History of Russia Derevianko Shabelnikov download 3rd edition. Jokes from school essays

Russian history

Derevyanko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A.

Derevyanko A. P., Shabelnikova N. A.

D36 History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2006. - 560 p.

The textbook outlines the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, taking into account latest research By national history. The problems of socio-economic and political development countries, domestic and foreign policies, culture are considered. The manual will allow you to successfully prepare for exams and seminar classes in accordance with state educational standard higher vocational education Russian Federation. For applicants, students, graduate students, teachers, as well as anyone interested in history.

Preface	3
Chapter 1. The primitive era of mankind	16
Chapter 2. Slave-owning civilizations of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region. Ancient Slavs (1st millennium BC - IV century AD)	23
Chapter 3. East Slavs on the threshold of the formation of the state (VI-IX centuries)	28
Chapter 4. Ancient Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries	35
4.1.Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries)	35
4.2. Russian lands and principalities in the 11th - first half of the 13th century	49
4.3. Rus''s struggle for independence in the 13th century	56
Chapter 5. Russian Education centralized state(end of the 13th - first half of the 16th century)	65
Chapter 6. The Russian state in the 16th century. Ivan groznyj	81
Chapter 7. Russia in the 17th century	97
7.1. Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Time of Troubles	98
7.2. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. " Rebellious Age»	105
Chapter 8. Russian Empire in the 18th century	121
8.1. The birth of an empire: the time of Peter the Great (end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century)	122
8.2. Russia in the era of palace coups, 1725-1762	135
8.3. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century	148
Chapter 9. Russia in the 19th century	164
9.1. Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century	164
9.2. Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century	191
Chapter 10. Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries	210
10.1. Economic and social development	211
10.2. Political system Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	223
10.3. Revolutionary crises in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	235
10.4. Foreign policy Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	257
Chapter 11. Soviet Russia in 1917-early 20s	263
Chapter 12. The Soviet state in the first half of the 20s. XX century	282
Chapter 13. USSR on Tuethe second half of the 20s-30s. XX	295
13.1. Social and political life of the Soviet state in the 20-30s. XX century	295
13.2. Economic and social development of the USSR in the 20-30s	314
13.3. Foreign policy Soviet state (1921-1941)	325
Chapter 14. USSR during the Great Years Patriotic War(1941-1945)	339
Chapter 15. Post-war reconstruction and development of the USSR	363
Chapter 16. USSR in 1953-1964. Decade of Khrushchev	380
Chapter 17. USSR in the mid-60s to mid-80s	400
Chapter 18. Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991)	422
Chapter 19. Russia in the 90s. XX in the early 21st century V	441
Chapter 20. Culture of Russia (IX-early XXI centuries)	472
20.1. Culture ancient Russian state and eras appanage principalities(IX-XIII centuries)	473
20.2. Development of the culture of the Moscow state (XIV-XVII centuries)	478
20.3. Cultural evolution Russian Empire (XVIII-XX centuries)	487
20.4. Soviet period development of Russian culture	511
20.5. The current sociocultural situation in Russia	534
Rulers	541

PREFACE

Our era is a time of painful reassessment of values and radical experiments, a time of choosing socio-political, economic, moral and ethical guidelines for every family, every person. You and I have had the privilege of living, studying, and working during a period of change of centuries, fundamental changes in the development of society, when the pace of change in the life of states and peoples is rapidly accelerating and new, largely unknown perspectives are opening up in the historical development of Russia and the whole world.

The truth is known - parents are not chosen. In infancy and early childhood they are loved because they are parents. Then they are loved for their care, affection and help in all matters. If parents are unkind or cruel, the child is unlikely to respond to them with anything other than coldness. Growing up, a person one day tries to look at his father and mother as if from the outside, through the eyes of a curious observer, to evaluate the merits and demerits of their character in the same way as he evaluates other, non-relative people. Gradually, he determines for himself what his parents are good at and what they are bad at, that is, he begins to treat them consciously, as something explained, something that has become understandable.

The country in which a person is born, like his mother and father, can be caring or unkind. The time comes when you have to determine your attitude towards her, consciously choosing love or indifference. In order not to make mistakes, you should know the history of your fatherland. Not only a cold list of events and characters, but also the very essence of the history of our country, its pedigree. It is necessary to try to understand what the homeland is, how it became this way and what fate awaits it.

We have received from past generations a spiritual heritage, which we replenish taking into account own experience. This is knowledge of the laws of development of nature and society (science), emotional perception of the environment (culture), a set of rules of communication (morality), ideals and motives of activity (ideology, religion), methods and forms of transmitting spiritual heritage from generation to generation (education).

IN turning points there is a revaluation of the spiritual heritage: a change scientific paradigms, renewal of cultural and ethnic values, destruction of old and formation of new ideals, changes in education. This is a painful, painful, long process. It is associated with destruction

Habitual stereotypes of thinking and behavior, with the emergence of many alternative positions, with the sudden invasion of long-forgotten and discarded views.

How to choose the right path to the future, to prevent fatal mistake, distinguish the truth in this motley palette of tempting ideas? A story that contains not just a fascinating or boring (depending on the literary gift of the chronicler) description of past events and deeds can help with this historical figures and peoples. Knowledge of history presupposes generalization, comprehension of past experience, every grain of which was paid at a high price. Despite all the apparent uniqueness of the events taking place today, one can always find similarities, and considerable ones, with what peoples who found a way out of similar crises have already experienced in the past. It is necessary to learn the lessons of history, periodically adding to the acquired knowledge based on your own experience. In this sense, each of us is a student of history, diligent or frivolous.

History (from the Greek historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned) is considered in two meanings: firstly, as a process of development of nature and humanity, and, secondly, as a system of sciences that study the past of nature and society.

Generalization and processing of accumulated human experience is the primary task of history. Historia est magistra vitae (history is the teacher of life), the ancients said. And indeed, people always, especially during critical periods in the life of mankind, try to find answers to many questions in the world historical experience. On historical examples people are raised to respect the eternal human values: peace, goodness, justice, beauty, freedom. Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics. History as a single process of the evolution of nature and society is studied by a set of social sciences with the involvement of data from the natural and technical sciences.

Since antiquity, the science of the past has become an independent field of human knowledge. But science history itself developed much later (in Russia - approximately from early XVIII V.). In the XVIII-first half of the XIX century. there was a clarification of the subject of history in connection with a turn to the study of economics, culture and social relations.

For history, the object of study is the entire set of facts that characterize the life of society both in the past and in the present. The subject of history is the study of human society as a single contradictory process. Historical science includes general (world) history, within the framework of which the origin of man (his ethnogenesis) is studied, as well as the history individual countries, peoples and civilizations (domestic history) from ancient times to the present day. This takes into account its division into history primitive society, ancient, medieval, new and recent.

History is a diversified science; it is made up of a number of independent branches historical knowledge, namely: economic history,

Political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion, etc. Historical sciences include ethnography (studies the life and culture of peoples), archeology (studies the history of the origin of peoples based on material sources of antiquity - tools, household utensils, jewelry, etc. , as well as entire complexes - settlements, burial grounds, treasures).

There are auxiliary historical disciplines that have relatively narrow object studies that study it in detail and thus contribute to a deeper understanding historical process generally. These include: genealogy (the study of the origins and relationships of individuals and families), heraldry (the study of coats of arms), numismatics (the study of coins and their minting), chronology (the study of chronological systems and calendars), paleography (the study of , studying handwritten monuments and ancient writing), etc.

To the most significant auxiliary historical disciplines include source studies, which studies historical sources, and historiography (history historical science), the task of which is to describe and analyze the views, ideas and concepts of historians and study the patterns in the development of historical science.

History is a concrete science that requires exact knowledge chronology (dates) of facts, events. It is closely related to other sciences, but unlike them, it examines the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the entire set of phenomena public life, all its aspects (economics, politics, culture, everyday life, etc.), their relationships and interdependence. At the same time, each of existing sciences(social, economic, technical) has gone through its history during the development of human society. And on modern stage all sciences and arts necessarily include a historical section, for example, the history of music, the history of cinema, etc. At the intersection of historical and other sciences, interdisciplinary sciences are created, such as historical geography, historical geology, etc.

Russian history. Derevyanko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A.

2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2006. - 560 p.

The textbook outlines the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, taking into account the latest research on Russian history. The problems of socio-economic and political country development, domestic and foreign policy, culture are considered. The manual will allow you to successfully prepare for exams and seminars in accordance with the state educational standard of higher professional education of the Russian Federation. For applicants, students, graduate students, teachers, as well as anyone interested in history.

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CONTENT
Preface 3
Chapter 1. The primitive era of mankind 16
Chapter 2. Slave-owning civilizations of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region. Ancient Slavs (1st millennium BC-IV century AD) 23
Chapter 3. Eastern Slavs on the threshold of state formation (VI-IX centuries) 28
Chapter 4. Ancient Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries 35
4.1.Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries) 35
4.2. Russian lands and principalities in the 11th - first half of the 13th century 49
4.3. Rus''s struggle for independence in the 13th century in 56
Chapter 5. Formation of the Russian centralized state (end of the 13th - first half of the 16th century) 65
Chapter 6. The Russian state in the 16th century. Ivan the Terrible 81
Chapter 7. Russia in the 17th century 97
7.1. Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Time of Troubles 98
7.2. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. "Rebellious Age" 105
Chapter 8. Russian Empire in the XVIII century 121
8.1. The birth of an empire: the time of Peter the Great (end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century) 122
8.2. Russia in the era of palace coups, 1725-1762 135
8.3. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century 148
Chapter 9. Russia in the 19th century 164
9.1. Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century 164
9.2. The Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century in 191
Chapter 10. Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century 210
10.1. Economic and social development 211
10.2. The political system of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century in 223
10.3. Revolutionary crises in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century in 235
10.4. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century in 257
Chapter 11. Soviet Russia in 1917-early 20s 263
Chapter 12. The Soviet state in the first half of the 20s. XX in 282
Chapter 13. USSR in the second half of the 20s-30s. XX 295
13.1. Social and political life of the Soviet state in the 20-30s. XX in 295
13.2. Economic and social development of the USSR in the 20-30s 314
13.3. Foreign policy of the Soviet state (1921-1941) 325
Chapter 14. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) 339
Chapter 15. Post-war restoration and development of the USSR 363
Chapter 16. USSR in 1953-1964. Decade of Khrushchev 380
Chapter 17. USSR in the mid-60s to mid-80s 400
Chapter 18. Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991) 422
Chapter 19. Russia in the 90s. XX century, beginning of XXI century 441
Chapter 20. Culture of Russia (IX-early XXI centuries) 472
20.1. Culture of the Old Russian state and the era of appanage principalities (IX-XIII centuries) 473
20.2. Development of culture of the Moscow state (XIV-XVII centuries) 478
20.3. Cultural evolution of the Russian Empire (XVIII-XX centuries) 487
20.4. Soviet period of development of Russian culture 511
20.5. The current sociocultural situation in Russia 534
Rulers 541

Russian history

Derevyanko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A.

Derevyanko A. P., Shabelnikova N. A.

D36 History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2006. - 560 p.

The textbook outlines the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, taking into account the latest research on Russian history. The problems of the socio-economic and political development of the country are covered, domestic and foreign policy, and culture are considered. The manual will allow you to successfully prepare for exams and seminars in accordance with the state educational standard of higher professional education of the Russian Federation. For applicants, students, graduate students, teachers, as well as anyone interested in history.

Preface	3
Chapter 1. The primitive era of mankind	16
^ Chapter 2. Slave-owning civilizations of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region. Ancient Slavs (1st millennium BC - IV century AD)	23
^ Chapter 3. Eastern Slavs on the threshold of state formation (VI-IX centuries)	28
Chapter 4. Ancient Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries	35
4.1.Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries)	35
4.2. Russian lands and principalities in the 11th - first half of the 13th century	49
4.3. Rus''s struggle for independence in the 13th century	56
^ Chapter 5. Formation of the Russian centralized state (end of the 13th - first half of the 16th century)	65
Chapter 6. The Russian state in the 16th century. Ivan groznyj	81
^ Chapter 7. Russia in the 17th century	97
7.1. Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Time of Troubles	98
7.2. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. "Rebellious Age"	105
^ Chapter 8. Russian Empire in the 18th century	121
8.1. The birth of an empire: the time of Peter the Great (end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century)	122
8.2. Russia in the era of palace coups, 1725-1762	135
8.3. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century	148
^ Chapter 9. Russia in the 19th century	164
9.1. Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century	164
9.2. Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century	191
^ Chapter 10. Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries	210
10.1. Economic and social development	211
10.2. The political system of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	223
10.3. Revolutionary crises in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	235
10.4. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century	257
^ Chapter 11. Soviet Russia in 1917-early 20s	263
Chapter 12. The Soviet state in the first half of the 20s. XX century	282
Chapter 13. USSR on Tuethe second half of the 20s-30s. XX	295
13.1. Social and political life of the Soviet state in the 20-30s. XX century	295
13.2. Economic and social development of the USSR in the 20-30s	314
13.3. Foreign policy of the Soviet state (1921-1941)	325
^ Chapter 14. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)	339
Chapter 15. Post-war restoration and development of the USSR	363
^ Chapter 16. USSR in 1953-1964. Decade of Khrushchev	380
Chapter 17. USSR in the mid-60s to mid-80s	400
^ Chapter 18. Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991)	422
Chapter 19. Russia in the 90s. XX century, early XXI century	441
^ Chapter 20. Culture of Russia (IX-early XXI centuries)	472
20.1. Culture of the Old Russian state and the era of appanage principalities (IX-XIII centuries)	473
20.2. Development of the culture of the Moscow state (XIV-XVII centuries)	478
20.3. Cultural evolution of the Russian Empire (XVIII-XX centuries)	487
20.4. Soviet period of development of Russian culture	511
20.5. The current sociocultural situation in Russia	534
Rulers	541

PREFACE

The country in which a person is born, like his mother and father, can be caring or unkind. The time comes when you have to determine your attitude towards her, consciously choosing love or indifference. In order not to make a mistake, “you should know the history of your fatherland. Not only a cold list of events and characters, but also the very essence of the history of our country, its pedigree. It is necessary to try to understand what the homeland is, how it became this way and what fate awaits it .

We have received a spiritual heritage from past generations, which we are adding to based on our own experience. This is knowledge of the laws of development of nature and society (science), emotional perception of the environment (culture), a set of rules of communication (morality), ideals and motives of activity (ideology, religion), methods and forms of transmitting spiritual heritage from generation to generation (education).

At turning points, there is a revaluation of the spiritual heritage: a change in scientific paradigms, the renewal of cultural and ethnic values, the destruction of old and the formation of new ideals, changes in education. This is a painful, painful, long process. It is associated with destruction

Habitual stereotypes of thinking and behavior, with the emergence of many alternative positions, with the sudden invasion of long-forgotten and discarded views.

How to choose the right path to the future, avoid making a fatal mistake, and distinguish the truth in this motley palette of tempting ideas? History can help with this, which contains not just a fascinating or boring (depending on the literary gift of the chronicler) description of past events, the deeds of historical figures and peoples. Knowledge of history presupposes generalization, comprehension of past experience, every grain of which was paid at a high price. Despite all the apparent uniqueness of the events taking place today, one can always find similarities, and considerable ones, with what peoples who found a way out of similar crises have already experienced in the past. It is necessary to learn the lessons of history, periodically adding to the acquired knowledge based on your own experience. In this sense, each of us is a student of history, diligent or frivolous.

Generalization and processing of accumulated human experience is the primary task of history. Historia est magistra vitae (history is the teacher of life), the ancients said. And indeed, people always, especially during critical periods in the life of mankind, try to find answers to many questions in the world historical experience. Using historical examples, people are brought up to respect eternal human values: peace, goodness, justice, beauty, freedom. Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics. History as a single process of the evolution of nature and society is studied by a set of social sciences with the involvement of data from the natural and technical sciences.

Since antiquity, the science of the past has become an independent field of human knowledge. But the science of history itself developed much later (in Russia - approximately from the beginning of the 18th century). In the XVIII-first half of the XIX century. there was a clarification of the subject of history in connection with a turn to the study of economics, culture and social relations.

For history, the object of study is the entire set of facts that characterize the life of society both in the past and in the present. The subject of history is the study of human society as a single contradictory process. Historical science includes general (world) history, within the framework of which the origin of man is studied (his ethnogenesis), as well as the history of individual countries, peoples and civilizations (domestic history) from ancient times to the present day. This takes into account its division into the history of primitive society, ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary.

History is a multidisciplinary science; it is made up of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: economic history,

There are auxiliary historical disciplines that have a relatively narrow subject of study, study it in detail and thus contribute to a deeper understanding of the historical process as a whole. These include: genealogy (the study of the origins and relationships of individuals and families), heraldry (the study of coats of arms), numismatics (the study of coins and their minting), chronology (the study of chronological systems and calendars), paleography (the study of , studying handwritten monuments and ancient writing), etc.

The most significant auxiliary historical disciplines include source studies, which studies historical sources, and historiography (the history of historical science), the task of which is to describe and analyze the views, ideas and concepts of historians and study patterns in the development of historical science.

History is a concrete science that requires precise knowledge of the chronology (dates) of facts and events. It is closely related to other sciences, but unlike them, it examines the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the entire set of phenomena of social life, all its aspects (economics, politics, culture, everyday life, etc.), their interrelations and interdependence. At the same time, each of the existing sciences (social, economic, technical) has gone through its own history during the development of human society. And at the present stage, all sciences and arts necessarily include a historical section, for example, the history of music, the history of cinema, etc. At the intersection of historical and other sciences, interdisciplinary sciences are created, such as historical geography, historical geology, etc.

According to the breadth of the object of study, history can be divided into the following groups:

history of the world as a whole;
history of a continent, region ( history of Europe, African studies, Balkan studies);
people (Chinese studies, Japanese studies);
groups of peoples (Slavic studies).

Russian history - scientific discipline, studying the process of development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, the formation of the main state and public institutions.

Any literate person should know the history of his Fatherland. You can't live on native land and not to know who lived here before us, not to know and not to remember their labors, glory, delusions and mistakes. We received from them not only a material, but also a spiritual inheritance and we take everything for granted. But do we always know how to be grateful to our fathers and grandfathers? Before our eyes, Russia is changing, the old is dying,

New. It cannot always be assessed unambiguously, and it is not always for the benefit of Russia. Understand modern processes, to determine our own view of what is happening around and inside Russia, not to get lost in the diversity of opinions - history will help us with this.

Our past is ours intellectual property, which must be handled with the same care as material ones. Russia had its own complex, contradictory, heroic and dramatic, original history, unlike other countries. And, despite everything, Russia has made a worthy contribution to world culture and civilization. Studying the history of Russia leads to the conviction that it was all created by the strength of the Russian spiritual character. The outstanding thinker of the 20th century correctly noted. Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin: “From Theodosius of Pechersk to Sergius, Hermogenes and Seraphim of Sarov; from Monomakh to Peter the Great, and to Suvorov, Stolypin and Wrangel; from Lomonosov to Mendeleev - the entire history of Russia is the victory of the Russian spiritual nature over difficulties, temptations, dangers and enemies."

Interests modern society, the main directions of development of historical science and the consistent study of history in school and higher education educational institution coincide in some principles:

respect for all peoples and cultures without exception. It is necessary to recognize the significance of all eras and societies, to strive to understand the internal motives and laws of their functioning. At the same time, studying this process, it is necessary to remember the specifics of each phenomenon, the historical distance. This makes sense civilizational approach;
caution in approaching the factors of transformation of the world and society. History is intended to show how fragile the balance of social forces, the relationship between man and nature can be, and how difficult it is to restore them. This awareness is facilitated by the concept of the price of progress;
consideration of a person as part of a social organism, a complex social system. Man must take his place at the center of historical research and historical narrative. After all, it is he who implements the laws of history, gives meaning to things, thinks and makes mistakes under the influence of his own and other people’s ideas;
the intrinsic value of the individual and freedom of thought. People demand to be treated with the same respect as civilization. History must be populated by people, living people, concrete, unique individuals. Kings, sages, villains, artists were endowed not only with social, but also with individual psychology; they not only reflected their era, but also influenced reality. They must be recognized as having the right to free will, to the opportunity to significantly change the course of history. Thus, history is recognized as having the right to chance, alternativeness, and historians have the right to reflect on unrealized possibilities;
the principle of proportionality and involvement. This principle is manifested in the study of people's lifestyles. Biographies bring proportionality to history. This form of understanding history has proven its effectiveness. History is best perceived through the prism of participation

Ste - as the history of his family, his city, his land, included in the context of a larger story;

6) the principle of unity. History should instill an understanding of the synchronicity of events, an understanding that, for example, Shakespeare was a contemporary of False Dmitry. It is interesting to explore the interaction of history with geographical space, to study the dynamics of interaction between man and environment. The story should be narrative, vivid, specific. As a cumulative science, history must integrate the achievements of predecessors - not only their positive contributions, but also their concepts. We must bear in mind the possibility of existence different approaches and points of view on problems.

Many facts, events, phenomena of our history, with the discovery of new sources, with the expansion of our horizons, with the improvement of theoretical knowledge, are assessed differently today than they were several years ago. Modern Russian historical science is going through a special period when new approaches to history are just beginning to be developed. Thus, in modern Russian historiography traditional system-forming categories are widely used: primitive society, slave system, feudal fragmentation etc. At the same time, many scientists critically, or even negatively evaluate the concept of “socio-economic formation”, which was fundamental in the past.

Complexity historical development humanity, the diversity of worldview positions of scientists led to the development of a wide range of philosophical approaches to history, among which the following are distinguished:

1) religious (theological, providential): E. N. Trubetskoy - explanation of the origin of humanity, its development by divine will; V. S. Solovyov - formulation of the problem of the unity of history; N. N. Filoletov - an attempt to comprehend the meaning of history and its purpose from a divine point of view;

natural science (naturalistic): a) geographical determinism. C. Montesquieu believed that climate, soil and the state of the earth's surface are decisive factors, which determine the spirit of peoples, forms of government and legislation, the nature of historical development; L.I. Mechnikov attached special importance to the hydrosphere. Associated with it is his division of human history into three periods: river civilizations (civilizations that developed in the basins of great rivers - Egypt, China, India, etc.), sea ( Ancient Greece etc.), oceanic (with the discovery of America); b) demographic: T. Malthus - crucial in history has population. Population growth occurs geometrically, and the production of means of life - in arithmetic progression. The unbridled proliferation of the people leads to poverty and poverty, to disease and hunger, wars and revolutions; c) ethnogenetic: L. N. Gumilyov distinguishes between social and ethnic history. The subject of the latter is the ethnic group - a “geographical phenomenon”. Decisive reason the emergence and development of an ethnos is passionarity;
socio-economic (formational): K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin and historians of the Soviet period - human society in progress

Its development goes through a number of stages (formations): primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. Formations differ from each other in the method of material production and in the characteristics of the socio-political organization of society. The disadvantages of this theory are as follows: firstly, predominant importance is given to economic factor development, secondly, the specifics of development are not taken into account (each country must go through all stages of development);

Derevyanko A. P., Shabelnikova N. A.

D36 History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2006. - 560 p.

Preface

Chapter 2. Slave-owning civilizations of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region. Ancient Slavs (1st millennium BC - IV century AD)
Chapter 3. Eastern Slavs on the threshold of state formation (VI-IX centuries)
Chapter 4. Ancient Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries
4.1.Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries)
4.2. Russian lands and principalities in the 11th - first half of the 13th century
4.3. Rus''s struggle for independence in the 13th century
Chapter 5. Formation of the Russian centralized state (end of the 13th - first half of the 16th century)
Chapter 6. The Russian state in the 16th century. Ivan groznyj
Chapter 7. Russia in the 17th century	97
7.1. Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Time of Troubles
7.2. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. "Rebellious Age"
Chapter 8. Russian Empire in the 18th century
8.1. The birth of an empire: the time of Peter the Great (end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century)
8.2. Russia in the era of palace coups, 1725-1762
8.3. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century
Chapter 9. Russia in the 19th century
9.1. Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century
9.2. Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century
Chapter 10. Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries
10.1. Economic and social development
10.2. The political system of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century
10.3. Revolutionary crises in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century
10.4. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century
Chapter 11. Soviet Russia in 1917-early 20s	263
Chapter 12. The Soviet state in the first half of the 20s. XX century	282
Chapter 13. USSR on Tue the second half of the 20s-30s. XX
13.1. Social and political life of the Soviet state in the 20-30s. XX century
13.2. Economic and social development of the USSR in the 20-30s
13.3. Foreign policy of the Soviet state (1921-1941)
Chapter 14. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)
Chapter 15. Post-war restoration and development of the USSR
Chapter 16. USSR in 1953-1964. Decade of Khrushchev
Chapter 17. USSR in the mid-60s to mid-80s
Chapter 18. Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991)
Chapter 19. Russia in the 90s. XX century, early XXI century
Chapter 20. Culture of Russia (IX-early XXI centuries)
20.1. Culture of the Old Russian state and the era of appanage principalities (IX-XIII centuries)
20.2. Development of the culture of the Moscow state (XIV-XVII centuries)
20.3. Cultural evolution of the Russian Empire (XVIII-XX centuries)
20.4. Soviet period of development of Russian culture
20.5. The current sociocultural situation in Russia
Rulers

PREFACE

The country in which a person is born, like his mother and father, can be caring or unkind. The time comes when you have to determine your attitude towards her, consciously choosing love or indifference. In order not to make a mistake, “you should know the history of your fatherland. Not only a cold list of events and characters, but also the very essence of the history of our country, its pedigree. It is necessary to try to understand what the homeland is, how it became this way and what fate awaits it .

habitual stereotypes of thinking and behavior, with the emergence of many alternative positions, with the sudden invasion of long-forgotten and discarded views.

Generalization and processing of accumulated human experience is the primary task of history. Historia est magistra vitae (history is the teacher of life), the ancients said. And indeed, people always, especially during critical periods in the life of mankind, try to find answers to many questions in the world historical experience. Using historical examples, people are brought up to respect eternal human values: peace, goodness, justice, beauty, freedom. Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics. History as a single process of the evolution of nature and society is studied by a set of social sciences with the involvement of data from the natural and technical sciences.

For history, the object of study is the entire set of facts that characterize the life of society both in the past and in the present. The subject of history is the study of human society as a single contradictory process. Historical science includes general (world) history, within the framework of which the origin of man is studied (his ethnogenesis), as well as the history of individual countries, peoples and civilizations (domestic history) from ancient times to the present day. This takes into account its division into the history of primitive society, ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary.

History is a multidisciplinary science; it is made up of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: economic history,

political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion, etc. Historical sciences include ethnography (studies the life and culture of peoples), archeology (studies the history of the origin of peoples based on material sources of antiquity - tools, household utensils, jewelry, etc. , as well as entire complexes - settlements, burial grounds, treasures).

According to the breadth of the object of study, history can be divided into the following groups:

history of the world as a whole;

history of a continent or region (European history, African studies, Balkan studies);

people (Chinese studies, Japanese studies);

groups of peoples (Slavic studies).

The history of Russia is a scientific discipline that studies the process of development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, and the formation of the main state and public institutions.

Any literate person should know the history of his Fatherland. It is impossible to live in our native land and not know who lived here before us, not to know and not to remember their works, glory, delusions and mistakes. We received from them not only a material, but also a spiritual inheritance and we take everything for granted. But do we always know how to be grateful to our fathers and grandfathers? Before our eyes, Russia is changing, the old is dying,

new. It cannot always be assessed unambiguously, and it is not always for the benefit of Russia. To understand modern processes, to determine our own view of what is happening around and inside Russia, and not to get lost in the diversity of opinions - history will help us with this.

Our past is our intellectual property, which must be treated with the same care as material property. Russia had its own complex, contradictory, heroic and dramatic, original history, unlike other countries. And, despite everything, Russia has made a worthy contribution to world culture and civilization. Studying the history of Russia leads to the conviction that it was all created by the strength of the Russian spiritual character. The outstanding thinker of the 20th century correctly noted. Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin: “From Theodosius of Pechersk to Sergius, Hermogenes and Seraphim of Sarov; from Monomakh to Peter the Great, and to Suvorov, Stolypin and Wrangel; from Lomonosov to Mendeleev - the entire history of Russia is a victory of the Russian spiritual character over difficulties, temptations, dangers and enemies.”

The interests of modern society, the main directions of development of historical science and the consistent study of history in school and higher education institutions coincide in some principles:

respect for all peoples and cultures without exception. It is necessary to recognize the significance of all eras and societies, to strive to understand the internal motives and laws of their functioning. At the same time, when studying this process, it is necessary to remember the specifics of each phenomenon, the historical distance. This seems to be the meaning of the civilizational approach;

caution in approaching the factors of transformation of the world and society. History is intended to show how fragile the balance of social forces, the relationship between man and nature can be, and how difficult it is to restore them. This awareness is facilitated by the concept of the price of progress;

consideration of a person as part of a social organism, a complex social system. Man must take his place at the center of historical research and historical storytelling. After all, it is he who implements the laws of history, gives meaning to things, thinks and makes mistakes under the influence of his own and other people’s ideas;

the intrinsic value of the individual and freedom of thought. People demand to be treated with the same respect as civilization. History must be populated by people, living people, concrete, unique individuals. Kings, sages, villains, artists were endowed not only with social, but also with individual psychology; they not only reflected their era, but also influenced reality. They must be recognized as having the right to free will, to the opportunity to significantly change the course of history. Thus, history is recognized as having the right to chance, alternativeness, and historians have the right to reflect on unrealized possibilities;

the principle of proportionality and involvement. This principle is manifested in the study of people's lifestyles. Biographies bring proportionality to history. This form of understanding history has proven its effectiveness. History is best perceived through the prism of participation

STI - as the history of your family, your city, your land, included in the context of a larger history;

6) the principle of unity. History should instill an understanding of the synchronicity of events, an understanding that, for example, Shakespeare was a contemporary of False Dmitry. It is interesting to explore the interaction of history with geographical space, to study the dynamics of interaction between man and environment. The story should be narrative, vivid, specific. As a cumulative science, history must integrate the achievements of predecessors - not only their positive contributions, but also their concepts. We must keep in mind the possibility of the existence of different approaches and points of view on problems.

Many facts, events, phenomena of our history, with the discovery of new sources, with the expansion of our horizons, with the improvement of theoretical knowledge, are assessed differently today than they were several years ago. Modern Russian historical science is going through a special period when new approaches to history are just beginning to be developed. Thus, in modern domestic historiography, traditional system-forming categories are widely used: primitive society, slave-owning system, feudal fragmentation, etc. At the same time, many scientists critically, or even negatively evaluate the concept of “socio-economic formation”, which was fundamental in the past.

The complexity of the historical development of mankind and the diversity of worldview positions of scientists have led to the development of a wide range of philosophical approaches to history, among which the following are distinguished:

natural science (naturalistic): a) geographical determinism. C. Montesquieu believed that climate, soil and the state of the earth's surface are the decisive factors that determine the spirit of peoples, forms of government and legislation, and the nature of historical development; L.I. Mechnikov attached special importance to the hydrosphere. Associated with it is his division of human history into three periods: river civilizations (civilizations that developed in the basins of great rivers - Egypt, China, India, etc.), maritime (Ancient Greece, etc.), oceanic (with the discovery of America); b) demographic: T. Malthus - population is of decisive importance in history. Population growth is in geometric progression, and the production of means of subsistence is in arithmetic progression. The unbridled proliferation of the people leads to poverty and poverty, to disease and hunger, wars and revolutions; c) ethnogenetic: L.N. Gumilyov distinguishes between social and ethnic history. The subject of the latter is the ethnic group - a “geographical phenomenon”. The decisive reason for the emergence and development of an ethnos is passionarity;

socio-economic (formational): K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin and historians of the Soviet period - human society in the process

Its development goes through a number of stages (formations): primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. Formations differ from each other in the method of material production and in the characteristics of the socio-political organization of society. The disadvantages of this theory are as follows: firstly, predominant importance is given to the economic factor of development, secondly, the specifics of development are not taken into account (each country must go through all stages of development);

cultural-historical (cultural-civilizational): a) G. Vico, I. G. Greder, G. V. F. Hegel - priority development of the spiritual sphere, culture, recognition of the unity of history, its progress, faith in the rational nature of the historical process; b) N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee and others - the concept of closed (local) civilizations; c) N. A. Berdyaev, K. Jaspers and others - a kind of distrust of rational knowledge, doubts about its ability to solve the problems of history;

world - system analysis Immanuel Wallerstein is an attempt to integrate cultural, economic-deterministic, class and statist approaches into a single whole.

In order to identify an objective picture of the historical process, historical science must rely on a certain methodology, certain general principles that would make it possible to organize the material accumulated by researchers and create effective explanatory models. The principles of obtaining historical knowledge are the main, fundamental principles of science. They are based on the study of the objective laws of history, are the result of this study and in this sense correspond to the laws. However, there is a significant difference between patterns and principles: patterns act objectively, and principles are a logical category; they exist not in nature, but in the minds of people. The principle can be considered as a basic rule that must be followed when studying all phenomena and events in history.

The basic scientific principles are as follows.

The principle of historicism is one of the basic principles of the approach to the study of nature and society. All historical facts, phenomena and events are considered in accordance with the specific historical situation, in their interrelation and interdependence. Each historical phenomenon should be studied in development: how it arose, what stages it went through in its development, what it ultimately became. It is impossible to consider an event or person outside of time and circumstances.

The principle of objectivity presupposes reliance on facts in their true content, not distorted or adjusted to fit a scheme. This principle requires considering each phenomenon in its versatility, inconsistency, and the totality of both positive and negative sides. The main thing in ensuring the principle of objectivity is the personality of the historian: his theoretical and professional skills.

The principle of the social approach assumes that certain social interests manifest themselves in the development of social processes: in economics

ical field, political, inter-class and extra-class contradictions, relations between social psychology and traditions. This principle (it is also called the principle of the class, party approach) obliges us to correlate the interests of a certain social group with those of humanity, taking into account the subjective aspect in the practical activities of governments, parties, and individuals. Social approach to history is especially important when assessing programs, the real political activities of parties and their leaders, which allows one to draw important conclusions. At the same time, when solving global problems of our time, priorities are given not to class, but to universal human values. Therefore, they should not be opposed, but complementary.

The principle of alternativeness determines the degree of probability of the occurrence of a particular event, phenomenon, process based on an analysis of objective realities and possibilities. Recognizing the historical alternative allows us to re-evaluate the path of each country, see the untapped possibilities of the process, and draw lessons for the future.

In addition to general methodological principles, specific research methods are also used in historical knowledge:

general scientific;

actually historical;

special (borrowed from other sciences).

The method is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations - historical facts, a way of extracting new knowledge from facts.

General scientific research methods include historical, logical and classification methods. The historical method allows us to reproduce the development process with its general, special and uniquely individual features. Logical - connected with the historical, it generalizes the entire process in the theoretical form of laws. Both of these methods complement each other, since the historical method has its own cognitive limits, having exhausted which it is possible to draw conclusions and generalizations using the logical method. Classification as a method allows us to highlight the general and special in phenomena, facilitates the collection of material, systematizes knowledge, contributes to theoretical generalizations, and the identification of new laws.

Historical research methods themselves can be divided into two groups:

methods based on various options research of processes in time: chronological, chronological-problematic, synchronistic, periodization method;

methods based on identifying the patterns of the historical process: comparative-historical, retrospective (method of historical modeling), structural-systemic.

The essence of the chronological method is that phenomena are presented in temporal (chronological) order. Chronological-problematic method

provides for the study and research of Russian history by periods (topics) or eras, and within them - by problems. Taking into account the problem-chronological method, there is a study and research of any one aspect of the life and activities of the state in its consistent development. The synchronistic method makes it possible to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places in Russia and its regions. The periodization method makes it possible to identify changes in qualitative features in development and establish periods of these qualitative changes.

The comparative historical method aims to establish general trends inherent in similar processes, determine the changes that have occurred, and identify ways social development. Retrospective allows you to restore the process according to its typical properties identified and show the patterns of its development. Structural-systemic establishes the unity of events and phenomena in socio-historical development, on the basis of which qualitatively different social, economic, political, cultural systems of social order are distinguished within a certain chronological framework.

Special methods: mathematical methods of process analysis, statistical methods, sociological research and social psychology. Of particular importance for the analysis of historical situations are the method of sociological research and the method of social psychology, since the masses (people) have a direct influence on the course of historical development.

The following methodological principles underlie the study of the “History of Russia” course.

National history is an integral part of world history. This approach is based on the philosophical categories of general and special. The use of these categories makes it possible to show the features of the development of Russia as a multinational, multi-confessional state, which has traditions that have developed over many centuries and its own principles of life.

In studying the course, in our opinion, it is necessary to combine a civilizational approach with formational characteristics. Wherein Special attention should be given to the most significant issues for the history of Russia: the formation and development of ethnic groups, the fate of civilizations on the territory of Russia, national customs and traditions, spiritual values, etc.

Russia is a civilizational region, the unique development of which is determined by natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional (religious), sociopolitical and other factors. The uniqueness of Russia and its role in the world cultural and historical process were significantly influenced by its border position between Europe and Asia, which led to the contradictory influence of the West and the East on Russia. At the same time, recognition of originality does not mean isolation of Russia from general historical development; The history of Russia is considered within the framework of the formation of world civilization.

According to modern researchers, the way Russian history(no matter how it is called: modernization, the civilization cycle, the Eurasian path, etc.) represents not a “lag” or “delay” in development, but simply a different, original development, leading to a creative synthesis of the general and the specific, internal and external, one’s own and foreign experience. And in this regard, when consistently studying the history of Russia, in historical research it is permissible to use various categories and concepts, mainly sociological (modernization, stages, formation), cultural (totalitarianism), economic (industrialism and post-industrialism).

Studying a course in the history of Russia involves acquiring knowledge of a historiographical nature. The classics of Russian historiography - N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky - made a significant contribution to Russian historical science. The works of other outstanding Russian historians enjoy well-deserved authority and influence. These are primarily the works of N. M. Kostomarov, A. A. Kornilov, S. F. Platonov, M. N. Pokrovsky, P. M. Milyukov, V. N. Tatishchev.

The main difficulty in studying the history of Russia is the diversity of educational historical literature, the authors of which adhere to different historical schools and sometimes express mutually exclusive points of view on the problems of Russian history.

textbooks, teaching aids: “Review of Russian History” by S. G. Pushkarev (Stavropol, 1993), the first edition of which was published in 1953 in the USA; “Russian History” by G.V. Vernadsky (M., 1997) - the son of V.I. Vernadsky, a student of V.O. Klyuchevsky, R.Yu. Vipper, A.A. Kizevetter, who emigrated to the West and was recognized there as a leading specialist on Russian history; “Russian History” by M. I. Pokrovsky (M., 2002) is one of the most monumental works in world history and, without a doubt, the most thorough of the classical works on the history of Russia;

Of undoubted interest are publications of an educational and methodological nature, containing additional materials on the history of Russia, as well as problematic issues, tasks, etc. One of the first in this regard is the work of S. G. Smirnov “Problem book on the history of Russia” (M., 1995). In the textbook by S. G. Goryainov, A. A. Egorov “History of Russia IX-XVIII centuries.” (M., 1998) each topic is supplemented with excerpts from historical documents and assignments for them. In JI didactic materials. M. Lyashenko “History of Russia. XIX century" (Moscow, 2000) and A. G. Koloskova "History of Russia. XX century" (Moscow, 2000) presents a variety of educational and test tasks of varying complexity ( traditional issues, work with a document, tests, materials for reports, discussions, historical essays, etc.). Questions and tasks contained in the textbook by E. A. Gevurkova, V. I. Egorova, A. G. Koloskova, JI. I. Larina “History of Russia: problems, events, people (differentiated questions and tasks)” (Moscow, 2000) are based on the use of a wide range historical sources, have a training and control orientation.

The album by A. T. Stepanishchev “History of Russia: IX-XX centuries: Schemes” (Moscow, 2001) includes more than 330 logical, problem-logical and structural diagrams, graphs, covering more than eleven centuries

history of Russia. The textbook by the same author, “History of Russia: Teaching at School,” focuses on understanding the conceptual and methodological problems of teaching and studying history, mastering specific methods for conducting various types and forms of classes, and organizing independent work for students. Considerable space is devoted to revealing the problems of educating the younger generation in the history of the Fatherland.

The relevance of a balanced scientific approach to the study of history remains and even increases due to the fact that rethinking the past is not without costs and contradictions. Many problems have to be solved in conditions of transition from one social system to another, in conditions of fundamental changes in the political system of society, its economic foundations, the promotion of new political and ideological paradigms, and new moral values.

The task of teaching history in modern conditions- show real history in all its complexities and contradictions, with its bright and tragic sides, maintaining objectivity and historical truth. This approach will help correct the mistakes of the past and give a true understanding of historical events and phenomena.

School teachers and higher education institutions realize that to truly understand history, their students must look beyond the textbook, see living history, and understand its meaning. In the process of teaching, they somehow bear the “burden of proof” of at least four truths:

1. HISTORY IS ONE.

The relationship between the historical destinies of peoples and states is reflected, it is shown that no one has ever been able to “fence off” from the world-historical process either with high walls, or long distances, or gold, or force. Yes, the West is the West, the East is the East, but this is only different sides unified history of mankind.

HISTORY IS MODERN.

The continuity of history is illustrated. Neither the fall of empires, the accession of new kings, nor attempts to destroy human memory can interrupt it. Events centuries ago vividly resonate with modern times. They help to more accurately understand today also because history does repeat itself, and because the current reality sometimes arose not only in past decades, but also in past centuries.

THE HISTORY IS SPECIFIC.

History is not only a manifestation of general historical laws, but also a memory of the real life of living people. Emperors and poets, freedom fighters and their executioners, thinkers and conquerors. The life of each of them helps us not only to see their time more clearly, but sometimes to understand the present day more deeply.

HISTORY IS INTERESTING.

History, like any subject, can be taught in an incredibly boring way. But who said that history itself is to blame for this? It is important, when thinking about historical events, to ask yourself questions: “Why did everything happen this way? Where are the reasons and origins? It’s interesting to pose such questions with your students and look for answers to them.

The study of humanities is an important part of the general educational and worldview training of modern specialists and contributes to the intellectual development of the individual and the development of creative thinking. The course “Domestic History” is an important element in the structure of the cycle humanities. Its study is intended to provide:

an idea of the basic patterns and features of historical development;

understanding the role of Russia in the world historical process;

formation historical consciousness, i.e. systems of views, ideas, theories, concepts, thanks to which the past is realized;

mastering spiritual values developed during historical development and determining one’s own attitude towards them; introducing listeners to social experience, spiritual and moral values previous generations of Russians, embodied in philosophical and religious teachings, art and literature, folk customs and traditions;

developing the ability to use acquired knowledge, independently extract it from historical sources, and find the necessary information in a diverse stream of historical and journalistic literature;

developing the ability to analyze and evaluate facts, phenomena and events, the ability to reveal cause-and-effect relationships between them;

understanding the new realities of modern national history, taking into account cultural and historical traditions Russia.

The main goal of the course “National History” is to develop students’ historical consciousness and instill in them the skills of historical thinking.

In the structure of the goals and objectives of the course, an important place is occupied by the development general education and special skills and abilities:

general logical skills(the ability to analyze, classify, correctly correlate facts and generalizations, evaluate events, establish cause-and-effect relationships, patterns of social development, determine the specific historical conditions of a particular era, etc.);

search and information skills(fluent handling of dictionaries, reference books, encyclopedias, catalogues, the ability to find the necessary information in books, collections, magazines, the ability to systematize literature within the framework of a specific task);

educational and cognitive skills(drawing up abstracts of speeches, scientific reports, reports, synopses, preparing abstracts; the ability to participate in discussions, competently, logically, and convincingly express one’s thoughts).

Currently, the manuals available to high school students and applicants, college and university students are becoming outdated or simply disappearing from sale due to limited circulation. All this makes it relevant to publish new textbooks on the history of Russia. The French historian F. Braudel argued: “History constantly needs to be rewritten, it is always in the stage of formation and overcoming itself.” This judgment is applicable not only to the description of the historical process, but also to the understanding of its scientific aspect.

The peculiarity of the work we propose is that the authors, without claiming to be an exhaustive presentation of Russian history, sought, based on the author’s approach, to provide an analysis of the main events and phenomena of Russian history. Our training manual contains pluralistic approaches and assessments that complement and enrich each other; alternative historical concepts, opinions of various scientific schools, which are presented by the views of domestic and foreign authors on historical path Russia.

Chapter 1. The primitive era of mankind

General characteristics and options for periodization of ancient history

Human Origins

Decomposition of the primitive communal system

Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland

The culture of primitive society

General characteristics and periodization options ancient history. Modern science suggests that the entire variety of current space objects was formed about 20 billion years ago. The Sun, one of the many stars in our Galaxy, arose 10 billion years ago. According to scientists, our Earth is an ordinary planet solar system- has an age of 4.6 billion years. It is currently generally accepted that man began to separate from the animal world about 3 million years ago.

Stone Age (from the emergence of man to the 4th-3rd millennium BC);

Bronze Age (IV-III millennium - until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC);

Iron Age (from the 1st millennium BC).

In its turn, stone Age is divided into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and the transitional to bronze Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic).

Each period is distinguished by: 1) the degree of development of tools, 2) the materials from which they were made, 3) the quality of housing, 4) the appropriate organization of farming.

The primitive era of humanity is characterized by:

low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement;

collective appropriation of natural resources and production results;

equitable distribution;

socio-economic equality;

lack of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

The appearance of the first australopithecines marked the emergence of material culture directly related to the production of tools, which became a means for archaeologists to determine the main stages of the development of ancient humanity.

The rich and generous nature of that time did not help to accelerate this process; only with the advent of the harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with the intensification labor activity primitive man in his heavy

In the struggle for existence, new skills appear, tools are improved, and new social forms are developed.

The path of humanity in the conditions of the primitive communal system passed through a number of stages: 1) mastery of fire; 2) collective hunting of large animals; 3) adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier; 4) invention of the bow; 5) transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering, fishing) to a producing economy (cattle breeding and agriculture); 6) discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron); 7) creation of a complex tribal organization of society.

The pace of development of human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a productive economy. But another feature has emerged - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with an unfavorable, harsh geographical environment continued to develop slowly, while areas with a mild climate, reserves of ores and minerals moved faster towards civilization.

A giant glacier (about 100 thousand years ago) contributed to the appearance on the planet of a special flora and fauna in the most difficult climatic conditions. In accordance with this, the history of human society is divided into three different periods: 1) pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate; 2) glacial and 3) post-glacial. Each of these periods ^h^ corresponds to a certain physical type humans: in the pre-glacial period - archaeoanthropes (pithecanthropus, synanthropus, etc.), in the glacial period - paleoanthropes

(Neanderthal man), at the end ice age, in the late Paleolithic, - neoanthropes, modern people.

Human Origins. Among different peoples in different regions of the Earth, the appearance of certain tools and forms of social life did not occur simultaneously. There was a process of human formation (anthropogenesis, from the Greek "anthropos" - man, "genesis" - origin) and the formation of human society (sociogenesis, from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "genesis" - origin).

Scientists have identified the following problems of anthropogenesis: 1) the origin of man as a species, the place and chronology of this phenomenon, the definition of the line between man as an actively thinking creature of living nature and his closest ancestors; 2) the connection between anthropogenesis and the development of material production; 3) raceogenesis - the study of the causes and processes of racial-genetic differences.

The origin of man has always been considered from two mutually exclusive positions: as the result of a supernatural, divine, cosmic (alien in the modern version) beginning and as a result of the evolutionary development of living nature, as a kind of pinnacle of this process.

Soviet science was dominated by evolutionary view on anthropogenesis. Back in the 17th century. Materialist scientists, based on the idea of the unity of the entire animal world, considered man as a part of nature and expressed the idea of his origin from ancient apes. This view did not appear by chance, since significant scientific mathematics had been accumulated.

rial, which proved the biological similarity of the structure of the human body with the body of animals. Based on the achievements of natural science, Charles Darwin in his work “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), showing the evolutionary unity, regularity and sequence of development of the animal world, proved that man descended from ancient apes.

Ancient ancestors modern man resembled anthropoid apes, which, unlike animals, were able to produce tools. In the scientific literature, this type of ape-man is called homo habilis - a skilled man. Further evolution Habilis led to the appearance 1.5-1.6 million years ago of the so-called Pithecanthropes (from the Greek “pithekos” - monkey, “anthropos” - man), or archanthropes (from the Greek “achaios” - ancient) . Archanthropes were already people. 300-200 thousand years ago, archanthropes were replaced by a more developed type of person - paleoanthropes, or Neanderthals (according to the place of their first discovery in the Neanderthal area in Germany).

The process of separation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows:

human australopithecine

Homo erectus (early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus);

modern man physical appearance(late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people).

As a result of the accumulation of new anthropological and archaeological materials, modern science suggests that the process of formation of modern people took place in an area covering South-Eastern Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. From this zone, the modern type of man, as the most developed, settled throughout the entire territory of the earth. As a result of settlement, extensive cultural and historical communities emerged. Scientists believe that these communities corresponded to the linguistic families from which came the peoples who currently inhabit our country. The following cultural and historical communities are distinguished:

Indo-European;

Ugro-Finnish;

Turkic;

Iberian-Caucasian.

The largest language family is Indo-European. It took shape on the territory of modern Iran and Asia Minor, spread to South and Eastern Europe, Asia Minor and Central Asia and the region of the Hindustan Peninsula. Subsequently, the Indo-European cultural community was divided into several branches:

Slavic: eastern, western and southern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Croats, etc.);

Western European: British, Germans, French, etc.;

eastern: Indians, Tajiks, Iranians, Armenians, etc.

A complex problem is raceogenesis. All modern humanity is divided into several large racial trunks - Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid and Australoid, each of which, in turn, includes several large racial divisions and a large number of small ones racial groups. The composition of the races basically coincided with the boundaries of the continents: the Caucasoid race was formed mainly in Europe, the Negroid race in Africa, and the Mongoloid race in Asia. Each large race has its own characteristics that characterize it: facial structure, hair pigmentation, eye color, etc. Acquired characteristics changed over time in a certain direction, disappeared or intensified. Within the large races - Mongoloid, Negroid and Caucasoid - separate large branches arose. Yes, inside Mongoloid race South Asian, Siberian and American branches stand out, the Negroid branch is divided into two, and inside Caucasian there are northern and southern branches.

Historically, the development of mankind has proceeded in a constant dialectical unity of different principles - evolutionary and the phenomenon of a qualitative leap, biological and social. Substitution of one for the other is completely excluded. At the same time, we must not forget that the development of mankind took place in constant and close interaction with nature. And the more perfect a person became, the more actively he influenced it and adapted it to his needs. However, in archaeological eras, unlike industrial ones, this adaptation was always rational; man thought of himself only as a part of his natural environment.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system. Around the IV-V millennium BC. e. The decomposition of primitive society began. The main factors that contributed to this process: 1) the Neolithic revolution; 2) intensification of agriculture; 3) development of specialized cattle breeding; 4) the emergence of metallurgy; 5) the formation of a specialized craft; 6) development of trade.

With the development of plow farming, agricultural labor passed from women's hands to men's, and a man - a farmer and warrior - became the head of the family. Accumulation in different families was created unequally, and each family, accumulating property, tried to keep it in the family. The product gradually ceases to be divided among community members, and property begins to pass from father to children, the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid.

From the account of kinship on the maternal side they move to the account of kinship on the father's side - patriarchy takes shape. Accordingly, the form of family relationships changes; a patriarchal family based on private property arises.

The subordinate position of women is reflected, in particular, in the fact that mandatory monogamy is established only for women, while polygamy (polygamy) is allowed for men.

The growth of labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars - all this led to the emergence of property stratification among the tribes.

Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The top of the family aristocracy was formed, which was actually in charge of all affairs. Noble members of the community sat on the tribal council and were in charge of the cult of the gods. Of particular importance was the identification of military leaders and priests. Along with property and social differentiation within the clan community, differentiation also occurs within the tribe between individual clans. On the one hand, strong and rich clans stand out, and on the other, weak and impoverished ones.

Signs of the collapse of the tribal system:

the emergence of property inequality;

allocation of nobility;

concentration of wealth and power in the hands of tribal leaders;

frequent armed clashes;

turning prisoners into slaves;

transformation of the clan from a consanguineous collective into a territorial community.

In different regions of the world, the destruction of primitive communal relations did not occur simultaneously; the models of transition to a higher formation were also varied: some peoples formed early class states, others formed slave states, many peoples bypassed the slave system and went straight to feudalism, and some to colonial capitalism ( peoples of America, Australia).

Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland. The periods of primitive society on the territory of our Fatherland correspond to the main periodization (accepted in archaeology).

Sites of primitive people have been discovered in Eastern Europe, North Asia, Crimea, Caucasus, Siberia and the Far East. For example, in the territory former USSR the remains of above-ground dwellings dating back to the Early Paleolithic were discovered near the village of Molodovo on the Dniester. They were an oval arrangement of specially selected large mammoth bones. Traces of 15 fires located in different parts dwellings. About 1,500 Upper Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered in Russia. When choosing places for settlements, people of the Late Ice Age cared primarily about the convenience of hunting, so settlements were usually located at the edge of river valleys, often in groups. Such a group of Paleolithic settlements is known on the Don in the Voronezh region near the villages of Kostenki and Borshevo, on the Desna - near Novgorod-Seversky, in the area of the Dnieper rapids. Siberian ancient Paleolithic monuments are also located in groups. Unlike the earlier period, Late Paleolithic dwellings are more advanced. Large, connected dwellings and settlements consisting of individual small huts confirm the conclusion about the coexistence of communities and communal farming. Within communities, individual dwellings and centers of large dwellings could belong to individual paired families.

In the developed Neolithic European territory Russia is experiencing significant changes in the distribution of cultures, many new archaeo-

logical cultures, which is associated with the development of the economy as a whole, with changes in the ethnic composition of the Neolithic population, and the movement of Neolithic tribes. This process was greatly influenced by the tribes of pit-comb ceramics, with which the origin of many forest Neolithic cultures in the Volga and Oka basin is associated: Upper Volga, Valdai, Ryazan, Belev.

The tribes of the so-called Belev culture (named after the settlement of the city of Belev) occupied, for example, the region of the upper reaches of the Oka. It is characterized by the widespread use of massive and long knife-like plates in the manufacture of tools. Narrow and long leaf-shaped daggers and arrowheads were made from them. At the same time, in this culture, Paleolithic-looking incisors and side scrapers existed for a long time. The surface of the vessels was covered with a pattern in the form of rhombic or oval depressions.

Neolithic cultures in the Amur region, Primorye and northeast Asia were discovered relatively recently. Their discovery and research is associated mainly with the work of academicians A.P. Okladnikov and A.P. Derevyanko.

In the Amur basin, four Neolithic cultures are known: Novopetrovsk, Gromatukha, Osinovo-Ozersk and Lower Amur. At the end of the Neolithic, a division of labor occurred among the tribes of the Far East: some began to engage in agriculture, others in fishing, hunting and gathering, which determined the features of their development in the future. In general, on the territory of our country in the history of primitive society, several stages are distinguished in terms of the degree of development of productive forces, social organization, as well as forms of economy and movement from a lower stage to a higher one - from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

An important stage in the history of primitive man was the first economic revolution (Neolithic), when there was a transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one. As the social division of labor deepened and its productivity grew in primitive society, exchange intensified, a surplus product arose, which became the basis for the emergence of private property and property inequality. The primitive society on the territory of Russia was replaced by a feudal society.

The culture of primitive society. According to researcher A.I. Chernokozov, primitive culture is a complex phenomenon that strikes the imagination of a research scientist, but not with its primitiveness, but with a unique and majestic, even on a cosmic scale, leap to a higher state.

First of all, the following facts help to holistically comprehend anthroposociogenesis:

1) the extinction over a phenomenally short natural-historical period of 30 species and 20 genera of highly developed primates, the most modern creatures within the biological form that flourished in the Tertiary period. Researchers are amazed by the huge morphological diversity of these creatures: from Gigantopithecus - a creature weighing about 500 kilograms - to a humanoid creature the size of a cat;

2) the use of the first stone tools in conflicts with their own kind (almost all australopithecus skulls bear traces of blows from stone tools). There are anthropologists' conclusions about unusually frequent cases of violent death. And in this sense, it would be more correct to talk not about stone tools, but about stone weapons.

In the study of the culture of primitive man, archaeological and ethnographic methods are used.

Archaeological finds are mainly tools corresponding to certain historical eras. During the Paleolithic period - points, scrapers, awls and piercings. In more late period Along with long ones, hunters make shorter dart spears that can be thrown over a long distance.

One of the most significant achievements of the Upper Paleolithic period was the discovery of several ways to make fire. The first method was the striking of a spark by sharp impacts of flint on the ore mineral pyrite. The second method was to make fire by rubbing wood against wood, but the reliability of data on the widespread use of this method still raises doubts among scientists.

The formation of a mature form of a social organism is associated with the formation of the maternal family. With the help of establishing certain traditions, they learned to regulate relations between the sexes, methods and forms of raising children. The structure of collectivist consciousness was formed. Arose certain types mythological consciousness, which included the first forms: religious, moral, technological, labor.

Unfortunately, researchers have still not been able to find works of art that date back to an earlier historical period than the Late Paleolithic. The most common sculptural images during this period were female figurines.

Each tribe had its own gods, its own revered mythological creatures. This belief is originally rooted in the veneration of nature spirits. In addition, each tribe has its own sacred ancestors, who are most often identified with certain animals. This belief system was called totemism.

Another belief characteristic of myth is fetishism. Fetishism is the deification of a special object, which is perceived as a carrier of demonic powers and which is mystically connected with the fate of a given tribe. An object that is treated in this way is a fetish.

In the conditions of primitive society, magical art develops. Magic could not influence the objective properties of things, but it fully controlled the psyche of primitive man. Magic words and rituals influenced a person - and not on his mind, which was still too weak and undeveloped, but on his unconscious. Magic could not physically cause rain or ensure a harvest, but it inspired people with unity, optimism and success in a difficult and dangerous task.

In general, in primitive culture the essence of man, his organic connection with nature, prospects for further development.

THE PRIMITIVE AGE OF HUMANITY.
General characteristics and options for periodization of ancient history. Modern science assumes that all the diversity of current space objects formed about 20 billion... years ago. The Sun, one of the many stars in our Galaxy, arose 10 billion years ago. According to scientists, our Earth - an ordinary planet in the solar system - is 4.6 billion years old. It is currently generally accepted that man began to separate from the animal world about 3 million years ago.

There are several options for the periodization of humanity at the stage of the primitive communal system. Most often they use an archaeological scheme based on differences in the material and technique of making tools. In accordance with it in ancient era There are three periods:
- Stone Age (from the emergence of man to the 4th-3rd millennium BC);
- bronze age(IV-III millennium - until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC);
- iron age(from the 1st millennium BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is divided into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and the transitional to bronze Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic).
Each period is distinguished by: 1) the degree of development of tools, 2) the materials from which they were made, 3) the quality of housing, 4) the appropriate organization of farming.
The primitive era of humanity is characterized by:
- low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement;
- collective appropriation of natural resources and production results;
- equal distribution;
- socio-economic equality;
- the absence of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

The appearance of the first australopithecus marked the birth of material culture, directly related to the production of tools, which became a means for archaeologists to determine the main stages of the development of ancient humanity.
The rich and generous nature of that time did not help to accelerate this process; Only with the advent of the harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with the intensification of the labor activity of primitive man in his difficult struggle for existence, new skills appeared, tools were improved, and new social forms were developed.

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