered by the preservation of the community (“rural society”). The community acted as the owner of the land. She was involved in the distribution of land plots (in order to equalize the chances of a good harvest, peasants received land in stripes, that is, at different ends of the communal lands). The main bodies of community government were the village assembly and the village headman elected by it. One of the fundamental principles for the community was the principle of mutual responsibility.

Social movement of the second half of the 50-60s of the XIX century.

The reforms of Alexander II caused opposition among conservatives. The brightest representative of this trend was M.N. Katkov - editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti, who left after Polish uprising 1863-1864 liberal camp. He believed that the reforms led to a separation of the intelligentsia from the people and violated the previously existing unity of the people with the tsar.

In the second half of the 19th century. In Russia, the ideas of liberalism are further developed, which are approved in a number of zemstvos. Liberal zemstvo leaders put forward the slogan “ positive work locally,” attempts were also made to create an all-Russian zemstvo center. Russian liberals saw the main goal in establishing constitutional government. Most famous figures liberal zemstvo movement were I.I. Petrunkevich, D.N. Shipov, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin.

At the same time, a significant part of the educated society was captured revolutionary sentiments. This is the direction social movement quickly lost its noble character. The children of peasants, townspeople, clergy, and impoverished nobility quickly turned into intellectuals - commoners standing outside the classes. Parting with their past, they quickly ceased to respect the foundations and traditions ( nihilism). The mood of general pessimism and hatred of the state was strengthened by the introduction in 1861 of high tuition fees at universities. It was the various intelligentsia that became the main base of the revolutionary movement in post-reform Russia.

The reform of 1861 in no way satisfied the radical public. Chernyshevsky becomes her idol and inspirer. Obviously, he was the main organizer of the “proclamation campaign” of 1861. The proclamations distributed in Moscow and St. Petersburg contained demands for more decisive and successive transformations backed by threat popular uprising. In response, the authorities in 1861-1862. produced whole line arrests, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to hard labor. Throughout the 1860s. The radical intelligentsia tried several times to create a strong organization. However, neither the group “Land and Freedom” (1861-1863, Chernyshevsky’s organization) nor the circle of N.A. could become such. Ishutin (whose member D.V. Karakozov shot Alexander II in 1866), nor “ People's reprisal"(1869) under the direction of S.T. Nechaev (members of the organization killed student Ivanov on suspicion of betrayal). S.T. Nechaev is the author of the book “ Catechism of a Revolutionary».

Revolutionary populism

At the turn of the 1860-1870s. ideology is emerging revolutionary populism. It found its complete expression in the works of M.A. Bakunina, P.L. Lavrova, P.N. Tkachev. Firmly convinced that humanity must inevitably come to socialism in its development, these ideologists placed special hopes on peasant community in Russia, considering it as the embryo of socialism (the theory of “community socialism” by A.I. Herzen). It was typical for the populists negative attitude to capitalism, which could destroy the peasant community. Converging on the basic theoretical principles, the leading ideologists of populism proposed various means for their implementation.

M.A. Bakunin ( 6untar direction of populism) saw such a remedy in immediate peasant revolt, to which the peasants should be inspired by the example of the revolutionary intelligentsia. At the same time, Bakunin and his supporters denied the need for a state, relying on self-government of communities. M.A. Bakunin and his comrade-in-arms P. Kropotkin became the founders of Russian anarchism.

P.L. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) supported the idea of ​​a peasant revolution and considered revolutionary intellectuals as a force capable of inspiring the masses to participate in it through prolonged propaganda.

P.N. Tkachev ( conspiratorial direction) proceeded from the fact that the gap between the people and the intelligentsia is too significant and, in essence, insurmountable. It is impossible to rouse the peasants into a conscious revolutionary movement. The community must be liberated by the intelligentsia, seizing power through an armed coup and carrying out the necessary transformations from above.

In the late 1860s - early 1870s. In Russia, a number of populist circles arose among students. IN 1874 their members begin mass going to the people, for the purpose of carrying out revolutionary propaganda. However, it was not possible to rouse the peasants to revolution - all their calls were met with distrust and hostility among the peasants. The reason for this lay in the persisting belief in the “good king” among the peasants.

After an unsuccessful campaign among the people, the populists decide to change their tactics and move to “ sedentary"(constant, systematic) propaganda. IN 1876 g. arises " Earth and Will"(second) - an organization that played the role of a coordination center for populist propaganda. Its unsuccessful activities lead the populists to the idea of ​​the need to abandon propaganda methods of struggle. IN 1879 There is a split of “Land and Freedom” into “Black Redistribution” and “People’s Will”.

« Black redistribution", whose leaders were G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod and V.I. Zasulich remained in propaganda positions. Soon its members left Russia and in 1883 created the first Russian Marxist organization in Geneva “ Liberation of labor».

« People's will" united the populists - supporters of the tactics of individual terror. This method of struggle existed earlier as a disorganizing method of work for “Land and Freedom”. The most famous terrorist of that time was V. Zasulich (later a member of the “Black Redistribution”), who in 1878 made an attempt on the life of St. Petersburg mayor D.F. Trepov. Later, the jury acquitted Zasulich, thereby justifying political terror in general. Zasulich herself later moved away from terror.

The leaders of “Narodnaya Volya” were A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Perovskaya and V.N. Figner.

The activities of Narodnaya Volya led to government response measures. Not wanting to completely curtail the reform policy, Alexander II began to pursue a unique policy (“ Dictatorship of the heart"). On February 12, 1880, the Supreme Council was formed administrative commission. It was headed by M. T. Loris-Melikov, who, on the one hand, continued the merciless fight against the revolutionary underground; on the other hand, he carried out a number of measures that softened censorship and arbitrariness of the local administration. In addition, Loris-Melikov presented the tsar with a project for democratic reforms, providing, in particular, for the convening of a central all-Russian zemstvo body (“ Loris-Melikov Constitution"). He was enthusiastically greeted by liberals and approved by Alexander II.

March 1, 1881 Alexander II was killed by Narodnaya Volya. His son Alexander III came to power. Loris-Melikov's project was rejected. Reaction reigned in the country, and populist organizations were destroyed. People's Volunteers Perovskaya, Mikhailov, Kibalchich, Zhelyabov and Rysakov were hanged.

In the post-reform period, in conditions of intensive industrial development, labor movement. In 1875, the “South Russian Union of Workers” arose in Odessa (leader E.O. Zaslavsky), in 1878 in St. Petersburg - the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” (V.P. Obnorsky, S.N. Khalturin). Their participants advocated the overthrow of the autocracy, political freedoms, social reconstruction. Labor organizations, while essentially Marxist, were heavily influenced by the Narodniks during this period.

In the 80s The labor movement becomes more organized and mass strikes begin. The most significant of these occurred in 1885 at the Morozov textile factory in Ivanovo-Voznesensk (“Morozov strike”). In the 90s There is a new rise in the strike movement. The workers' protests prompted the government to adopt a number of laws.

Domestic policy of autocracy at the end of the 19th century.

Reign Alexandra III(1881 - 1894) went down in history as the time of “counter-reforms”. The ideologists of the new political course were Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev (educator of the new emperor), Minister of Internal Affairs D.A. Tolstoy, famous publicist and public figure M.N. Katkov, who considered any borrowing from the West harmful and insisted on adjusting the reforms already carried out.

The practical implementation of the new course boiled down to the following:

1. Introduction of the Institute of Zemstvo Chiefs ( 1889 ). They were appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs from among the local noble landowners and exercised administrative and police control and judicial functions over the peasants. The power of the zemstvo chiefs strengthened the positions of the landowners and the government.
2. Zemstvo counter-reform ( 1890 ). During elections to zemstvos, the number of representatives from landowners increased due to a decrease in the property qualification. For urban residents, the qualifications, on the contrary, increased. All these measures were designed to strengthen the position of the nobility in local authorities self-government.
3. The property and educational qualifications for jurors were increased, which increased the representation of the nobility (1887).
4. University Charter 1884 effectively abolished the autonomy of universities. Representatives of the “lower classes” found it difficult to obtain an education. " Circular about cook's children» ( 1887 ) recommended closing the doors of the gymnasium to children not from noble families.
5. In accordance with " Regulations on measures to protect state security and public peace» ( 1881 ) a state of emergency could be declared in any part of the empire. Local authorities received the right to arrest “suspicious persons”, exile them without trial for up to 5 years to any locality and bring them before a military court, close educational institutions and press organs, and suspend the activities of zemstvos.
6. The attitude towards religious dissent became tougher, and the rights of persons of non-Orthodox religion, especially Jews, were limited. The government pursued a policy of forced Russification of the national outskirts.

Considering the domestic policy of Alexander III, it is important to emphasize that the government implemented a number of measures aimed at improving the situation of peasants and workers.

IN 1881 g. all former landowner peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption, i.e. temporary relationships were abolished. The Peasant Bank was created (1882), which was supposed to assist peasants and peasant societies in the purchase of privately owned lands. In 1883 - 1885 The poll tax from peasants was reduced and then abolished.

In the 80s, the first attempts were made to regulate relations between workers and industrialists, to develop the basis of labor legislation: child labor was prohibited, fines were reduced, and a factory inspectorate was established to oversee compliance with working conditions.

Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

After the end of the Crimean War, the main task of Russian foreign policy was the revision of the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856). Taking advantage of the contradictions between European states (primarily Prussia and France), Russian diplomacy led by A.M. Gorchakov was able to successfully solve this problem by announcing in 1870 d. on refusal to comply with the terms of the Paris Treaty. Already in the early 1870s. Russia is creating a navy in the Black Sea, restoring destroyed fortresses and beginning to resolve the Eastern Question.

1877-1878 gg. - the last Russian-Turkish war.

Causes of the war:

1. Russia's desire to resolve the Eastern Question.
2. The need to provide assistance to the fraternal Balkan peoples in their liberation struggle against the Ottoman yoke.
3. Russia faces the task of returning Southern Bessarabia, lost as a result of the Crimean War.
4. Russia is seeking to regain the international authority it lost after its defeat in the Crimean War.

April 12, 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The fighting took place simultaneously in the Balkans (under the leadership of I.V. Gurko and M.D. Skobelev) and in Transcaucasia (M.T. Loris-Melikov). The main events of the war were the defense of the Shipka Pass and the siege of the Turkish fortress of Plevna (it was captured only in November 1877; E.I. Totleben took part in the siege). In Transcaucasia, the fortresses of Batum and Erzurum were taken. IN February 1878 in the town San Stefano An agreement was signed near Constantinople, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received complete independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. Southern Bessarabia was returned to Russia.

However, the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East region frightened the Western European powers and, above all, Germany. They protested against the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano. In summer 1878 A congress was held in Berlin, at which Russia found itself in complete isolation. As a result, the Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania retained their independence, but Bulgaria was divided into two parts: the North received full autonomy, and the South remained a Turkish province. Turkey's colonies were divided among European states.

At the end of the nineteenth century. German Empire strengthens and begins to be perceived by the Russian government as the most dangerous enemy. Also in 1873 Russia agrees to the creation of " Union of Three Emperors"with the participation of Austria-Hungary and Germany, thus hoping to prevent the aggravation of relations with them. However, the disagreements between its members turned out to be too great and in 1878 the “Union” collapsed.

In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy concluded the so-called Triple Alliance, directed against France, but also threatening Russia.

The Russian government was forced to start looking for an ally, now for a joint fight against Triple Alliance. In 1891-92. is created Franco-Russian alliance. This was the beginning Entente(from French - agreement), opposing the Triple Alliance.

An important task facing the Russian foreign policy department was demarcation ( clear definition) borders with China. IN 1858 The Aigun Treaty was signed, according to which the border was drawn along the Amur River. The Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur remained in the joint possession of both states. IN 1860 g. - Beijing Treaty. Taking advantage of China's weakness, Russia annexes the Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur.

Another direction of foreign policy was the accession Central Asia.

In 1864, the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva, having suffered a series of military defeats, recognized vassal dependence on Russia. The Kokand Khanate, which declared gazavat to Russia, was destroyed as a state: in 1876 its lands were included in the Turkestan region. The fight against the Turkmen tribes ended only in 1881, when M.D. Ashgabat and Geok-Tepe were taken by Skobelev.

Joining Russia was a boon for the local population: they stopped feudal feuds; blood feud began to become a thing of the past; slavery was abolished. The local population preserved its language, religion, culture, and national customs.

IN 1867 Alaska was sold to the United States for $7.2 million.

Culture of the second half of the 19th century.

The basis of secondary education continued to be gymnasiums, real and commercial schools. However, only gymnasiums were given the right to enter the university. In 1878, Higher Women's (Bestuzhev) Courses were opened, marking the beginning of higher women's education.

Russian science and technology in the post-reform period was represented by a whole galaxy of outstanding scientists. In the field of mathematics, P.L. continued his work. Chebyshev, A.M. Lyapunov, S.V. Kovalevskaya (the world's first female professor of mathematics). IN chemical science A.M. Butlerov proposed a theory of the chemical structure of substances, D.I. Mendeleev discovered periodic law chemical elements.

Major scientific discoveries were made in physics. A.G. Stoletov investigated and described photoelectric phenomena. P.N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp and was the first to transform alternating current. A.N. Lodygin designed an incandescent lamp. Main focus scientific activity A.S. Popov was the study of electromagnetic phenomena, its result was the invention of radio. The works of N.I. were of great importance for the development of aircraft manufacturing and practical aeronautics. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern hydro- and aeromechanics. First design experiments aircraft(aircraft) were produced by A.F. Mozhaisky.

Biological sciences during this period developed under the influence evolutionary doctrine. Works by I.I. Mechnikov's studies in evolutionary embryology, pathology and immunology were recognized by scientists all over the world. At the origins of the Russian physiological school was I.M. Sechenov. One of the areas of his scientific activity was the study of the human psyche. I.P. Pavlov carried out extensive experimental research in the field of higher nervous activity and formulated the main provisions of the theory of conditioned reflexes. The development of agronomic science is associated with the names of V.V. Dokuchaev (founder of modern soil science) and K.A. Timiryazev (researcher of plant physiology).

New generalizing works on Russian history appear: the 29-volume “ History of Russia since ancient times" CM. Solovyov and " Russian history course» his student V.O. Klyuchevsky. Such outstanding representatives of Russian historical science as S.F. begin their scientific, pedagogical and social activities. Platonov and M.N. Pokrovsky. Notable event scientific life steel works by M.M. Kovalevsky on general history.

Russian geographers and travelers continue to explore the little-studied territories of our planet. Admiral F.P. Litke carried out a survey of Kamchatka, Chukotka and some islands in the North Pacific Ocean. N.M. Przhevalsky, P.K. Kozlov, P.P. Semenov-Tianshansky studied the regions of Central and Central Asia during his travels. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay - the coast of New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.

The main process taking place in Russian literature and art of this period was democratization. Artistic culture takes on a simpler, more accessible character.

Second half of the 19th century. – the most important stage in development Russian literature. Creativity L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhova, I.S. Turgeneva, E. Saltykova-Shchedrina, A.A. Fet and many others had a huge influence on Russian and world literature.

In painting, as in literature, the realistic direction becomes dominant. IN 1870 g. arises " Association of Traveling Exhibitions", which united the majority of realist artists - I.N. Kramskoy (portrait of L.N. Tolstoy), A.K. Savrasov (“ The Rooks Have Arrived"), I.E. Repin ( “Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn’t Wait”, “Cossacks Write a Letter to the Turkish Sultan”), IN AND. Surikov ( “Boyaryna Morozova”, “Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Conquest of Siberia by Ermak”), who opposed “academicism” in the fine arts.

According to their own aesthetic views The outstanding Russian sculptor M.M. was close to the “Wanderers”. Antokolsky. He is the author sculptural portraits "Ermak", "Nestor the Chronicler", "Ivan the Terrible".

According to the project M.O. Mikeshin in Novgorod, a monument was erected “ Millennium of Russia" Mikeshin was also the author of monuments to Catherine II in St. Petersburg and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv. Vivid examples of monumental sculpture were the monuments erected according to the designs of A.M. Opekushin (Pushkin - in Moscow and Lermontov - in Pyatigorsk).

Musical art was distinguished in these years by the use of folk motifs. The motifs of folk music were most clearly presented in the operas of A.S. Dargomyzhsky (“ Mermaid"), M.P. Mussorgsky (" Boris Godunov"), ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov (“ The Tsar's Bride"), A.P. Borodin (“ Prince Igor"), who formed a circle of musicians known as " Mighty bunch" The most popular in these years was the work of P.I. Tchaikovsky, who created outstanding operas ( "Eugene Onegin", "Queen of Spades"), ballet ( "Swan Lake", "Nutcracker") and symphonic (1st Piano Concerto) works.

Eclecticism (combining features of different styles in one work) dominated among architectural styles. The pseudo-Russian style became a variety of eclecticism.

Examples of this style are buildings in Moscow Historical Museum (architects A.A. Semenov and V.O. Sherwood), City Duma(architect D.N. Chichagov), current Gumma(architect A.N. Pomerantsev).

For the broadest sections of Russian society, theater was one of the most accessible forms of art. The basis of the repertoire of both capital and provincial theaters were plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhova, N.V. Gogol. Realistic traditions in acting, laid down by M.S. Shchepkin, successfully continued and developed by outstanding Russian actors M.P. and O.O. Sadovsky, G.N. Fedotova, M.N. Ermolova, P.A. Strepetova. Center theatrical life The Maly Theater in Moscow was rightfully considered Russia.

Russia in the second half of the 19th century

On February 18, 1855, after the death of Nicholas I, his son Alexander II ascended the throne. His reign (1855-1881) was marked by deep modernization of Russian society. February 19, 1861 was made public Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the legislative acts that constituted the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom” were approved. In 1864, zemstvo self-government (gradually, in 34 provinces of European Russia), jury trials and the legal profession were introduced, in 1870 - city self-government, in 1874 - universal military service.

In 1863, an uprising broke out in Poland. It was suppressed. In 1864 Russia managed to complete Caucasian war, which lasted 47 years. Annexation to Russia in 1865-1876. significant territories of Central Asia confronted the tsarist administration with the need to organize the management of a remote foreign cultural outskirts.
Reforms of the 1860-1870s led to a sharp growth of the economy and especially industry. The most noticeable aspect of this growth was the “railway boom” of the second half of the 1860s and early 1870s, during which the most important highways were built: Moscow-Kursk (1868), Kursk-Kyiv (1870), Moscow -Brest (1871).
IN mid-19th century V. Russia was an agricultural country, the largest producer and supplier of agricultural products. Under the terms of the abolition of serfdom, peasants had to buy back their land plots. “Redemption payments” placed a heavy burden on rural communities and often lasted for long years, which caused more than 1,300 mass protests by peasants, of which more than 500 were suppressed by force. Communal land use (the inability to manage their plots) and land shortages caused discontent among the peasants and restrained the growth of the working class, and the lack of social guarantees from the state led to increased exploitation of workers.

The ideas of V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), who believed, became widespread in society at this time. what's ideal government system can only be established on the principles of extending the communal order familiar to the Russian village to the entire society. He saw a general peasant uprising as a means of restructuring social life. To prepare for this all-Russian peasant revolt, the revolutionary youth tried to organize propaganda of their ideas among the peasants (“going to the people” in 1874-1875), but among the peasants naive monarchical sentiments were still very strong. Some young people mistakenly believed that the murder of the Tsar would automatically cause the collapse of the state apparatus, which would facilitate the revolution. Already in 1866, the first attempt on the life of Alexander II took place, and in 1879, the secret organization “People's Will” arose, which set as its task terror against prominent employees of the tsarist administration, and as its highest goal - regicide. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by the “populists,” but the peasant revolution did not occur.

The son of Alexander II, Alexander III, became king. His reign (1881-1894) was characterized by protective tendencies. The new monarch sought in every possible way to strengthen state machine and improve the country's governance. To do this, he went for a partial curtailment of the reforms that were carried out by Alexander II. In historiography this period is called "period of counter-reforms". Zemstvo chiefs (nobles) appeared in the districts to manage peasant affairs; Security departments were established in the provinces to combat the revolutionary movement. The rights of zemstvo self-government were significantly limited, and the electoral system was changed in order to ensure the predominance of delegates from landowners in zemstvo bodies. Reactionary changes were made in judicial and censorship matters. On the other hand, the administration of Alexander III sought to act as a social arbiter. The government was forced to pass laws to limit the exploitation of workers. In 1883 the poll tax was abolished.

Alexander III died in 1894. His son Nicholas II ascended the throne, who, like his father, fought against liberal tendencies and was a consistent supporter of absolute monarchy, which, however, did not prevent him from favorably treating certain innovations and transformations if they were tactical in nature and did not affect the foundations of autocracy. In particular, during the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917), gold backing of the ruble and a state wine monopoly were introduced, which significantly improved the country’s finances. The Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of which was completed in those years, connected the Far Eastern borders with the central regions of Russia. In 1897 it was carried out The first All-Russian population census.
The liberation of peasants from serfdom contributed to the rapid development of capitalism: the emergence large number industrial and commercial enterprises, banks, construction of railways, development of agricultural production. By the end of the 19th century. the number of workers doubled and reached 1.5 million people. In 1879-1900 specific gravity large enterprises increased from 4 to 16%, i.e., 4 times, workers at them - from 67 to 76%.

The growth of the proletariat was accompanied by the emergence of the first revolutionary workers' organizations. In 1883, G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918) and his associates in Geneva united in the “Emancipation of Labor” group, which laid the foundation for the spread of Marxism in Russia. The group developed a program of Russian social democracy, the final goal of which was the creation of a workers' party, the overthrow of the autocracy, the seizure of political power by the working class, the transfer of the means and instruments of production to public ownership, the elimination of market relations and the organization of planned production. Publications of this group were distributed in Russia in more than 30 provincial centers and industrial cities.
Marxist circles began to emerge in Russia (by the end of the 19th century there were about 30 of them). In 1892, V.I. Lenin (Ulyanov, 1870-1924) began revolutionary activities in Samara. In 1895, together with members of the Marxist circle of technology students (S. I. Radchenko, M. A. Silvin, G. M. Krzhizhanovsky, etc.) and St. Petersburg workers (I. V. Babushkin, V. A. Shelgunov, B.I. Zinoviev and others) Lenin created an organization in St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class", which was soon crushed by the police, and Lenin had to emigrate.

In 1898, a congress of representatives of the St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Yekaterinoslav “unions of struggle” and the Bund (the party of the Jewish proletariat) took place in Minsk. The congress proclaimed the creation Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) and chose Central Committee(Central Committee). On instructions from the congress, the Central Committee issued Manifesto of the RSDLP, in which the democratic and socialist tasks of the Russian proletariat and its party were briefly stated. However, the party did not yet have a program and charter, its local committees were in a state of ideological and organizational confusion.
In 1855, the Kuril Islands were officially included in Russia. The annexation of the Amur region and Primorye was formalized Aigunsky(1858) and Beijing(1860) treaties with China. According to the Treaty of Aigun, the undelimited lands on the left bank of the Amur were recognized as the possession of Russia, and according to the Treaty of Beijing, Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was transferred to it. In 1875, Sakhalin Island passed to Russia, and the Kuril Islands to Japan.
In 1867 from the annexed possessions Kokand Khanate and the Bukhara Emirate, the Turkestan Governor-General was formed. In 1868, the Samarkand and Kata-Kurgan districts of the Bukhara Emirate were annexed to Russia, which recognized the protectorate of Russia. In 1869, the Transcaspian military department was formed with its center in Krasnovodsk. After 1881, the Transcaspian region was formed with its Center in Askhabad. By agreement with Great Britain (England), on September 10, 1885, the Russian border with Afghanistan was established, and in 1895, the border in the Pamirs.
In the spring of 1875, an uprising broke out in Russia's Turkish possessions in the Balkans. The Serbs turned to the Russian government for help, which demanded that Turkey conclude a truce with the Serbs. The refusal of the Turks caused the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. In the summer of 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and entered Bulgaria.

However, there was not enough strength for a decisive offensive. The detachment of General Gurko advanced to the south occupied the Shipka Pass on the Balkan Range, but was unable to advance further. On the other hand, numerous attempts by the Turks to knock the Russians off the pass were also unsuccessful. The delay of the Russians in occupying Plevna on the western front of the Trans-Danube bridgehead became especially dangerous. Turkish troops were the first to achieve this strategically important point and became entrenched in it. Three extremely bloody assaults on July 8 (20), July 18 (30) and August 30-31 (September 11-12), 1877 were unsuccessful. In the fall, the Russians occupied the fortifications of Telish and Gorny Dubnyak, finally blockading Plevna. Trying to support the encircled fortress, the Turks launched a counteroffensive immediately from Sofia and on the eastern front of the bridgehead. In the Sofia direction, the Turkish counter-offensive was repulsed, and Eastern front The Russian position was broken through, and only a desperate counterattack by Russian troops, which crushed the Turkish formations near Zlataritsa, stabilized the front. Having exhausted the possibilities of resistance, after unsuccessful attempt breakthrough, the Pleven garrison capitulated on November 28 (December 10), 1877. In the winter of 1877-1878. in incredibly difficult weather conditions Russian troops crossed the Balkan ridge and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turks at Sheinovo. On January 3-5 (15-17), 1878, in the battle of Philippopolis (Plovdiv), the last Turkish army was defeated, and on January 8 (20), Russian troops occupied Adrianople without any resistance. According to the Berlin Treaty, on July 13, 1878, Southern Bessarabia, Batum, Kars and Ardagan were annexed to Russia.
The trends in literature and art that emerged in the first half of the 19th century received their further development and in the second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century
Reforms of the 1860-1870s were real revolution, the consequence of which was fundamental changes in social, state and entire national life, which could not but affect the development of culture. There was not only a social, but also a spiritual emancipation of the people, who had new cultural needs and opportunities to satisfy them. The circle of intellectuals and bearers of culture has also expanded significantly. Scientific and technological progress, which served as both factors and indicators of cultural development, was also of no small importance.

Beginning of the 20th century - this is the “Silver Age” of Russian culture, primarily in the field of literature and art. Russia has firmly entered the system of world powers, closely linked by economic, political and cultural ties. In Russia, novelties of scientific and technological progress of advanced countries (telephone, cinema, gramophone, automobile, etc.), achievements exact sciences; became widespread in literature and art various directions. And global culture has been significantly enriched by the achievements of Russian science, literature and art. Performances by Russian composers, opera singers, and ballet masters took place in famous theaters in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the USA.
IN Russian literature second half of the 19th century V. The themes of folk life and various socio-political trends received a particularly vivid depiction. At this time, the creativity of outstanding Russian writers L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky flourished. In the 1880-1890s. in Russian literature, A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky stand out. The traditions of critical realism inherent in these writers found their continuation and development in the works of those who came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. writers of the new generation - A. M. Gorky, A. I. Kuprin, I. A. Bunin.
Along with this trend, especially in the pre-revolutionary decade and mainly in the poetic environment, various literary circles and associations emerged, seeking to move away from traditional aesthetic norms and ideas. The associations of symbolists (the poet V. Ya. Bryusov was the creator and theorist of Russian symbolism) included K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, A. Bely, A. A. Block. A direction opposite to symbolism, acmeism arose in Russian poetry in 1910 (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam). Representatives of another modernist movement in Russian literature and art - futurism - denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values(V.V. Khlebnikov, Igor Severyanin, early V.V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).
The Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg and the Maly Theater in Moscow remained the main centers of Russian theatrical culture in the second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century In the repertoire of the Maly Theater leading place occupied by the plays of A. N. Ostrovsky. Prov Sadovsky, Sergei Shumsky, Maria Ermolova, Alexander Sumbatov-Yuzhin and others stood out among the actors of the Maly Theater. Maria Savina, Vladimir Davydov, Polina Strepetova shone on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater.
In the 1860-1870s. Private theaters and theater groups began to emerge. In 1898 in Moscow, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Art Theater, and in 1904 in St. Petersburg, V. F. Komissarzhevskaya created the Drama Theater.
Second half of the 19th century. - blooming time Russian musical art. Anton and Nikolai Rubinstein played a major role in the development and organization of music education. N. G. Rubinstein initiated the creation of the Moscow Conservatory (1866).
In 1862, the “Balakirev Circle” (or, in the words of V. Stasov, “The Mighty Handful”) was formed in St. Petersburg, which included M. A. Balakirev, T. A. Cui, A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Operas by Mussorgsky “Khovanshchina” and “Boris Godunov”, Rimsky-Korsakov’s “Sadko”, “The Pskov Woman” and “The Tsar’s Bride” are masterpieces of Russian and world musical classics. The greatest composer of the era was P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), whose creativity flourished in the 1870-1880s. P. I. Tchaikovsky is the largest creator of symphonic, ballet and opera music (ballets “Swan Lake”, “The Nutcracker”, “Sleeping Beauty”; operas “Eugene Onegin”, “The Queen of Spades”, “Mazeppa”, “Iolanta”, etc. .). Tchaikovsky wrote over a hundred romances, mostly based on the works of Russian poets.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. A galaxy of talented composers appeared in Russian music: A.K. Glazunov, S.I. Taneyev, A.S. Arensky, A.K. Lyadov, I.F. Stravinsky, A.N. Scriabin. With the help of wealthy patrons, private operas arose, among which the private opera of S. I. Mamontov in Moscow became widely known. On its stage, the talent of F.I. Chaliapin was fully revealed.

IN Russian painting Critical realism took a dominant position, the main theme of which was the depiction of the life of the common people, especially the peasantry. First of all, this theme was embodied in the works of the Itinerant artists (I. N. Kramskoy, N. N. Ge, V. N. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. E. Makovsky, G. G. Myasodoev, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, I. E. Repin, A. I. Kuindzhi, I. I. Levitan). An outstanding representative of Russian battle painting was V.V. Vereshchagin, the largest marine painter was I.K. Aivazovsky. In 1898 there arose creative association artists "World of Art", which included A. N. Benois, D. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lanceray, B. M. Kustodiev, K. A. Korovin, N. K. Roerich , I. E. Grabar.
Implementation into architecture achievements of industrial progress and technical innovations contributed to the construction of structures characteristic of the industrial development of the country: factory buildings, railway stations, banks, shopping centers. Art Nouveau became the leading style, along with which buildings of the Old Russian and Byzantine style were erected: Upper shopping arcades (now GUM, architect A. N. Pomerantsev), buildings of the Historical Museum in Moscow (architect V. O. Sherwood) and the Moscow City Duma ( architect D. N. Chichagov) and others.
A significant event in social and cultural life was the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880, sculptor A. M. Opekushin). Among the outstanding sculptors of this time are: M. M. Antakolsky, A. S. Golubkina, S. T. Konenkov.

Developed successfully the science. The discovery is associated with the name of the great scientist D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) Periodic table elements; I. M. Sechenov’s research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity was continued by I. P. Pavlov; I. I. Mechnikov created the doctrine of the body’s protective factors, which formed the basis of modern microbiology and pathology.
“The Father of Russian Aviation” E. N. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of modern aerodynamics, invented the wind tunnel and founded the Aerodynamic Institute in 1904; K. E. Tsiolkovsky laid the foundation for the theory of the movement of rockets and jet devices. Academician V.I. Vernadsky with his works gave rise to many scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, and ecology. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology.
With development natural sciences technical discoveries and inventions are associated: the creation of an incandescent light bulb (A. N. Lodygin), an arc lamp (P. N. Yablochkov), radio communication (A. S. Popov).
The outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov developed fundamental work“History of Russia since ancient times,” in which he substantiated new concept, which explained national history natural and ethnic characteristics of the Russian people.

The abolition of serfdom, despite its incompleteness, created the conditions for the rapid development of capitalism. In 1861-1900 Russia has transformed from an agricultural to an agrarian-industrial capitalist country, one of the great world powers. At the end of the 19th century. V industrial production it took fifth place, after the USA, England, Germany and France.
As a result of imperial policy, Russia annexed a huge space in Central Asia, stopping the expansion of England in this area and obtaining a raw material base for the textile industry. On Far East The Amur and Ussuri Primorye were annexed, and possession of Sakhalin was secured (in return for the cession of the Kuril Islands). Began political rapprochement with France.

The emerging revolutionary movement of the populists was unable to rouse the peasants to revolt; the terror against the tsar and senior officials turned out to be untenable. In the 1880s The spread of Marxism began, in 1892 - the revolutionary activity of Lenin, in 1898 the RSDLP was created.

Deepening socio-economic crisis in the country, defeat in the Crimean War Crimean War (1853-1856, Also Eastern War- war between the Russian Empire and a coalition consisting of the British, French, Ottoman Empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia) caused the need for radical socio-economic reforms. Peasant reform of 1861 and the series that followed it bourgeois reforms contributed to the gradual the transformation of an absolute monarchy into a bourgeoisie, a series of counter-reforms by Alexander III (1881-1894) failed to change this development.

The highest legislative body - State Council(in 1886, a new “Establishment of the State Council” was adopted, regulating its activities). State The council consisted of 5 departments: laws, civil and spiritual affairs, military affairs, state economy, industry, sciences, trade. Supreme judicial body - Governing Senate.

Since the autumn of 1857 a new government body began to operate - Council of Ministers(before him the Committee of Ministers). The Council included all ministers and other persons appointed by the emperor. In post-reform Russia, almost all ministries have significantly expanded their functions. His Imperial Majesty's Own Office lost its significance as the main government body, but continued to perform certain functions in the management system. The Council of Ministers operated until 1882.

In 1860, the State Bank was created, which was engaged in lending to industrial, trade and other activities.

The reforms have significantly changed War Ministry. Was formed under him Main Headquarters on troop control, and the departments were transformed into main directorates, which significantly improved the state of affairs in all branches of the military department. In total, in Russia at the end of the 19th century. there were about 15 ministries and institutions.

Formation of all-class self-government bodies (zemstvos, city councils) in the 60s - 70s. XIX century. January 1, 1864 “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions.” According to the “Regulations” of 1864, zemstvos were all-class institutions. A wide range of residents were involved in solving local economic issues: representatives of the nobility, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and peasants (3 curiae). They elected for 3 years District Zemstvo Assembly, which met once a year in September. Executive agency – District zemstvo government–works on a permanent basis, headed by a Chairman and 2-3 deputies. Provincial government– Chairman and 5-6 deputies – the executive body of provincial self-government. All this made local government more flexible and mobile. But the nobles still predominated in the zemstvos. The abolition of serfdom deprived the landowners - the most reliable agents of the autocracy - of power over the peasants, and the government tried to transfer power to them through zemstvo institutions. The viability of zemstvos was also ensured by their self-financing. They received the bulk of their revenue from taxes on real estate: land, forests, apartment buildings, factories, factories. However, the main object of taxation turned out to be peasant lands. A favorable factor in the activities of zemstvos were the principles of self-government. Despite the tutelage of the bureaucracy, zemstvos themselves formed governing bodies, developed a management structure, determined the main directions of their activities, selected and trained specialists, etc.
According to the “City Regulations” of 1870, in cities non-estate self-government bodies were established: administrative - the city duma and executive - the city government, elected for 4 years by city tax payers, which included the owners of various commercial and industrial establishments, houses and other income-generating properties.
City councils were directly subordinate to the Senate. The mayor, being the chairman of the Duma, simultaneously headed the city government. IN major cities he was approved by the Minister of the Interior, and in minor cases by the governor. The functions of the new city government included taking care of the improvement of cities. They received the right to collect taxes from city real estate, as well as from commercial and industrial establishments. The activities of city self-government bodies had a positive impact on the development of cities, but also had significant drawbacks: a weak budget, predominant concern for the area where the city elite lived and the complete desolation of the working outskirts, and an indifferent attitude towards the poor.

Pre-reform court was class, dependent on the administration, there was no competitiveness, publicity, the investigation was in the hands of the police. All this gave rise to the possibility of abuse. Judicial statutes of 1864 were aimed at eliminating these shortcomings and provided for the introduction of the institution of jurors. The court in Russia was proclaimed speedy, just, merciful, equal for all subjects, with a respected and independent judiciary. The trial could only begin in the presence of a lawyer. Judicial statutes allowed cassation in cases of violation of legal proceedings or the emergence of new evidence in favor of the convicted person.

Magistrate's Court– a judge is elected by the population for a term of 5 years. Judges are divided into district judges - they have a place, a salary; and the official judge - on public principles. They considered minor criminal cases (up to 2 years of punishment), civil cases (with claims of no more than 500 rubles). Once a year, a congress of justices of the peace was held to consider complaints against the justices of the peace themselves. They can be appealed to the Senate, which was the highest authority. The main authority is District Court– a judge is appointed by the Senate for life. The population elects judicial jurors (12+2 reserves) - this is a very democratic judicial reform. Trial Chamber– to appeal decisions of the District Court. As a result, Russia received one of the best judicial systems in the world.

Incompleteness of the reforms of the 60-70s. was, first of all, that economic reforms were not accompanied by political reforms, bringing the system of power and management in line with the level of economic development and the requirements of society.
The government's position was consistent with the basic principle of Russian conservatism: the state is the main force. The government pursued openly protectionist and hard-line policies. financial control. The overall result of the audit of the reforms of the 60-70s. was the creation of administrative bodies for managing the village; minimizing the role of public self-government in zemstvo and city institutions, strengthening the control of the Ministry of Internal Affairs over them; restriction of the elective principle when filling positions; transfer of cases from judicial institutions to institutions that were in direct connection with the management administration. Passed laws had to return to the nobility its position in the management of the state and society, preserve the class structure and autocracy of power. However, this did not happen. The spread of conservative ideas by their authors was exaggerated, and a complete turn back did not happen. Society did not allow it to be done, and even among the nobility itself, the tendency towards all-class status intensified.

Counter-reforms: 1) 1866. Zemstvos were prohibited from collecting taxes from industrial enterprises; 2) Censorship was introduced on the press of zemstvo institutions. The Governor's control has been expanded - a special presence in zemstvo institutions.

Urban reform of 1870–"Urban situation"– the population is divided into three categories: top taxpayers, middle ones, the rest – they elect same number deputies. Elected City Duma– city government body (for 4 years). Executive agency - "City Government", which is controlled by the Governor.

Assassination of Alexander II. His son, Alexander III, ascended the throne. Reforms of the 60-70s were not assessed unambiguously. There were two main assessments. Some believed that the reforms had gone too far, they threatened the foundations of the monarchy and they should not only be stopped, but also returned back to their original positions, restored “the way it was.” One of the main leaders of this movement surrounded by Alexander III was K.P. Pobedonostsev.
Another group believed and insisted that the reforms were not completed, they needed to be continued and expanded, first of all, to bring them to the reform of government bodies and public administration. Contemporaries associated this direction, first of all, with the name of M.T. Loris-Melikov, the last Minister of Internal Affairs during the reign of Alexander II. In the last months of the reign of Emperor Alexander II, he served as Minister of Internal Affairs with expanded powers and pursued a liberal internal political line. Enormous power was concentrated in the hands of Loris-Melikov, which is why contemporaries began to call this time the “dictatorship of Loris-Melikov”