Scientific and technological revolution (STR) is a concept used to refer to those qualitative transformations that occurred in science and technology in the second half of the 20th century. The beginning of scientific and technological revolution dates back to the mid-40s. XX century In the course of it, the process of transforming science into a direct productive force is completed. Scientific and technological revolution changes the conditions, nature and content of labor, the structure of productive forces, the social division of labor, the sectoral and professional structure of society, and leads to rapid growth labor productivity, has an impact on all aspects of society, including culture, everyday life, human psychology, and the relationship between society and nature.
The scientific and technological revolution is a long process that has two main prerequisites - scientific, technical and social. The most important role the successes of natural science in the preparation of scientific and technological revolution played a role in late XIX- at the beginning of the 20th century, as a result of which there was a radical revolution in views on matter and the emergence of new picture peace. The electron and the phenomenon of radioactivity were discovered, X-rays, the theory of relativity was created and quantum theory. There has been a breakthrough in science into the field of microcosm and high speeds.
The last three decades of the 20th century were marked by new radical scientific achievements. These achievements can be characterized as the fourth global scientific revolution, during which post-non-classical science was formed. Replaced the previous one non-classical science first half of the 20th century, this modern period in the development of natural science, forming the natural science component of the second stage scientific and technological revolution, o is characterized by a number of features.
Firstly, this is the orientation of post-non-classical science towards the study of very complex, historically developing systems (among them special place occupy natural complexes in which man himself is included as a component). Ideas about the evolution of such systems are introduced into the picture physical reality through the latest ideas of modern cosmology (the concept of " big bang", etc.), through the study of “human-sized complexes” (ecological objects, including the biosphere as a whole, “man-machine” systems in the form of complex information complexes, etc.), and, finally, through the development of ideas of thermodynamic nonequilibrium processes, leading to the emergence of synergy.
Secondly, important direction Research of post-non-classical science consists of objects of biotechnology, and first of all, genetic engineering. The successes of the latter at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries. are determined by the latest achievements of biology - in terms of deciphering the human genome, posing and solving problems of cloning higher mammals (these problems, we note, include not only natural science, but also socio-ethical aspects).
Thirdly, post-non-classical science is characterized by new level integration of scientific research, expressed in comprehensive research programs, the implementation of which requires the participation of specialists various areas knowledge.
Fundamental feature of the structure scientific activity is the division of science into disciplines relatively isolated from each other. This has its own positive side, since it will make it possible to study individual fragments of reality in detail, but at the same time the connections between them are lost sight of, and in nature everything is interconnected and interdependent. The disunity of sciences is especially problematic now that the need for comprehensive integrative research has become apparent. environment. Nature is one. The science that studies all natural phenomena must also be unified.
Another one fundamental feature science - the desire to abstract from a person, to become as impersonal as possible. This once positive feature of science makes it now inadequate to reality and responsible for environmental difficulties, since man is the most powerful factor in changing reality.
In addition to the above, one can add the reproach that science and technology contribute to social oppression, in connection with this there are calls for the separation of science from the state.
The paradoxes of the development of science include the fact that science, on the one hand, communicates objective information about the world and at the same time destroys it (in various experiments) or something is destroyed on the basis scientific information(types of life, non-renewable resources).
But most importantly, science is losing hope of making people happy and giving them the truth. Science not only studies the development of the world, but is itself a process, factor and result of evolution, and it must be in harmony with the evolution of the world. An outline should form feedback between science and other aspects of life, which would regulate the development of science. The increase in the diversity of science must be accompanied by integration and growth of orderliness, and this is called the emergence of science at the level of an integral, integrative and diverse harmonious system.
In the modern worldview, two orientations have been formed regarding the attitude towards science and the scientific and technological revolution:
The first orientation, which received the name scientism (from the Latin scientia - science). It was in our time, when the role of science is truly enormous, that scientism appeared, associated with the idea of science, especially natural science, as the highest, if not absolute, value. This scientific ideology stated that only science can solve all the problems facing humanity, including immortality. Within the framework of scientism, science is seen as the only future sphere of spiritual culture that will absorb its irrational areas.
In contrast to this direction, he also loudly declared himself in the second half of the 20th century. antiscientism, which dooms science either to extinction or to eternal opposition to nature. Antiscientism proceeds from the position that the capabilities of science are fundamentally limited in solving fundamental human problems, and in its manifestations it evaluates science as hostile to man power, denying it positive impact on culture. She argues that although science improves the well-being of the population, it also increases the danger of the destruction of humanity and the Earth from nuclear weapons and environmental pollution.
Processes occurring in modern science
The development of science is characterized by the dialectical interaction of two opposing processes - differentiation (separation of new scientific disciplines) and integration (synthesis of knowledge, unification of a number of sciences - most often into disciplines located at their “junction”). At some stages of the development of science, differentiation predominates (especially during the period of the emergence of science in general and individual sciences), at others - their integration, this is typical for modern science.
Process of differentiation
Those. branching off of sciences, transformation of individual “rudiments” scientific knowledge into independent (private) sciences and the intrascientific “branching” of the latter into scientific disciplines began already at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period, previously unified knowledge (philosophy) bifurcates into two main “trunks” - philosophy itself and science as whole system knowledge, spiritual education and a social institution. In turn, philosophy begins to be divided into a number of philosophical sciences (ontology, epistemology, ethics, dialectics, etc.), science as a whole is divided into separate private sciences (and within them into scientific disciplines), among which the classical (Newtonian) becomes the leader ) mechanics, closely related to mathematics since its inception.
In the subsequent period, the process of differentiation of sciences continued to intensify. It was caused both by the needs of social production and by the internal needs of the development of scientific knowledge. The consequence of this process was the emergence and rapid development borderline, “butt” sciences (biochemistry, biophysics, chemical physics etc.).
The differentiation of sciences is a natural consequence of the rapid increase and complexity of knowledge. It inevitably leads to specialization and division of scientific labor. The latter have both positive aspects(the possibility of in-depth study of phenomena, increasing the productivity of scientists), and negative (especially “loss of connection of the whole,” narrowing of horizons - sometimes to the point of “professional cretinism”).
Integration process
Simultaneously with the process of differentiation, there is also a process of integration - unification, interpenetration, synthesis of sciences and scientific disciplines, combining them (and their methods) into a single whole. This is especially characteristic of modern science, where today such synthetic, general scientific fields of scientific knowledge as cybernetics, synergetics (one of the leading areas of modern science, representing the natural science vector of development of the theory of nonlinear dynamics in modern culture) etc., such integrative pictures of the world as natural science, general science, and philosophy are built (for philosophy also performs an integrative function in scientific knowledge).
The integration of sciences convincingly and with increasing force proves the unity of nature. It is therefore possible that such unity objectively exists.
IN modern science the combination of sciences to solve large problems and global problems, put forward by practical needs. So, for example, the solution to a very pressing environmental problem today is impossible without close interaction between the natural and human sciences, without a synthesis of the ideas and methods they develop. Thus, the development of science is a dialectical (most general patterns formation and development of nature, society, human thinking:
1) unity and struggle of opposites;
2) transition quantitative changes in quality;
3) denial of denial.
4) a process in which differentiation is accompanied by integration, interpenetration and unification of the most various directions scientific knowledge world, the interaction of diverse methods and ideas.
When I graduated from school, the Unified State Exam had not yet been invented. Now I often hear that tests are very difficult, and I decided to test myself by looking at the list of approximate topics and tasks in geography. That's what came out of it.
Ocean Science
I got into the section geographical sciences. The first question concerned science studying processes occurring in the World Ocean. I knew that its name was oceanology. This science covers so many points in this area that it has been divided into more highly specialized ones:
- Chemical oceanology.
- Physical.
- Technical.
- Interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere.
- Marine.
- Promyslovaya.
Soils for structures
The behavior of soils intended for structures and their interaction with elements of the technosphere is studied engineering geology. Its structure includes three component sections: engineering geodynamics, soil science and regional engineering geology.
Climate and topography of the Earth
Climatic conditions Globe, the patterns of climate formation and their location on the planet are studied by the science of climatology.
Relief, the nature of the surface, the history of development and the origin of landforms, the patterns of their distribution are studied by geomorphology. In this science, relief levels are studied in detail: elements, forms and complexes.
Earth's crust
Composition, structure, nature of the surface, as well as patterns of development earth's crust our planet are included in the circle of interests of the science of geology. It covers many separate sciences that have their own specific objects study and use own methods research. Examples of these sciences: tectonics, volcanology, mineralogy, paleontology, and even the aforementioned engineering geology.
Population and the influence of the specifics of the territory on its health
The science that focuses on the Earth's population, patterns of distribution and reproduction, its migration, numbers, and composition is called demography.
The influence of the characteristics of the geographic environment on people’s health and the order of spread of diseases are studied by medical geography.
Geography is a very unusual science that did not arise in the silence of temples and monasteries or in the dungeons of ancient laboratories. It appeared in ancient times, in the very thick of life. And it was created not by priests, not monks or scientists, but by those who, for one reason or another, set out on the road - sailors and merchants, diplomats and missionaries, warriors and naturalists. It was they who paved the paths into the unknown, describing the lands they encountered.
Translated from Greek, “geography” means “description of the earth,” and this word contains the answer to the question of what geography studies. It arose from urgent need. The rulers wanted to know how their countries and other states worked, merchants needed to explore new ones trade routes, and the sailors tried to find new sea routes. That is why the first geographers were people of rather unusual professions that were completely far from science.
Years and centuries passed, and in geography, as in every science, specialization appeared. Having completed the accumulation of material, geographers began to analyze and synthesize it, and moved on to studying the patterns of natural development. Modern physical geographers are engaged not only in describing terrain; they study not only outside phenomena, but also delve into their essence, strive to study the relationships and understand the causes natural processes flowing in every area.
In principle, this explains what physical geography studies. This is a science that studies geographical envelope Earth and its structural parts. So, for example, if we remember that the continents are part of the geographical envelope, it becomes clear that continental geography studies.
Included physical geography There are three main sciences. This is geoscience, which studies the general patterns of the structure and development of the geographical envelope, landscape science, which studies territorial natural complexes, and paleogeography. In turn, these sections have their own hierarchical structure by types of components, processes and phenomena being studied. Thus, individual components of the geographic envelope are studied by geomorphology, climatology, meteorology, hydrology, glaciology, soil geography, and biogeography. And at the intersection with other sciences, such new areas of physical geography as medical geography and engineering geography were formed.
Physical geography is closely related to other geographical sciences - cartography, regional studies, historical geography, socio-economic geography.
Modern physical geography Special attention focuses on the study of structure and dynamics various systems, their origin, processes of energy and mass exchange between the components of the physical shell of the Earth, the circulation of substances and energy flows, development forecast.
The methods that physical geographers use in their research are varied. This and traditional methods, such as expeditionary-descriptive, comparative-geographical, cartographic and descriptive. But methods based on the achievements of other sciences - mathematical, geophysical, geochemical - also came to the aid of scientists.
First ideas about earth's surface existed among primitive hunters and gatherers. Passing on information about the world around them to future generations, ancient people left drawings on stone and bone, on tree bark and animal skins. This is how they were laid initial basics geographical knowledge.
Birth of Earth Science
Geography is one of ancient sciences. Its name comes from two Greek words: geo - Earth, grapho - writing (description). Having emerged in ancient times, geography at first truly had a descriptive character. Travelers and sailors, generals and traders took scientists with them to compile descriptions of new lands and peoples. The Greek scientist Eratosthenes, more than 2200 years ago, first collected these descriptions in treatise about the nature of the Earth and called it “Geography”.
About 500 years ago - during the era of the Great geographical discoveries- Geography has been the queen of sciences for two centuries. Monarchs and wealthy merchants personally discussed plans for future expeditions with geographers and generously financed their travel in the hope of obtaining untold treasures. In a short time historical period appeared on the world map most of ocean spaces and inhabited lands. At this time, geography was a collection of a wide variety of information. She gave answers to the questions “what is this?” and “where is it located?”, indicating the location various objects on the surface of the Earth. However, even in the 18th century, the Arctic, Australia, and many hinterland continents.
But as geography develops, it main task became the study of the laws by which our planet lives and develops. Geography began to transform from a descriptive discipline into a science that answers the question “why?” To do this, geographers needed to understand and explain the reasons for the appearance and changes of objects and natural phenomena.
Geographical Sciences
Modern geography is a complex branched system, or “tree” of sciences. Geography is the only science that unites diverse (knowledge about nature and people. All geographical features and phenomena created by nature are studied by physical geography. Population and objects created by human activity are studied by social geography. One of most important tasks modern geographical science in general is the study of the diverse interaction of nature and society to solve global (world) problems facing humanity, for example, the problem of providing the population with food, natural resources, including fuel and water. The tasks of exploring the World Ocean and space are very important. Cartography, the science of geographical maps, occupies a special place among the geographical sciences. Closely related to geography is the related science of geology.
Geographers today are specialists in many professions. The waters of the land are studied by a hydrologist, the ice by a glaciologist, the irregularities of the Earth's surface by animals and vegetable world planets - biotheographer. Geoecologists predict the consequences of human impact on nature. The system of geographical sciences also includes disciplines of a practical nature, such as medical and military geography.
Geography is a science that originated in ancient times. For many centuries it has been describing the nature, population and economy of various regions and the Earth as a whole. Now this is no longer the only science, but the whole system natural and social sciences. All of them together deeply explore the structure of the geographical shell of our planet, its constituent components, study the reasons for the development of certain natural phenomena and processes, analyze socio-economic and ecological problems etc. The system of geographical sciences consists of independent sciences, scientific disciplines and branch sciences.
TO independent sciences belongs to physical geography, socio-economic geography, history of geography, cartography. Physical geography studies the nature of the Earth's surface and its various natural complexes. Socio-economic geography studies the population, its economic activity, patterns of production location. Both of these sciences are the main branches of geography. The history of geography studies the development of theoretical thought, history geographical research and discoveries, describes the stages of the emergence and formation of all geographical sciences. Cartography is the science of geographical maps, methods and processes for their creation and use. Note that cartography has a special place in geography, because it serves not only geographical sciences, but also sciences and branches quite far from it National economy- maps are widely used, for example, in military affairs, aviation, shipping, and administrative institutions.
As part of physical geography, the main scientific disciplines are geosciences, regional physical geography and landscape science. Each of them has its own subject of study. Thus, geoscience studies the geographical envelope of the Earth as an integral system, its structure, structure, dynamics, development and changes under the influence of economic activity. Regional physical geography studies the nature of various regions of the Earth, including individual continents, oceans, and countries. An important part modern physical geography is landscape science, which studies natural and transformed (anthropogenic) landscapes and their components.
Socio-economic geography also consists of three main disciplines. This is economic and social geography world, regional economic and social geography and regional studies. Each of these sciences has its own subject of research. Thus, economic and social geography of the world studies the basics of the geography of world production, explores the structure, location and development of the economy individual countries in general and its main branches, analyzes the quantitative and qualitative state of the population, formulates theoretical questions and discovers the laws of development of research subjects. Regional economic and social geography studies the economies of countries and economic regions(production-territorial complexes) and connections between them. Regional studies gives general characteristics nature and economy of individual states or large territories. A component of regional studies is local history, the subject of study of which is small territories - their nature, economy, history, life of people, etc.
Conservation science has crystallized in physical and economic geography and therefore combines issues of nature and economics. This is the doctrine of natural resources and their rational use. The task of this science is to provide efficient use natural resources, their expanded reproduction, conservation of valuable and endangered species of plants and animals, unique landscapes.
Certain branch sciences are now also actively engaged in issues of nature conservation. They separated from geography as a result of accumulation large quantity scientific knowledge about the Earth and in connection with the need for in-depth study various components nature and economic sectors, as well as the laws of development of nature and society. First, let's name the branch sciences that stood out from general physical geography. Geomorphology is the science of the Earth's topography, the origin and patterns of development of its forms. Oceanology studies physical, chemical, geological and biological processes and phenomena in the World Ocean, the ocean floor, spatial differentiation of waters and the influence of these factors on the formation of the nature of the planet. Hydrology studies the essence water bodies land: rivers, lakes, swamps, The groundwater, glaciers. Soil geography studies the patterns of soil distribution on the earth's surface. Biogeography studies the patterns of geographic distribution and distribution of plants, animals and their groups on the planet, as well as the nature and history of the formation of the fauna and flora of individual territories.
Socio-economic geography also gave rise to several separate branch sciences. Each of them examines separate objects. Population geography studies the territorial patterns of formation, placement and development of the population in a certain socio-economic and geographical environment, social geography - features and patterns territorial organization life of society in various countries, regions, localities, natural areas. Geography and natural resource economics studies natural resources and implements economic assessment them in a country, region, region or any other specific territory. Industry Geography Explores territorial structure industrial production, objective patterns and features of industrial development in general and in separate groups industries within territorial systems different levels. The subject of studying geography Agriculture is agrarian-territorial complexes different types and regions, transport geography - conditions, factors and patterns of formation, functioning and territorial organization transport systems as a means of communication between territorial production complexes.
Ecology in broadly understood is a science that studies the relationships between living organisms and their environment. Now it's very great importance acquire comprehensive studies of the interaction between nature and society in order to substantiate rational use natural resources and conservation favorable conditions for life on our planet.
The described system of geographical sciences does not cover all its branches. In particular, it does not mention such sciences as medical, military and political geography, paleogeography, glaciology, permafrost science, geoecology and some others. And although the classification of the modern division of geography is not complete, it indicates that all geographical sciences are united by a close relationship between the objects under study and commonality ultimate goal, which consists in comprehensive study nature, population and economy and in determining the nature of the interaction between human society and the environment.