East Asia is one of the strategic regions of the world. The second and third largest countries in the world by GDP are located here - China and Japan. Very complex processes of transformation are taking place at the level of conceptual civilizational shifts. Through this region, humanity seems to be testing the future paths of its development.

China

General information. The official name is the People's Republic of China. The capital is Beijing (more than 11 million people). Area - 9,600,000 km 2 (3rd place in the world). Population - more than 130,000,000 people (1st place). The official language is Chinese. The monetary unit is the yuan.

Geographical position. The country is located in Eastern and partly in Central Asia. In the east it has access to the Pacific Ocean (Yellow, East China and South China Seas). In the north and northeast, China borders on Russia, in the north on Mongolia. The northwestern borders separate China from Kazakhstan, the western borders from Tajikistan, Afghanistan and India. In the south there are borders with Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam. In the northeast, China borders the DPRK. The geographical position of various parts of China is assessed ambiguously: the eastern, especially coastal, regions are located very advantageously for economic development, the central and especially western parts of the country are largely isolated from active economic life. The countries surrounding China are unstable and economically developed. China's advantage is its proximity to Russia, which it uses as a natural resource donor and a territory for “dumping” the population surplus.

History of origin and development. In the Yellow River valley, archaeologists have discovered some of the oldest settlements. Around 1500 BC That is, the Shang dynasty arose in China, whose dominance was replaced by the Zhou dynasty, which ended with the decline of imperial power and the division of the state into separate kingdoms (principalities). UIII Art. BC e. Emperor Shihuang united China and began building the Great Wall of China. At the beginning of our era, during the Han Dynasty, traditional Chinese culture flourished. China exercised control over the Silk Road, spreading Buddhism from India. In the XIII-XIV centuries. China was conquered by the Mongols. The grandson of Genghis Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in Beijing. During the XIV-XVII centuries. reigned the Ming dynasty, which came to power after the overthrow of the Mongol conquerors. In the 17th century China was conquered by the Manchus, establishing the Qing dynasty, whose rule lasted until 1912 and was overthrown by an uprising. In 1912, the Chinese Republic was proclaimed. Sun Yat-sen led the revolution and created the People's Party (Kuomintang). In the 30s of the XX century. Japan occupied large parts of China. After its surrender, a war began between the communists of Mao Zedong and the Kuomintang. After the victory in 1949. The communists evacuated millions of Kuomintang members to the island of Taiwan, where they founded a state. The state of China arose on the Chinese mainland. In it, the communist regime of Mao Zedong began to carry out large-scale communist experiments, which ultimately ended in complete collapse. To stay in power, the communists began to build capitalism (market economy). This contributed to rapid economic growth and improved well-being of the population.

State system and form of government. China is a unitary state, a socialist (communist) people's republic. According to the constitution, the highest organ of state power is the National People's Congress

(2,979 deputies). They elect the chairman of the People's Republic of China and his deputy. The Chairman of the People's Republic of China proposes a candidacy for the Prime Minister of the State Council (government) for approval by the National People's Congress. China is divided into 22 provinces, excluding Taiwan, six autonomous regions and regions with special status (Hong Kong/Hong Kong, Macao/Macao).

Natural conditions and resources. The terrain of China is extremely complex and varied. Most of the country is mountains, plateaus and highlands. Among them, the Tibetan Plateau, the largest in the world in area and height, stands out (average height more than 4000 m). The west and north are occupied by plateaus and plains with altitudes up to 1200 m. Lowlands are common in the east and northeast.

The vast territory also determines the climatic diversity. Summer and winter monsoons dominate in the east. With distance from the Pacific coast, the climate becomes continental. The amount of precipitation decreases to 250 mm per year. In the highlands the climate is harsh and dry.

In the eastern part of China, where more precipitation falls, there are the largest and deepest rivers. The largest of them are the Yangtze, Yellow River and the Amur tributary - the Songhua. The deep-flowing Xijiang flows in the southeast. The summer monsoon, which blows from the ocean, brings a lot of precipitation. This causes catastrophic floods. The largest number of lakes are in Tibet and the Yangtze Valley.

The valleys of China's largest rivers are dominated by fertile alluvial soils. Brown forests dominate in the northeast. In the west, gray-brown desert soils are common. The south of the country is occupied by yellow soils and red soils.

China has a very rich and diverse flora and fauna. In the northeast, the unique Far Eastern taiga with a bizarre combination of northern and southern species of plants and animals (Daurian larch, Korean cedar, Manchurian walnut, ginseng, lemongrass, etc.) has still been preserved. These forests are home to the world's largest Amur tiger, musk deer, wapiti, sable, etc. Evergreen subtropical forests grow south of the Yangtze. They are home to monkeys, lemurs, rhinoceroses, and tapirs. Wild camels and horses occur in desert areas.

China is very well endowed with mineral resources. It holds one of the first places in the world in reserves of coal, manganese and iron ores, zinc and bauxite, tungsten (60% of world reserves), molybdenum, antimony, tin, titanium, rock salt and the like. There is gold, uranium, rare earth metals. Limited reserves of oil and natural gas.

Population. China is the most populous country in the world (over 20% of the planet's population). Such a large number of people in the country creates many problems. Housing and food problems, as well as providing the Chinese with work, are especially acute. In this regard, the Chinese government is pursuing a strict birth control policy. Therefore, the natural increase in the country is three times lower than in India.

With an average population density of 140 people per 1 km 2, the population is distributed extremely unevenly. In the eastern lowland regions it reaches 400 people, and in the mountains - only 10 people per 1 km 2.

The part of the urban population is only 32%. At the same time, there are more than 40 millionaire cities in the country. The largest of them, besides the capital, are Shanghai (up to 16 million people), Tianjin (more than 10 million), Shenyang (more than 5 million).

The ethnic composition of the population is dominated by the Chinese (Han) - 92%. Another 55 peoples live in their ethnic territories, mainly on the outskirts of China (Hui, Mongols, Uighurs, Tibetans, Koreans, etc.).

Farming. China is an industrial-agrarian state, after market transformations it is developing at the fastest pace among the world's major countries, and in terms of total GNP it ranks second after the United States.

And this is when today almost 60% of the employed population works in agriculture and forestry, and only about 20% in industry, that is, it can be argued that the Chinese economy has enormous growth potential.

The industrial structure is dominated by heavy industry. The mining industry is represented by the coal, oil and gas industries. The rate of extraction of ferrous and non-ferrous metal ores is growing, and accordingly the production of electricity, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy is developing (the main centers of ferrous metallurgy are located in the cities of Anshan, Wuhan, Benxi, Baotou).

China's mechanical engineering industry is very diversified, both sectorally and geographically. It is represented by the entire global range of products. Industry enterprises are concentrated in the largest cities and in free economic zones on the east coast.

The chemical industry mainly focused its efforts on the production of mineral fertilizers, construction materials and household chemical products. There is a powerful oil refining industry.

Light industry is of global importance. It mainly specializes in the production of fabrics. The main center of light industry is Shanghai.

Agriculture, together with the food industry, meets the needs of 130,000,000 people. China holds first place in the world in terms of production of wheat, peanuts, cotton, rice, and tobacco; third - citrus fruits. In general, grain production exceeds 500 million tons. Rice traditionally plays an important role in the diet. The importance of livestock farming is increasing: China ranks first in the world in terms of pig numbers (420 million).

The total length of railway tracks is more than 60 thousand km. In 1992 The Chinese created another transcontinental railway, extending it to the borders with Kazakhstan. The automobile network in China now exceeds 1,100,000 km. The length of air routes is approximately the same. Inland water transport (110 thousand km) has not lost its importance. The country has almost 120 seaports that connect China with 100 countries of the world.

Culture and social development. In China, about 70% of the population is literate. A 9-year education is compulsory. There are more than 1,000 higher education institutions in the country. The largest of them are located in Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin. The most famous news agency is Xinhua. China's cultural heritage is one of the largest in the world. The Great Wall of China, imperial palaces, parks, and mausoleums are world famous. There are many museums and libraries. China has perhaps the largest number of unemployed people. There are especially many of them in small towns.

China recognized Ukraine on December 27, 1991. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on January 4, 1992 by signing the Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations. The Chinese Embassy has been operating in Kyiv since March 1992. Ukraine exports goods worth more than $1 billion to China, importing almost 10 times less products from this country.

The subcontinent of East Asia occupies the Pacific margin from to the southern borders of China. Its western borders (outside Russia) run along the Greater Khingan, the eastern edge of Alashan, and the foothills of Eastern Tibet (Sikana). To the south, East Asia extends to about 20° N. sh., that is, it extends within the tropical zone. From the east, the region is washed by marginal seas, which have a very great influence on the nature of the region. The Russian Far East, by its natural properties, belongs to this subcontinent, but its features are discussed in the course of the physical geography of Russia.

East Asia

Within foreign East Asia, four physical-geographical countries are usually distinguished. Three of them are on the mainland. These are Northeast China and Korea, Central China and South China. In addition, the subcontinent traditionally includes the Japanese islands, the nature of which is in many ways similar to the mainland of the region.

East Asia was formed on a basis of different ages (from the Precambrian structures of the Chinese platform to the modern Pacific mobile belt). Only at the last stages of the history of the region’s development were the processes of its formation more or less unified. The subcontinent stretches from north to south from temperate to tropical latitudes, and is therefore located in three climatic zones. The general features of nature within East Asia are explained by the close proximity to the Pacific Ocean and its seas, as well as, to some extent, the Quaternary history of development. The interaction of a huge ocean with a massive continent creates special conditions for atmospheric circulation.

All of East Asia is characterized by a monsoon climate. The almost complete absence of sublatitudinal mountain barriers facilitates the free penetration of the air flow of the winter monsoon far to the south, and the summer monsoon to the north. The same circumstance helps the exchange of species of the organic world between the northern and southern parts of the region. The neotectonic stage of the formation of the surface of the subcontinent was distinguished by very active movements of the earth's crust, accompanied by faults and outpourings of lavas. This is apparently due to the fact that the region is closely adjacent to the mobile Pacific subduction zone.

As a result, features of nature are observed that are common to the entire subcontinent.

The dominance of a monsoon climate with dry and relatively cold winters with a predominance of anticyclonic weather patterns and rainy, warm summers. The summer maximum precipitation is typical for the entire region, but the share of summer precipitation in the total amount decreases from the northern to the southern regions. The formation of climates is greatly influenced by cyclonic activity.

It appears in different ways and in different seasons, but is common throughout the subcontinent. A significant place in climatic conditions is occupied by tropical cyclones (typhoons), spreading along the coast of the mainland far to the north beyond the tropics.

Full-flowing rivers have a monsoon flow regime with a summer maximum. The increase in summer runoff is facilitated by melting snow in the mountains, where the region's main rivers originate. In the middle and lower reaches, most rivers flow over flat plains, where they deposit a lot of solid material. River flow is variable: flow often changes, and sometimes the position of the channels.

Characteristic is the antiquity of the organic world, which was formed starting from the Paleogene, and perhaps from the end of the Mesozoic under more or less homogeneous climatic conditions. During the periods of the Pleistocene glaciations of Eurasia, with a cooling of the climate, plants and animals freely “retreated” to the south and then just as freely returned to more northern regions. This contributed to the formation of biocenoses with an exceptionally rich species composition, the preservation of relict species in the flora and fauna, and the interchange of species characteristic of different climatic zones.

There are some common features in the structure of the surface of the region, especially its mainland. Here the protrusions of ancient structures predominate in combination with tectonic depressions filled with alluvial and sometimes lacustrine sediments. There are traces of ancient volcanism as a result of the tectonic instability of the region, which is located between large mobile belts near the interaction zone of large lithospheric plates. Basalt covers are widespread.

The territory of the subcontinent has long been densely populated by people. Climatic conditions and the presence of vast plains with fertile soils contributed to the development of agricultural production in the region for many millennia. As a result, the natural vegetation cover was very poorly preserved, and the soils were cultivated. In many areas it is impossible to understand what conditions were there before humans arrived. Even the slopes of low mountains have been transformed beyond recognition, transformed into systems of anthropogenic terraces.

Northeast China and Korean Peninsula

The region is located in the north of foreign East Asia within a temperate climate zone with a pronounced monsoon circulation. Its borders are drawn in the north along the state borders of Russia, in the west - along the Greater Khingan and the eastern outskirts of the Ordos Plateau, in the south - along the foot of the Qinling ridge and along the watershed of the Yellow and Yangtze river basins. In the east, the region has a broad front facing the Pacific Ocean and its seas - the Yellow and the Japanese.

The northern border is not natural, but political, the southern is climatic, and therefore unclear: on the Great Chinese Plain, the landscapes of the region are gradually replaced by the landscapes of Central China. The territory is occupied by the northeastern provinces of China, North and South Korea. It is interesting that the Great Wall of China was built along the natural boundary between the region and the Central Asian regions - a structure that protected the agricultural population from the raids of the nomadic pastoralists of Central Asia.

The basis of the region is the Chinese-Korean Precambrian and Mongolian-Dongbei EpiPaleozoic platforms, which experienced differentiated vertical movements along faults in Cenozoic times. The projections of the foundation form in most cases medium-high and low blocky or folded-block mountains, and thick strata of river and lake alluvium have accumulated in the depressions.

Mountain ranges, composed mainly of crystalline rocks, are distinguished by their low height and the presence of planation surfaces at different heights. Their slopes, as a rule, are strongly dissected by tectonic faults and erosion.

The plains were formed in syneclises.

In the north, the South Manchurian and Central Manchurian accumulative lowlands, formed within the Songliao syneclise, are connected to the Middle Amur and Khanka lowlands. In the east, the Great Chinese Plain is located in a young (Neogene) trough between the protrusions of the ancient foundation, which is filled with a thick (hundreds of meters) layer of alluvium from the river. Yellow River interbedded with loess. Among the plain and along its outskirts, low mountain ranges rise on the ledges of the foundation (Taishan, Taihanshan, etc.).

The Loess Plateau occupies a special place. The thickness of crystalline and sedimentary rocks here is covered by loess, which plays a landscape-forming role. The ancient erosional relief is leveled by thick (up to 100-250 meters) loess deposits. The plateau in the west has heights of 2000-2200 meters and an uneven surface, and to the east it descends to 1200 meters and is a flat plain, dissected by a dense network of ravines and gullies formed as a result of the erosion of loess strata. Loess is also common in other areas of Northeast China. They cover valley bottoms and, in some places, mountain slopes.

A characteristic feature of the surface structure of the region is numerous faults, pre-Cenozoic intrusions and Cenozoic volcanism. Young lava plateaus, dissected by erosion, are widespread (Changbai Shan in Korea covers an area of ​​500x250 km). The region is prone to earthquakes.

The monsoon variant of the temperate climate is characterized by large temperature amplitudes and uneven distribution of precipitation throughout the year.

There are dry, cold winters (average January temperatures are down to -20°C and even up to -28°C) and humid, warm summers (average July temperatures are 15-26°C). During the summer season, up to 80% of precipitation falls, mainly in the form of torrential rains during the passage of cyclones of the Pacific polar front, carrying the tropical sea in the warm sector. A milder climate is typical only for the southern part of Korea, where winter temperatures are mostly positive. As in areas of sharply continental climate, there is usually a dry, cool spring here, and some of the snow evaporates before it has time to melt. Autumn is usually warm and dry. Annual rainfall varies greatly within the region, from 1200 mm in the east to 300 mm in the northwest.

The region is often subject to typhoon incursions in late summer and early autumn. Sometimes in the summer the influence of continental air masses from Central Asia increases, and in such years there are severe droughts.

Belonging to the Amur, Liaohe and Yellow River basins, they have a clearly defined monsoon regime with summer floods. The rise of water in the spring-summer season is enhanced by the melting of snow in the mountains. In the north, flow is somewhat regulated by swamps and lakes, the largest of which is Khanka. The rivers freeze. They carry a huge amount of solid material into the sea, the main share of which is loess.

The Yellow River, especially the Yellow River, carries a lot of turbidity. On the Great Chinese Plain it meanders, forms numerous oxbow lakes, and its bed is often elevated above the interfluve spaces. The river often changes the location of its channel and mouth. The modern Yellow River delta, which emerged a hundred years ago, has advanced 20 km into the sea, despite the fact that tectonic subsidence is taking place here.

The uniqueness of the region's vegetation is explained both by modern environmental conditions (humid, warm summers and harsh winters with little snow) and by the history of its formation. During periods of cooling and warming during the Pleistocene glaciation, the change of xerothermic and pluvial eras, plant migration occurred and adaptive speciation took place. Hence the great diversity and presence of relict groups. By many indications, most of the region was formerly occupied by forest vegetation. Forests still remain in the north and on the mountain slopes.

The northwestern regions are characterized by taiga with a predominance of Daurian larch; to the south the admixture of deciduous species (oak, birch, poplar, etc., often represented by endemic species) increases. The bush undergrowth is rich. But the mixed and broad-leaved forests of the south and east of the region are especially distinguished by the richness and originality of their species composition. Korean cedar, black fir, Mongolian oak, Manchurian walnut, linden and ash, Amur velvet (Far Eastern cork tree), and numerous wild fruit trees grow in them.

These forests are characterized by a dense shrub layer. There are many powerful vines - actinidia, lemongrass, vineyard, wild Amur grapes, etc. This gives the forests a unique “tropical” appearance. In the grass cover there is a relict plant with unique medicinal properties - ginseng. The forest vegetation is poorly preserved and highly modified; in particular, the proportion of coniferous species has been artificially reduced as a result of selective logging. In the lowlands of the central part of the region, within the Loess Plateau and in some areas of dry mountain slopes, the indigenous type of vegetation is steppe, but the steppe flora is almost not preserved.

Under the forests, brown and gray forest soils, podzolized to varying degrees, were formed; on the lowland plains under steppe vegetation - chernozems and chestnut soils, and in some places - desert brown soils. Flat lowlands are often swampy. Salinization processes are quite widely developed; there are solonchaks, solonetzes and solods. The Loess Plateau is dominated by chestnut soils.

The fauna of the region was formed in the same way as the flora - animals migrated and adapted to changing conditions.

The forests are inhabited by bears - brown and black (Himalayan), Ussuri tiger, leopard (leopard), forest cat, raccoon dog, sable, marten, red deer, sika deer, musk deer, numerous rodents, bats, etc. Many different birds , a unique fauna of reptiles and fish. Insects are often brightly colored and reach large sizes.

The fauna of the steppes is close to that of the Mongolians.

The region has large natural resources - land (flat areas with fertile soils), agroclimatic (climate with humid, warm summers), forest (except for trees with valuable wood, there are medicinal plants - ginseng, lemongrass, etc., forests are rich in fur-bearing animals), mineral . Of the latter, coal, iron ores and gold are of greatest importance. There are large deposits of aluminum, magnesium and tungsten ores.

The Great Chinese Plain, the Loess Plateau, and the Korean Peninsula are areas of long-standing settlement and intensive land development. The rural population in some places reaches high densities. All suitable for cultivation on the plains and gentle mountain slopes are plowed. Natural landscapes here are changed to such an extent that it is often impossible to determine their original state. This especially applies to the regions of the north of the Great Chinese Plain.

Many cultivated plants originated from the region. Rice, kaoliang, soybeans, corn, cotton, and fruit trees are grown.

The population has to contend with land degradation, especially intense erosion, flooding caused by summer floods and typhoons.

Central China

This region occupies the subtropical zone within East Asia. It is located in the river basin. The Yangtze, in the north includes the Qinling Mountains, in the west it borders on the Tibetan Plateau at the foot of the Sino-Tibetan Mountains. In the east, Central China opens to the seas of the Pacific Ocean; in the south, the border runs along the watershed of the rivers of the Yangtze and Xijiang basins. Here the subtropical climate gives way to a hotter tropical one.

The natural features of the region are determined by the well-defined features of the monsoon climate and its position within the ancient South China Platform and the zone of Paleozoic folding, which appeared in the north and east. A major role, as elsewhere in East Asia, was played by the history of the development of the region’s nature in its final stages.

Most of Central China consists of medium-high and low-altitude mountains of various origins.

In the north there is a fairly high (up to 4000 m) Qinling ridge, formed in the Hercynian orogenic era as a continuation of the Central Asian system. Mountains typically have flat tops and are dissected by deep gorges. To the south stretches the low Dabashan ridge, and the depression between these mountains is occupied by a wide river valley. Hanshui. Further to the south begins a system of low mountains formed as a result of Mesozoic movements that covered the sedimentary cover of the platform. The Yangtze cuts through ridges, and along its course a chain of basins has formed, the largest of which is the Sichuan (Red Basin), filled with a thick layer of loose red sediments.

All the basins were previously occupied by lakes, and in the lower reaches they have survived to this day, playing a large role in regulating the river flow. South of the Yangtze, the surface is a system of gently sloping mountains usually up to 2000 meters high (box anticlines) and wide synclinal valleys (Wishan and Nanling highlands). The ridges approach the coast, forming a riassa coast. In the west, on the raised structures of the platform foundation, there is the Yunnan Plateau and to the east of it the Guizhou Plateau, up to 1000 meters high, composed of limestones.

Climatic conditions are characterized by a significant degree of continentality, despite the generally coastal location of the region.

The annual amplitudes of average monthly temperatures reach almost 30°C due to the abnormally cold winter for these latitudes (the influence of a strong and persistent winter monsoon). There are cold snaps to sub-zero temperatures. The amount of precipitation, compared to the more northern region, increases significantly due to the development of cyclonic activity on the polar front, which occurs between monsoon and trade wind flows and local air masses. Cyclonic activity intensifies in summer, but does not stop completely in winter, which reduces the seasonal difference in precipitation. There is practically no dry period in the Yangtze Valley. The region is prone to typhoons, during which several hundred millimeters of rain can fall at once.

The rivers of the Yangtze basin flow in wide valleys, but also break through mountain ranges, forming rapids. Their regime is typically monsoon. In summer there are floods, especially severe during typhoons, when heavy rains are combined with surge winds. The flow of the Yangtze in its lower reaches is regulated by lakes, which accumulate water as the river level rises. A network of reservoirs has also been created.

The organic world is characterized by a mixture of southern and northern groups of plants and animals, as well as an abundance of relict species.

Subtropical forests of evergreen magnolias, laurels, camphor, tung trees, ginkgo, conifers - cypresses, podocarpus, southern pines have an admixture of deciduous ones - oak, beech, hornbeam, birch, etc. The lower tiers are formed by bamboos, camellias, fan palms, ferns, cycads , numerous lianas. These forests may have combinations such as orchids on birch trees or raspberries in the understory of an evergreen forest. Qingming forms a rather sharp divide between the vegetation of temperate and subtropical zones. Common animals include tropical leopards, pandas, Himalayan bears, macaques, gibbons, lemurs, civets, etc.

Central China has rich natural resources. Its depths contain huge reserves of ore minerals: iron (including magnetite), tungsten, tin, molybdenum, copper, lead, zinc, and manganese ores. Antimony deposits are extremely rich. There is gold and silver. Agroclimatic conditions allow the cultivation of rice, cotton, tea bush, citrus fruits, tung and mulberry trees, tobacco and other crops. Its flat areas, valleys and basins, and the lower slopes of the mountains are cultivated and occupied by agricultural crops. In the Red Basin, the growing season reaches 300 days a year. You can get two harvests of different crops.

The region is extremely densely populated. Natural conditions are greatly changed by anthropogenic influence. Forests have survived only in the mountains and around temples. A number of nature reserves and reserves have been created to protect the few remnants of subtropical forests and their inhabitants. Flood control is very important for residents of the region. There is a high culture of irrigation here.

South China

This small region occupies the southern edge of the subcontinent. In the south it borders with Indochina (approximately along the tectonic valley of the Red River and the foot of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau), in the west it is limited by the Sino-Tibetan mountains. Its main difference from other parts of East Asia is the hot climate (the January average is above 13°C). This determines the unique nature of the region.

According to circulation conditions, the climate is usually classified as subequatorial. Indeed, in the summer, equatorial and tropical sea air comes here with the monsoon, and a lot of precipitation falls.

However, the winter here is not dry (10-12% of the annual precipitation) and cold (in the tropics the average January temperature is 13 ° C and there are frosts), which is not typical for the subequatorial climate with its usually even code of high temperatures. Cold winters are associated with the penetration of the continental monsoon from the north, and precipitation in winter (as in subtropical Central China) is associated with the action of cyclones of the polar front. The total amount of precipitation in the region is high - 1500-2000 mm. Most of all, the features of the subequatorial climate are expressed on the island. Hainan, where only 7% of the annual norm falls during the winter, but the temperature range still reaches 11°C.

The region's surface is low to mid-altitude mountains and rolling hills. The mountains reach their greatest height (above 3000 meters) on the island. Taiwan.

The main river of Southern China, the Xijiang, has a more uniform flow than other rivers in East Asia.

In some places, tropical evergreen and deciduous forests of the South Asian type are well preserved, despite intensive land use. Above them, subtropical evergreens grow in the mountains, and above 1800 m, coniferous forests grow.

In conditions of high temperatures and good moisture, agriculture is developed in the region. Tropical crops are grown in the valleys, and subtropical crops are grown on the terraced mountain slopes. In the lowlands there are rice fields everywhere. Xijiang is a fish river. At its mouth, residents have also been engaged in pearl fishing for a long time.

East Asia(Chinese 东亚, Korean 동아시아, Japanese 東アジア, Mong. Dornod Azi) - eastern part of Asia.

Adjacent to the Pacific Ocean in the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones. The relief is characterized by a complex combination of mountains and plains. A significant part of East Asia is located in the Western Pacific geosynclinal belt. Volcanism (Kamchatka and mountain-island arcs) and significant seismic activity are inherent.

The climate is monsoonal, seasonally humid, typhoons and floods are frequent.

Natural vegetation is represented mainly by forests, in the northern part the forests are predominantly mixed and taiga, in the south - broad-leaved subtropical and tropical. In areas with low humidity forest-steppe and steppe.

The plains are cultivated and densely populated.

The East Asia region includes the Russian Far East, China, Taiwan, Japan, North Korea, the Republic of Korea and Mongolia.

EKATERINA KOLDUNOVA

LEADERSHIP GAP IN EAST ASIA: OPPORTUNITIES FOR SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED COUNTRIES

Summary The article analyzes the economic and political situation in East Asia after the crisis. The positions of the main major players - the USA, China, Japan, as well as small and medium-sized countries in the region are considered. The conclusion is substantiated that the post-crisis situation is increasingly conducive to the tendency to limit leadership aspirations in East Asia, which is facilitated by both the political and economic strategy of the main regional players in relation to each other, and the growing political subjectivity of small and medium-sized countries represented by ASEAN. Keywords: East Asia; USA; China; Japan; Russia; EU; ASEAN; regional leadership; regional system. Abstract The article analyzes the economic and political situation in East Asia after the crisis. Positions of the major players (the US, China, Japan) as well as regional smaller and middle range states are examined. The author comes to a conclusion that the post-crises situation is increasingly conducive for the restriction of the leadership aspirations in East Asia. Both the political and economic strategy of the main regional players towards each other, as well as the rise of political subjectness of smaller and middle-range states united in ASEAN do contribute to such a restriction. Keywords: East Asia; the USA; China; Japan; Russia; the EU; ASEAN; regional leadership regional system The purpose of the article is to try to assess the balance of power in East Asia against the backdrop of the residual effects of the global economic crisis and to determine what are the chances of the traditional and new leaders of the region to improve their positions in a situation where efforts to overcome the consequences of the crisis constrain the activity of the most powerful powers. At the same time, small and medium-sized states, represented by ASEAN countries, are more actively asserting themselves as political subjects, and the status quo in the regional economy as a whole is maintained. As a result of the crisis, the traditionally influential world centers of power - the United States, the EU and Japan - experienced a deep recession and faced serious structural problems in the economy. At the same time, a number of East Asian countries, primarily China, having overcome a decline in growth rates comparable in scale to what was observed in the economies of the United States and the European Union, were able to maintain positive development dynamics 1 . At the same time, the United States and Japan retain their dominance in the region, but can no longer increase it, unlike China. The Japanese economic presence in the Asia-Pacific region is fundamental, and it determines many basic parameters for the development of the region. But there is an impression that this country is more likely to defend its previously acquired positions than to attempt to acquire new ones. Against this background, the growth of the Chinese presence in East Asia is actively discussed in the literature. China is trying to “replace” Japan in the American economy, fulfilling the function of saturating the American market with high-quality, cheap goods. In this sense, economic interdependence between China and the United States has formed, which helps reduce the severity of their possible contradictions. Although Russia cannot yet be considered a full-fledged regional player, its presence in East Asia has stabilized over the past decade and is no longer declining. At the same time, the Russian presence is effectively ceasing to be independent, in the sense that it is increasingly turning out to be simply a function of China’s economic presence. The Russian Far East has already been integrated into the regional economic system, but not on Russian terms and not as an independent entity. The countries and territories of East Asia (Japan, Taiwan, the states of Southeast Asia and the People's Republic of China) are experiencing a complex process of internal political transformations, which will inevitably affect the regional situation 2. At the same time, East Asia as a traditional geographical region is acquiring new international political dimensions. Its geographical boundaries “spread”, and in terms of content it “absorbs” issues related to adjacent regions 3 . In addition, the situation in East Asia can be seen as a reflection of global trends in limiting the power of individual players. While individual states continue to strengthen their positions, their ability to act fully independently is diminished 4 . The geostrategic balance of power is becoming more complicated. In the 1950s and 1960s, the region as a whole exhibited the features of an emerging classical bipolarity. In the 1970s–1980s, this structure began to erode, which was associated with the advancement of the PRC to the position of an independent regional player. Political pluralism was added to the regional system by the distancing of smaller states from the leading countries and the reorientation of the former to solving problems of internal development, mainly economic 5 . Over the past decades, the subjectivity of small and medium-sized countries in the region, represented by ASEAN, has consolidated and manifests itself much more strongly in politics and security than one and a half or two decades ago. The global financial and economic crisis failed to fundamentally change the balance of positions in the region. At the same time, the economic area of ​​interaction in the region is still a priority compared to the political one, and within the latter, small and medium-sized countries (primarily ASEAN) continue to actively use blocking on a group basis in order to more confidently conduct dialogue with more powerful regional and non-regional players. Throughout the 1990s, Japan acted as a source of guiding economic trends in the region, acting, in essence, in alliance with the United States. Moreover, due to the creation in East Asia of a network of enterprises tied to large Japanese enterprises and reproducing in their structure capitalist relations of a special, Japanese type, the Japanese political circles themselves managed, according to American researchers, to “mothball” the situation within the country, postponing it for almost a decade the need for internal reforms 6. From an economic point of view, a hierarchically structured export-oriented model was created in the region, which turned out to be not only vulnerable in the face of the crises of 1997–1998 and partly 2008–2009, but also to some extent generated them. Japan exported to the NIS countries (Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan) not only capital, but also technologies that were no longer the most advanced for the Japanese economy, but could be successfully applied in countries with a lower technological level. The NIS countries, in turn, having achieved a new stage of development based on Japanese technological “feeding”, then began to transfer simple technologies borrowed from Japan, but already well mastered by them, to the group of “Asian tigers of the second wave” (Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines) , and those to Indonesia and the coastal regions of China. Such a “chain” was called in the literature “formation of flying geese.” Export of finished products was carried out to Western countries, largely to the USA. In addition, throughout the 1990s, Japan was the main country providing economic assistance to countries in the region on a bilateral basis. It also acted as the absolute leader in the level of foreign direct investment (especially in Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia), and Japanese specialists in the 1980–1990s provided significant consulting assistance to ASEAN countries in the development of economic development programs 7, which was quite satisfactory small and medium-sized regional players. A process of so-called real integration 8 has emerged, covering the bulk of the region. Its peculiarity was that the integration process developed faster than its formal institutional and legal forms took shape. In other words, preferential economic relations developed more actively than bodies and organizations were created to manage them. The institutional side of integration processes was “lagging.” At the end of the 1990s, this system underwent serious testing. The financial crisis of 1997–1998 undermined Japan's economic position in the region. By the beginning of the 21st century, regionalization ceased to serve as a safety net for Japanese corporations, which previously preferred to move their production outside Japan rather than get involved in reforming the domestic economic system 9 . A certain withdrawal of the United States, including in economic terms, from the affairs of the region during the George W. Bush administration (2001–2009) also played a role in the transformation of the regional situation. The emphasis on the bilateral format of relations at the expense of multilateral ones and the active use of force in US foreign policy have led to disagreements even among traditional American allies in the region 10 . Meanwhile, China has ceased to be one of the links in the economic chain built by Japan. Gradually, the PRC emerged as a new economic center of power and began to interfere with Japanese economic dominance, violating the “vertically structured model of regional development. “The formation of flying geese” 11 was broken. We can talk about the transformation of China into one of the main trading centers in East Asia. It should be noted that during the 1990s, China’s strategy in the region and its attitude towards it underwent quite significant changes. Having refused to support left-wing anti-government movements in Southeast Asian countries, by the mid-1990s China ceased to be perceived as a revolutionary force in the region. For the first time, it began to be considered a profitable economic partner both for Southeast Asian countries, as well as for the United States and Japan. At the same time, China focused on creating a “belt of good neighborliness” 12. This meant that interaction with medium-sized and small countries in the region became a priority for him. China's image was positively influenced by the financial assistance it provided to Southeast Asian countries during the 1997–1998 crisis. As a result, attitudes towards China have evolved from mistrust to a vision of the PRC as a worthy partner 13 . The Chinese leadership itself put a lot of effort into this, ideologically supporting its practical actions with the idea of ​​harmonious development, which, in contrast to the concept of “peaceful rise,” turned out to be much more attractive to China’s environment 14 . International trends have contributed to the deepening of economic ties between China and East Asian countries. Throughout the 1990s, China improved relations with all countries in Southeast Asia 15 and ASEAN. The first official contact with the Association was established in 1991. In 1996, China received the status of ASEAN dialogue partner. In 2002, the China-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was concluded, and in 2003, China joined the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia. In the same year, the Joint Declaration of the PRC and ASEAN on a strategic partnership was signed. The establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992 created additional conditions for the subsequent significant expansion of economic ties such that just a decade later South Korea became the fifth largest foreign direct investment destination in China. At the turn of the 1990s–2000s, China became involved in multilateral cooperation formats in the region and even put forward a number of its own economic initiatives, including the creation of the Boao Forum (the Asian analogue of the World Economic Forum in Davos). Beijing later proposed projects to provide massive economic assistance to Southeast Asian countries during the 2008–2009 crisis. At the 2009 Boao Forum, China proposed the formation of a $10 billion China-ASEAN Investment Cooperation Fund to jointly combat the crisis and finance major bilateral investment projects. The implementation of these projects was aimed primarily at increasing the interconnectedness of the ASEAN countries and China. They discussed resource extraction, energy, communications, and expansion of the regional and subregional transport network connecting the Association countries with China 16 . China's economic penetration into the region also occurred through the development of relations with regimes that Western counterparties did not want or could not deal with for ideological reasons. The Chinese side has demonstrated a special approach to the North Korean issue, the essence of which is attempts to strengthen the DPRK's economic dependence on China and prevent the complete isolation of North Korea 17 . In addition, China sought to strengthen its position in economic relations with Myanmar. In 2009, the Chinese and Myanmar sides entered into a memorandum of understanding formalizing the agreement to build an oil and gas pipeline from Myanmar to China. The practical implementation of the project was entrusted to the China National Petroleum Corporation and the Myanmar Ministry of Energy 18. According to the agreement reached, the pipelines should stretch 1,100 km from the western coast of Myanmar to the city of Kunming, the administrative center of the Chinese province of Yunnan. The pipelines are planned to transport oil and gas to China from Middle Eastern and African countries, as well as gas from Myanmar itself. This infrastructure project is designed to reduce China's dependence on the transportation of these types of natural resources through the Strait of Malacca. China is also active in Cambodia and Laos, where the implementation of railway projects with Chinese participation is aimed at including the entire region in a single infrastructure network associated with the PRC and essentially representing China's transport support network 19 . At the same time, the economic situation in East Asia cannot be adequately assessed only through the prism of growing Chinese influence. Despite the obvious expansion of its presence, China is still far from the only strong economic player in the region, which leaves room for maneuver for small and medium-sized countries. In addition to China (11.6% of trade turnover), the main trading partners of ASEAN countries also include the EU (11.2%) and Japan (10.5%). The United States is slightly behind them (9.7%) (see Chart 1). China's economic position is strong, rather, due to trade and partly infrastructure projects. The bulk of foreign direct investment still falls on the EU countries (21.1%), Japan (11.5%) and the USA (10.1%). The above statistics indicate, first of all, the significant success of EU countries in this area. The past crisis did not seriously affect Japan's investment positions. At the same time, China’s share is three times less than the share of Japan and the United States, and also six times less than the share of EU countries (see Chart 2). Technological leadership in the region's economic system is still the prerogative of the United States and Japan. It is the United States, and not China, that continues to be a major supplier of high-tech goods to ASEAN countries 20 . Moreover, one should take into account the fact that China's economic expansion may, over time, turn out to be an instrument not of modernization, but of demodernization of those countries with which the PRC interacts due to the significant resource component of these relations 21 . In other words, ties with China stimulate in small countries the production of raw materials rather than finished goods. China's economic positions are not unconditional and are partially balanced by regional projects involving the USA, Japan, and India. An example is the process of creating bilateral free trade zones (FTAs) between the United States and Southeast Asian countries (Enterprise for ASEAN Initiative), initiated in 2002, undertaken in response to the China-ASEAN FTA agreement signed in the same year. In relations with Japan, an agreement on a comprehensive economic partnership (ASEAN-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership) has been in force since 2008, and with India - a Trade Agreement of 2009 (ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement). In relation to the countries of the Mekong River basin (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam), since 2008, Japan has been implementing a special partnership program, including the provision of official development assistance for Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, as well as for the Mekong subregion as a whole (about 5, 5 billion dollars for 2010–2012) 22 . From the point of view of infrastructural development, Japan, like China, is taking part in the development of the transport network of the Indochina Peninsula. We are talking primarily about the Southern Economic Corridor of the Mekong subregion, connecting Bangkok, Phnom Penh, Ho Chi Minh City and other industrial centers of Thailand and Vietnam, as well as the West-East route, which stretches from the coast of the South China Sea to the Andaman Sea and passes along territories of Vietnam (from the port of Danang), Laos, Thailand and Myanmar (the final destination is the port of Mawlamyine). As a result, the economic balance of power in the region suggests not so much a confrontation between competing systems (Chinese and Japanese-American), but rather a struggle within the framework of one, already existing system. In it, the United States and Japan retain technological dominance, which is recognized by China and meets its interests. However, within the system itself, China is seeking to increase its role to a decisive one, using all possible methods. ASEAN countries do not challenge Chinese aspirations in this regard. Japan and the United States view this situation as potentially dangerous, but not yet posing a real threat. That is why they strive not to confront China, but to integrate it more closely into the already established system, while saving their own resources and extracting economic benefits from interaction with it. Analysis of military-political trends allows us to present a slightly different picture of the regional situation. From a security perspective, the United States remains unconditionally predominant in East Asia. Among all regional players, it is the United States that demonstrates a significant increase in military spending throughout the 2000s (3–4% of GDP). For China, this ratio is kept at 1.8–2% of GDP, for India – 2–3%, Russia – 3.5–3.7%. In absolute terms, the United States exceeds China in defense spending by more than seven times, Russia by more than ten times, Japan by thirteen times, and India by nineteen times (see Table 1). Table 1 Expenditures of the countries of expanded East Asia on defense (US dollars at constant exchange rates (2008, million), % of GDP) US dollars US dollars US dollars US dollars US dollars The Republic of Korea Mongolia Indonesia Malaysia Singapore Philippines Cambodia Brunei Darussalam […] – SIPRI estimates (…) – approximate data Source: Facts on International Relations and Security Trends Database [Electronic resource]/ Access mode: http://first.sipri.org Since the Cold War, the United States has relied in East Asia on a network of alliances with major partners such as Japan, South Korea, the Philippines and Thailand. Traditional alliances with Japan and South Korea, as well as new and recent partnerships with India, are being used by the United States to contain China and avoid a head-on confrontation with it. However, the general situation in East Asia and the results of the policy of George W. Bush. in the region, apparently, are forcing the American leadership to supplement its bilateral alliances with new mechanisms of regional cooperation. After the events of September 11, 2001, the United States used the need to combat terrorism as the main rationale for its foreign policy moves both globally and regionally. Initially, this line met with support among countries in the region, especially in connection with the terrorist bombings in Indonesia in 2002. However, then an increasingly wary attitude towards the global anti-terrorist war declared by the United States emerged in the region. In this case, the states of Southeast Asia had to take into account the factor of a significant Muslim population, as well as the specifics of internal political conflicts and problems that the countries of the region did not want to internationalize. We are talking about the separatist movement in the south of Thailand, the south of the Philippines, conflicts within Indonesia (West Java, Ache, Central Sulawesi). Small and medium-sized countries were also concerned about the overly one-sided and straightforward approach of the United States towards its partners in the foreign policy arena according to the principle “either with us or against us.” As a result, by the end of George W. Bush's presidential term. Support for the United States' war on terrorism in the region has apparently declined. At the same time, US policy under the Republicans indirectly became the reason that the states of Southeast Asia turned to new formats of interaction in a broad regional context with the participation of the PRC. A general reassessment of the unilateral policy of George W. Bush. prompted the Obama administration to look for ways to change the nature of the American military presence in the region and to become more actively involved in the activities of multilateral regional institutions. As one of the options for transforming the network of bases, the American side proposes to strengthen the elements of the distributed basing system, which could provide the United States with more freedom of maneuver in the region. Such a system does not imply the conclusion of full-fledged allied agreements, but makes possible more operational agreements on the use by the United States of individual infrastructure facilities in the countries of the region for military purposes. Singapore, the Philippines, and Australia, in particular, followed this path of building military-political relations with the United States 23 . The United States' position on dialogue formats in East Asia has also changed. Structures such as the ASEAN Regional Security Forum (ARF), the East Asia Summit (EAS), meetings of ASEAN defense ministers and Dialogue Association partners are beginning to be perceived by the United States as a convenient mechanism for multilateral maneuvering and keeping small and medium-sized countries in the region from moving towards China. Within the framework of this logic, shared by both the United States and Japan themselves, Russia’s participation in these formats turns out to be desirable (and even necessary) and serves the purpose of preventing its rapprochement with China. It is worth noting that this approach objectively limits Japan’s anti-Russian sentiment. China itself does not challenge the military-political dominance of the United States in the region, but it is much more active tactically. In particular, Beijing is increasingly seeking to push the United States away from resolving the Taiwan problem, transferring it to the level of exclusively Sino-Taiwan interaction. China is trying to gain a position of superiority in all territorial disputes: both with Japan over the Diaoyu (Senkaku) Islands in the East China Sea, and with the countries of Southeast Asia over the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea. In addition, China is consistently strengthening its role as the main mediator in the situation with North Korea. Keeping Russia from rapprochement with the West also serves China’s interests. The noted steps of the Chinese side force foreign analysts to say that China has stopped adhering to Deng Xiaoping’s wait-and-see formula and is beginning to actively project its power outside. As an example, the following are given: the aggravation of the situation in the South China Sea in the spring of 2010, when in response to the entry of American ships into China's exclusive economic zone, the Chinese side declared the South China Sea a zone of its key interests; China's special position on the North Korean issue; active modernization of the Chinese armed forces 24. Meanwhile, the growing fears are based more on expectations than on the actual steps of the Chinese leadership. China's military-political line in the region is fundamentally different from the US strategy and is based on the postulate of non-interference of the PRC in the internal affairs of other countries. In the context of this position, one can also consider the fact that there are no Chinese military bases on the territory of other states. Even steps to create a series of strategic points in the Indian Ocean (the ports of Gwadar in Pakistan, Sittwe in Myanmar, Habantota in Sri Lanka and Chittagong in Bangladesh) do not yet go beyond the scope of this doctrine 25 . In its desire to consolidate a belt of good neighborliness with small and medium-sized countries along the entire perimeter of its borders, China is much more active not in the Pacific, but in Central Asia within the SCO, thus trying to strategically eliminate the danger of the emergence of a “second front” of competition with the United States . It is in the interests of small and medium-sized countries in the region to maintain a dialogue with all major regional and extra-regional players. It is for the purpose of developing such a dialogue that they use both the ARF and other structures created around ASEAN. The competition of different centers of power without the clear predominance of any of them allows small and medium-sized countries to develop economic integration and protect themselves from China. However, unlike Japan, which in its 2010 Defense Strategy focused on the perception of China as a potential foreign policy threat 26 , small and medium-sized regional players are unlikely to so clearly identify China as a military-political problem 27 . Military cooperation with the United States is not openly defined by them as a way of responding to the rise of China. Interaction with Washington is explained by the multiplicity of goals and the need to jointly combat transnational problems (maritime piracy, terrorist threats to sea lines of communication in the region, natural disasters). Examples of such cooperation are joint US naval exercises with Singapore, the Philippines, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the US-Thai military exercise Cobra Gold, and military ties between the US and Vietnam. One should also take into account the fact that over the past two decades, the region has seen a shift in priorities from problems of “hard” security to issues of the relationship between politics and economics 28 . Production networks and mutual investment flows have become real factors in strengthening regional interdependence, and any major interstate conflict has become economically unprofitable. Representatives of East Asian countries at the highest level emphasize that the nature of the threats has transformed. Although such chronic sources of instability (the situation on the Korean Peninsula, the problem of Taiwan, a set of territorial disputes in the East China and South China Seas, bilateral interstate contradictions in Southeast Asia) remain important, new threats have become more pressing than traditional ones. At the same time, it is necessary to understand that the emphasis on new aspects of security makes it possible to avoid open discussion of military-strategic threats and at the same time use the strategy of creating limited alliances without full-scale commitments 29 . For example, Thailand, which is actively developing ties with China, simultaneously has the status of a “US ally outside NATO.” There is also a reverse process in the development of military contacts between the countries of Southeast Asia and the PRC at different levels. At the same time, as former President of the Philippines Fidel Ramos notes, in the United States they want to see a “good neighbor” who will maintain its presence but will not interfere while other countries solve their own internal problems 30 . The same approach allows small and medium-sized countries to develop military ties not only with the United States and China, but also with Russia, India, Australia and the United Kingdom. In the current situation, as a guarantee of their security, the ASEAN countries would definitely like to maintain their intermediate position between extra-regional players in East Asia. It is no coincidence that in his address to the leaders of the region at the opening of the 14th ASEAN Summit in February 2009, the Prime Minister of Thailand Aphisit Vetchachiwa emphasized that ASEAN will continue to occupy a special position between the growth poles in the Asia-Pacific region 31 . Previously, the expert community discussed the idea that the countries of the region are not trying to balance the growing influence of China by developing relations with other powers, but, on the contrary, are trying to extract their own benefits from the strengthening of the economic power of the PRC 32 . The events of 2010 in the South China Sea, on the contrary, became the basis for a whole series of publications about the danger of Chinese activity, which is pushing the countries of the region to seek alliances with extra-regional players 33 . In reality, ASEAN countries have so far relied on their dialogue structures and adhered to normative principles collectively known as the ASEAN Way. It is in this context that the invitation to Russia and the United States to participate in the EAS, formalized by the decision of the 5th East Asia Summit in Hanoi in 2010, should be assessed. The current post-crisis situation in the region is characterized by China's tactical activation in both the economic and political spheres. But in the foreseeable future, China is unlikely to have complete freedom of maneuver in East Asia. In military-political terms, US superiority in the region remains, but the methods of maintaining it are undergoing changes. For the first time, multilateral cooperation formats are beginning to seem to the United States to be a more effective mechanism than the system of traditional alliances, since they make it possible to establish a dialogue with China. At the same time, the United States is even ready to agree to Russia’s presence in them. In these conditions, it is beneficial for small and medium-sized countries to support competition from China, the United States and other players in the region, since this allows them to solve the problems of economic development and maintain their own political autonomy. Their successful efforts to maintain such competition contribute to the consolidation of ASEAN's political subjectivity and the formation of a leaderless system in East Asia. The leadership deficit in this case means the absence of a pronounced struggle for political influence in the region among the most powerful players. At the same time, however, a redistribution of economic opportunities occurs within the East Asian subsystem. In addition, economic competition, unfolding against the background of a rather weakly expressed political confrontation, is softened by economic integration processes. In total, the noted aspects do not yet provide grounds to consider a conflict scenario of regional development as probable.

East Asia

Geographical position. Geological structure. Climatic conditions. Population and environmental problems.

see also East Asian nature photos: China (Beijing) (from the section Natural landscapes of the world).

Geographical position. East Asia is the edge of Eurasia facing the Pacific Ocean. It extends from the Russian Far East to Southern China. East Asia also includes the islands of Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, the Japanese Islands, Taiwan, and Hainan (see the map of the physical-geographical zoning of Eurasia with links to photographs of the nature of this region). In the absence of structural and geomorphological unity, the natural integrity of East Asia is determined by the characteristics of its climate and organic world.

Geologicalstructure. The mainland of the region is an ancient landmass, within which mid-altitude folded-block mountains are combined with accumulative plains. The islands and the seas surrounding them belong to the Pacific belt, which is experiencing the subduction of the Pacific plate under the edge of the Eurasian continental plate and the island arcs located in front of it. This belt is marked by strong development of seismicity and volcanism.

Climaticconditions. The main pattern in the formation of the climate of East Asia is the monsoon circulation, which creates a pronounced difference between the wet, warm and dry, cold seasons. East Asia is located in the temperate and subtropical zones, and in the south it enters the tropical zone, and temperature conditions within its borders change from north to south, but the main features of the monsoon climate are preserved throughout the region. The monsoon climate, which can be considered a distinctive feature of East Asia, has left its mark on almost all aspects of its nature, as well as on the life and economic activities of the population. Another feature is intense cyclonic activity along the tropical and polar fronts, causing hurricanes of catastrophic force (typhoons).

The climate of East Asia did not undergo significant and dramatic changes during the Cenozoic, and therefore the conditions for the formation of the organic world did not change. In this regard, the flora and fauna of East Asia are characterized by great antiquity and species richness, a mixture of temperate and subtropical and even tropical elements throughout its entire length.

Populationand environmental problems. East Asia belongs to the long and densely populated region of Eurasia; it is characterized by a long-standing and profound change in nature by humans and the widespread distribution of anthropogenic landscapes.

marginal seas

The most important element of the nature of East Asia is the marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean, located between the mainland and the chains of East Asian islands. The deep-sea basins of these seas, together with the island arcs and trenches of the Pacific Ocean, experienced significant subsidence at the Neogene-Quaternary boundary.

The marginal seas are partially located within the continental shelf, which reaches its greatest width between 40 and 20° N latitude. Occupying a position between the largest continent and ocean on Earth, the seas of East Asia are subject to the influence of monsoon circulation, on which their regime largely depends. On the other hand, deeply dissecting the coast of the continent, the seas have a great influence on its nature and play a huge role in the life of the population.

Japanese Sea almost entirely corresponds to a tectonic basin. The continental shelf within its boundaries is narrow, the prevailing depths are more than 2000 m, and the maximum is 3720 m. At the same time, the straits connecting the Sea of ​​Japan with the ocean and other seas are shallow. Therefore, the bulk of the waters of the Sea of ​​Japan have a constant temperature (about 0 ° C), and the temperature regime of surface waters under the influence of currents is quite variable from place to place and by season. The main influx of water into the Sea of ​​Japan occurs from the south, through the Korea Strait. The warm Tsushima Current, which is a branch of the warm Kuroshio Current, heats the part of the sea adjacent to the Japanese Islands and causes high surface water temperatures there: 13 °C in winter, and up to 25 °C in summer. In the northwest, cold deep waters rise to the surface and the formation of a cold compensatory Primorsky Current occurs, which causes a strong decrease in temperature along the western coasts (up to 13 ° C in summer). In winter, in the northern part of the sea, the surface water temperature drops below 0 °C, and about a quarter of the water area is covered with ice annually. Due to the small river flow, the salinity of water in the Sea of ​​Japan is the same everywhere and is close to 34%. Strong winds, especially in winter, cause significant disturbance. During typhoons, the wave height reaches 12 m. Due to the high seismic activity of the region, tsunami waves are often observed in the Sea of ​​Japan.

The presence of warm and cold waters creates favorable conditions for the development of rich fauna and flora. More than 600 species of fish are known in the Sea of ​​Japan; large quantities of herring, flounder, anchovies, sardines, and salmon are caught. Fishing for seals, crabs, and some shellfish is carried out. The rich flora of the Sea of ​​Japan contains many algae of practical importance. Active environmental measures have made it possible over the past decades to significantly improve the environmental situation in the coastal waters of Japan, the state of which in the 60-70s. XX century was of great concern.

Yellow Sea in origin, bottom topography and water regime it differs from Japan. It protrudes very strongly into the mainland and is mostly located within the continental shallows. The depth of its bays rarely exceeds 30 m, and the maximum sea depth is only 106 m. The Yellow Sea is strongly influenced by the continent and is characterized by large seasonal temperature fluctuations. In summer, surface waters in the southern part warm up to 26...28 °C, in the north - up to 24...25 °C. In winter, drifting ice may form in coastal shallow waters in the northern part of the sea, and in the south the water temperature does not exceed 6...8 °C. Salinity everywhere is somewhat lower than oceanic, and in the bays into which large rivers flow (Huang He, Liao He, etc.), it decreases to 25%. The direction and nature of the currents are approximately the same as in the Sea of ​​Japan: along the coast of the Korean Peninsula there is a flow of relatively warm waters from the East China Sea; in the west, off the coast of the mainland, relatively desalinated and cold waters move south. There are high tides in the sea. In Ganghwaman Bay (Chemulpo) on the western coast of Korea, their height reaches 9-10 m. The silty and sandy material carried abundantly by rivers, especially the Yellow River, gives a yellowish tint to the color of the water. This is where the name of the sea comes from. Its waters are rich in various types of commercial fish (herring, sea bream, sardine, mackerel, etc.); mussels and oysters are caught here in large quantities.

East China Sea less isolated from the ocean than Japanese and Yellow. In the east it is limited by a chain of small Ryukyu islands; in the south, on the border with the South China Sea, is the island of Taiwan. The western part of the East China Sea is confined to the continental shallows, where the depth ranges from 30 to 160 m. The eastern part of the basin is occupied by a basin with a maximum depth of 2719 m. In the east there is a constant warm current, giving rise to the Kuroshio Current. In the western part, seasonal currents associated with the monsoon circulation dominate. Several times a year, typhoons pass over the East China Sea, moving at speeds from 120 to 450 km/day.

The temperature of surface waters in summer reaches 26... 29 °C. In winter, the water temperature increases from northwest to southeast from 7 to 20 °C. Salinity in the surface layer of water is 32-34%. Coral structures are common in the southern and eastern parts of the sea. The fauna of the East China Sea is very rich. Large mammals are found there: whales, dolphins. Many different fish: sardines, flounder, mackerel, tuna, mullet; There are sounding fish from the croaker family. Lobsters, crabs and sea cucumbers (holothurians) are also of commercial importance. In recent years, due to increased pollution of coastal areas and the widespread spread of oil films, the environmental situation in the East China Sea has been deteriorating, which negatively affects the state of its biological resources.

Internal differences within East Asia are determined by their position in different climatic zones, the contrasts between the mainland and island parts and the diversity of structure and relief.

EAST ASIA

The region is made up of 6 countries that border South, Southeast, Northern and Central Asia and have access to the Pacific Ocean: Japanese, Yellow, East China and South China. Until July 1, 1997, the region also included Hong Kong (a former British colony), which came under the jurisdiction of the PRC and became its special administrative region of Hong Kong. On December 20, 1999, the same act was carried out regarding Macau (a former colony of Portugal), which also became a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China - Macao. Taiwan's position is special. It is actually not recognized by the world community; in 1971 it was expelled from the UN, since the only legitimate representative of power on the island is recognized as the power of China, and Taiwan is recognized as its integral part. Taiwan, on the contrary, considers itself the legitimate representative of all of mainland China, and the PRC as “a country temporarily occupied by the Communists.” A bright and large-scale history of the development of the largest state in the region - China, which is the birthplace of one of the most powerful civilizations on the planet, where approximately 5 thousand years ago one of the oldest and largest cultures of mankind arose. Cloth and written monuments indicate that the people achieved a significant flowering of philosophical, technical thought, literature, and art. A thousand years BC, the Chinese already knew, for example, a magnetic compass. Chinese iron production is the oldest in the world. Long before the Europeans, the Chinese began to produce paper and gunpowder. The idea of ​​printing also originated in China. Chinese porcelain, silk and metal products have long enjoyed well-deserved worldwide fame. The peculiarities of the economic and geographical position of the region include: the shortest land routes from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to European countries running through the territory of China and Mongolia; extremely advantageous coastal location (the length of the coastline is 18,676 km); the presence of three practically ice-free seas - the Yellow, East China and South China, which is of exceptional importance for the economy. They provide access to the Pacific Ocean, which accounts for 1/4 of all maritime transport on the globe. The great industrial function of the seas, their important role in international transport. The ocean coast is becoming increasingly important for recreation. All countries in the region are members of the UN (China is one of its co-founders), most countries (except Mongolia and the DPRK) are members of APEC, Japan is a member of the G7, and the DPRK is a member of the non-aligned movement.

Natural conditions

Tags: Asia

Region Eastern Asia occupies almost 8% of the Earth's land area. Its natural conditions are varied. The terrain is very difficult. In the west there is one of the largest and highest highlands on the globe - Tibet, with an area of ​​almost 2 million km2. Surrounded by powerful ranges - the Kun Lun in the north, the Karakoram in the west, the Himalayas in the south and the Saint-Tibet Mountains in the east, the highland has numerous internal ridges that reach 6000-7000 m in height, and intermountain plains with a height of 4000-5000 m. On these The plains are cool even in summer, daytime temperatures do not exceed +10...+15° C, and there are frosts at night. Winter here is long, with severe frosts (-30...-400 C), winds blow almost constantly, the air is very dry, and precipitation falls up to 100 mm per year, almost the same as in the desert. Therefore, according to the conditions of the plant landscapes, Tibet is classified as a type of cold high-mountain desert. The snow line is located at altitudes of 5000-6000 m (the highest position on the globe). Tibet is composed mainly of sandstones, limestones, shales, ridges - mostly granites and gneisses. The region is characterized by high seismic and volcanic activity. Earthquakes occur in the belt of young mountains and are especially frequent on the Japanese Islands, where there are 150 volcanoes, including 60 active ones. On average, one noticeable earthquake occurs every three days. One of the most seismically unsafe areas is the Tokyo Bay area. Seismic phenomena in deep-sea depressions located several tens of kilometers east of the region are associated with seaquakes and the huge tsunami waves caused by them, from which the eastern coasts of Japan, Taiwan, etc. suffer the most. In the east, low mountains alternate with accumulative plains, where the largest is the Great Chinese Plain, the emergence of which is largely due to sediments of the Yellow River. Its surface is flat, its height is up to 100 m, and it is composed of a thick layer of aluvium. There are also low plains on the Korean Peninsula, where they occupy 1/4 of the territory. The region is located in three climatic zones (temperate, subtropical and subequatorial). There is no tropical zone here due to monsoon circulation. Large areas of Mongolia and Western China (Tibet) stretch in areas of high-mountain climate (arid). Monsoon air currents blow from the ocean onto the dry land in the warm season, and vice versa in the cold season. Summer monsoons bring precipitation, the amount of which decreases from south to north. In the southeastern part of the region there is 1000-2000 mm of precipitation, in the eastern part - 400-900 mm, in the northeastern part - 250-700 mm. In the monsoon zone, spring and autumn are predominantly dry, so artificial irrigation is widely used in agriculture here. Large rivers originate from the Tibetan Plateau Asia- Indus, Brahmaputra, Salween, Mekong, Yangtze, Yellow River. Its eastern mainland and island parts have a relatively dense river system; in the west there are very few rivers, and the huge deserts and semi-deserts are completely devoid of them. Many rivers are navigable. Without exception, all speeches are used for irrigation.

Natural resources.

Tags: Economics

Mineral resources are very rich. Most of them are concentrated in China, one of the “geological granaries of the world.” The region has significant reserves of coal (available in all countries, but the maximum are in China, which ranks 1st in the world in its production - 1290 million tons per year), brown coal (northern Mongolia and northeast of the DPRK), oil (northeast and west China, sea shelf), oil shale (northeast and south China). In Japan and South Korea, very few deposits are of industrial importance. The Pacific metallogenic belt stretches across the eastern territories of the mainland part of the region, with deposits of manganese, tungsten, molybdenum, tin, antimony, mercury and other metals associated with it. Their largest reserves are in China, North Korea, and Mongolia; iron ore - in the northeast of China, copper-molybdenum deposits - in the north of Mongolia (Erdenet deposit). Japan is poor in industrial metal deposits. Nonmetallic minerals form reserves of phosphorites (many in central and southern China, northern Mongolia), graphite (South Korea), fluorite (very large reserves in the northeast of Mongolia), sulfur (in Japan, deposits are associated with the volcanic origin of the islands, where The northern regions of Honshu Island are rich in sulfur). The source of fresh water is numerous lakes in Japan, China, and South Korea. Agroclimatic resources are favorable (especially in the east). The monsoon climate makes it possible to Agriculture in two modes: in dry and wet seasons. In the south, 2-3 crops are harvested per year. There is an acute shortage of suitable and accessible land for farming in Japan, which is conquering new territories from the sea. Therefore, almost 1/3 of its shores are filled or washed up, and artificial “garbage islands” are widespread. The region is not rich in forest resources. The forest cover of the territory is on average less than 40%. Coniferous forests dominate in northeast China, northern Mongolia, Japan, mixed forests dominate in Japan, northern and central China. Tropical rain forests have not been preserved in their natural form; small tracts of them grow in southeast China and Taiwan. In general, forests are significantly depleted by human economic activity. Due to contamination of land, reservoirs, and the atmosphere by industrial and household waste, the environmental condition of the countries in the region has significantly deteriorated. Protected areas are of great importance in preserving natural ecosystems.

Population

Tags: Population

Population size. The region is one of the most populated in the world. In 2000, 1439.7 million people lived here, making up almost 24% of the population of the entire Earth. China is the most populous country in the world (1222 million people). Demographic features. The overpopulation of the region and the tradition of large families have caused an acute demographic problem, especially in China. This required urgent action on the part of the government, whose demographic policy is aimed at reducing the birth rate and natural population growth. As a result of its implementation, the population growth rate at the beginning of the 60s of the XX century. amounted to approximately 2% per year, at the end of the 90s - almost 1.3%. Demographic policy in China is based on the following principles: - for urban residents, a one-child family is mandatory (slogan: “One family - one child”), but in areas inhabited by national minorities, the number of children is not limited; - support at the national level for families who have only one child: cash bonuses, subsidies related to medical care, high pensions, priority in providing housing in the city and a private garden in the countryside; - Families who have two children do not receive food stamps and pay a 10 percent tax on wages; - for rural families with one child, the size of their personal plots has been increased; - in 1984, at the CPC congress, the slogan “Reward for one child, progressive punishment for the third and the next” was adopted; - promotion of late marriages. Officially, the age of marriage was raised by 2 years for both articles and is 22 years for men and 20 years for women. Additional restrictions are also being introduced, for example, a categorical ban on students starting families, violation of which may result in expulsion from a higher education institution. However, there is now a revival of the traditions of “early marriage”; - free abortion. The birth rate in 2000 was reduced to 18-20% per year, and the mortality rate to 6-8%. Thus, the natural increase was 12-14%. The PRC gradually moved to the group of countries of the first type of population reproduction. Mongolia, on the contrary, has a huge area and a population of more than 2.4 million, which is a consequence of the centuries-old tradition of Lamaism (observance of the vow of celibacy in monasteries, where up to 1/3 of the male population lived until 1921). The ratio of men and women in the region is proportional: women - 49.9%, men - 50.1%. Population under 14 years of age is 24%, 15-64 years old - 68%, older age - 8%. Racial composition. The majority of the region's population (Chinese, Mongols, Koreans) are Mongoloids. Southern Chinese and Japanese belong to the mixed racial type (Mongoloid and Australoid traits). The Ainu live in Japan - aborigines who belong to a separate racial group of Australoids.

Ethnic and religious composition

Tags: Asia

The ethnic composition is very heterogeneous. The following language families are represented here: Sino-Tibetan family: - Chinese group. It includes the Chinese (Han), the Dungans (Hui) - Chinese Muslims; - Tibeto-Burman group. Covers the Itzu peoples, Tibetans (live in southwest China), etc.; Altai family: - Mongolian group. it is formed by the Khalkha Mongols (residents of Mongolia), the Mongols of China (live in the autonomous region of Inner Mongolia); - Tungus-Manchu group. These are the Manchus (living in northeast China), who are very assimilated by the Han Chinese; - Turkic group. It consists of Uighurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz (live in northwestern China); The Japanese are a separate family; Koreans are a separate family; The Ainu are a separate family represented by the aborigines of Japan, who remained mainly on the island. Hokkaido; Thai family. They belong to the Zhuangs - the largest people of China from national minorities (up to 12 million people), who live in the south of the country, the Tai people, Li people, etc.; Austro-Asiatic family. They are formed by the Miao, Yao, and Coffee peoples, who live in the south of China on the border with the countries of Indochina; Austronesian family - Gaoshan (indigenous inhabitants of the island of Taiwan). Religious composition. A variety of religions and their directions are widespread in the region. This is, first of all, a powerful cell of Confucian culture, which originated in China in the VI-V centuries. BC. Over time, Buddhism penetrated into East Asia from India, and local religions - Taoism (China) and Shintoism (Japan) retained their importance. The peoples of northwestern China (Dunganins, Uighurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz) are Sunni Muslims. Confucianism is the basis of a specific East Asian civilization. His moral and ethical system provides for comprehensive regulation of society, group standards of behavior, high discipline and developed moral principles. Many Eastern countries Asia are multi-confessional, where several religions coexist.

Population distribution.

Tags: Asia

The peculiarities of natural conditions determined the uneven settlement of people in the region. Japan and Korea are more densely populated (300-400 people/km2). China is populated rather unevenly: with an average density of 127 people/km2, 90% of the population lives in its east on 1/3 of the country's area. In Tibet, the population density is less than 1 person/km2. There are generally uninhabited areas. Urbanization processes in the region are very diverse. For example, Japan and South Korea are the more urbanized countries of the world (78-81% of urban residents). There are over 250 million city residents in China. It is unusual for him to spread the urban lifestyle to rural settlements. 900 million people live in small villages (100-200 families). Five most numerous agglomerations Asia are located precisely in its eastern region: Tokyo (30.3 million people), Osaka (16.9 million), Seoul (15.8 million), Chongqing (15 million), Shanghai (13.5 million). China, being a predominantly rural country, has more large cities than anywhere else: over 100 million-dollar cities and in almost 50 more cities the population exceeds 500 thousand people. The three largest agglomerations of Japan - Keihin (Tokyo, Yokohama, Kawasaki, etc.), Hanshin (Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto and up to 100 others), Tyukyo (Nagoya and other 80 settlements) - merge into the world's largest urbanized system - the megalopolis of Tokkaido, which stretches for 600 km between Tokyo and Osaka, uniting over 60 million people. Labor resources. The region has huge labor resources in both cities and villages. Persons of working age - up to 810 million. Most of them are employed in the manufacturing industry, their number is rapidly increasing in the financial sector. The share of people employed in agriculture is significant only in China (50%), and in Japan - only 7%, in industrial production - 26% (in China - 15% - the lowest figure in the region). The main social problems in the region are the “aging” population and the unevenness of its distribution.

General characteristics of the farm

Tags: Asia, Economy

Construction companies and construction teams

Eastern countries Asia the most heterogeneous in the socio-economic aspect. Japan, South Korea and Taiwan belong to capitalist countries with developed mixed economies; China is following a special path of economic development, combining the principles of planned and market economics. Mongolia embarked on the path of economic and political reforms after the rule of the totalitarian regime. North Korea is a unique state where they are still trying to build communism on the basis of a command-administrative system in the economy and a totalitarian regime in politics. In the countries of the region (except Japan), the state holds leading positions in economic life. In China and the DPRK, the socialist economic system dominates. The most important means of production are concentrated in the public sector of these countries: industrial, transport and communications enterprises, financial institutions, and state-owned agricultural enterprises. In Taiwan, the state controls most financial companies and corporations, the entire telecommunications system, metallurgy, railways, shipbuilding, chemical industry, production of building materials, owns 70% of land, controls the banking system. In South Korea, the state regulates macroeconomic parameters, credit and tax spheres, controls financial activities, and manages the activities of public sector enterprises, which unites a significant part of the extractive industries, infrastructure, the service sector, and railways. In Japan, the public sector is small and operates primarily in infrastructure areas. At the local level, the state owns public utilities, transport, schools, hospitals, several thousand companies that are engaged in the construction and operation of municipal housing, toll roads, port facilities, shopping complexes and markets, etc. Many large monopolistic associations have close economic ties with the public sector, actively use government loans and loans. At the beginning of the XXI century. countries in the region have better prospects for economic growth than they did a decade ago. By becoming economically open, they were able to import the latest technologies, knowledge and business methods. Enterprises have become more flexible in their activities, driven by competition and the need to adapt to new economic conditions. Within the ISPP, the countries of the region differ significantly in their areas of specialization. Japan stands out for its knowledge-intensive fields (electronic industry, robotics, automotive, household appliances), belongs to the top three world leaders in the development of the chemical industry (especially pharmaceuticals, organic synthesis chemistry) and biotechnology. NIS countries have strong positions in high-tech areas of mechanical engineering (electronics, production of computers, communications equipment, electronic toys, etc.). South Korea is one of the world leaders in the development of shipbuilding. In all NIS countries the lungs are highly developed industry(production of fabrics, linen, shoes). China in the MGPP is an important producer of agricultural products (vegetables, fruits, pork, soybeans, tea, raw silk, leather), as well as textiles, metal, certain engineering products (bicycles, household appliances), food and light industry products (clothing, shoes). Mongolia exports wool, leather, fur and handicrafts made from them.

Japan.

Tags: Asia

This is a G7 country, an economic leader in the world in many respects, which ranks third after the United States and China in terms of GNP ($3.15 trillion) and second after the United States in terms of industrial production. Its rapid development began in the 50s and 60s of the XX century. and was eventually called the “Japanese miracle.” Economic growth is associated with the country's availability of cheap but skilled labor, as well as with such Japanese character traits as collectivism and respect for elders. Growth was achieved without foreign loans, through own capital, targeted government policies, state planning and protectionism. Japan accounts for up to 12% of global industrial production. It ranks 1st in the world in the production of ships, machine tools, electronics and electronic components, robots; produces over 60% of the world's TV volume, 12% of artificial fibers, and is the undisputed leader in fish catch (over 12 million tons per year). Among its important achievements are one of the world's largest gold and foreign exchange reserves (over $221 billion) and huge foreign assets (up to $1 trillion). In the mid-80s, Japan became the largest creditor in the world and is the second largest shareholder of the International Monetary Fund after the United States (over $10 billion). Due to the aggravation of economic contradictions with major trading partners and increasing competition from newly industrialized countries in the late 80s of the XX century. Japan began structural restructuring of its economy in order to expand domestic demand, increase the role of the service sector and computer science, and further develop its own scientific and technical potential. Priority has been given to areas of “high potential growth”, high-tech projects and knowledge-intensive areas: telecommunications, microelectronics, fiber optic materials, aviation and astronautics, medicine, biotechnology, environmental protection, etc. Special attention in Japan is given to science and education, which have become the main structural factor of economic growth. In accordance with the state program for the development of the national system of research and development (R&D), a transition was made from importing technical achievements to the development of Japan's own R&D system. Fundamental measures have been taken to improve personnel training and further develop international scientific cooperation. Large scientific centers have been created that are engaged in developments in the field of solid state physics, nuclear energy, plasma physics, the latest structural materials, space robots, etc. An important role in the Japanese economy is played by various associations, federations, unions, cooperatives, enterprises of all forms of ownership and other bodies based on sectoral and functional characteristics. The leaders of the world economy include the following Japanese companies: Toyota Motors, Matsushita Electric, Sony Corporation, Honda Motors, Hitachi, Taketakel Industries, Canon Inc., Fujitsu, Fuji Photo Film", "Bridgestone Corporation", "Nippon Electric Company", "Mitsubishi Heavy Industries", "Toshiba", etc. Small and medium-sized businesses operate effectively in all areas. They are the most active and mobile elements of the market in developing competition and increasing the competitiveness of goods. Almost 99% of Japanese companies are small and medium-sized businesses. Their role is especially important in the automotive, electronic and electrical fields. Japan has fairly low unemployment rates. Throughout the 70s and 80s of the XX century. its level fluctuated between 2-2.8% and only in the 90s slightly exceeded 3%. Japanese management is effective. The country has had a “lifelong employment system” for a long time. Taking into account the mentality of the population, work motivation systems operate. At the end of the XX century. Japan's foreign exchange reserves increased rapidly. The government introduced a system of measures to liberalize the export of Japanese capital abroad. Nowadays it is the largest banking center and international lender. Its share in international loans increased from 5% in 1980 to 20.6% in 1990. Export of capital is the main form of foreign economic activity. Most Japanese capital works in the USA (42.2%), countries Asia(24.2%), Western Europe (15.3%), Latin America (9.3%). The Japanese banking system consists of state and private banks. Leading positions in the world are occupied by the financial groups Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi, Sumitomo Bank, Sanwa Bank, Dai-Ichi-Kange Bank, Fuji Bank, Industrial Bank of Japan, Tokai Bank. .

Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong. DPRK. Mongolia.

Tags: Asia

Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong. They belong to the “first wave” NIS with high rates of economic development. South Korea ranks 11th in the world in terms of GNP ($764 billion). Very high growth rates of its economy (on average 8-12% in the 80s and 90s). Taiwan is an important exporter of capital to the world, especially to Southeast Asia (over the last 5 years of the 20th century, investments in this region reached $36 billion). Hong Kong has become a business capital Asia, one of the largest international financial and monetary centers (the third financial capital of the world). Its currency exchange ranks 5th in the world, and over 560 banks are concentrated on the territory, of which 365 represent 50 countries. The decisive factors in the raging development of the newly industrialized countries of the region are cheap, qualified and disciplined labor, foreign technology and capital, guaranteed sales markets in developed countries, and targeted government policy. With the rise in labor costs, these countries are focusing on developing scientific research and increasing the knowledge intensity of production. Local research technology parks are called “silicon greenhouses.” DPRK. It is a socialist state with a planned command-administrative economy. It is experiencing an economic crisis, which is intensified by political, ideological and military confrontations with South Korea. It is actively developing a nuclear program that is causing concern to the world community. Mongolia. In the mid-90s, she chose the so-called path of “centrism,” the concept of which was largely formulated under the influence of Buddhist philosophy. Mongolia was proclaimed a country that transitioned to socialism directly from feudalism, bypassing the capitalist stage. But this experiment was unsuccessful. Nowadays it is an arena of active economic interests of powerful neighbors - China, South Korea and Japan.

China.

Tags: Asia, Population, Economy

The economy combines command-administrative (planned) and market structures. Since the beginning of reforms (since 1982), China has become one of the most powerful countries in the world, whose GNP amounted to $4.5 trillion in 2000, achieved stability in the economy and politics, and increased the real incomes of citizens by 2-3 times. The socio-economic achievements of the PRC are among the most memorable in the world economic history of the last decades of the 20th century. They are reflected in the growth of industrial production volumes and the retention of leading positions in the world in the production of many types of products. China is a world leader in the production of coal, cement, grain, meat, cotton, and holds leading positions in oil production and electricity production. Leading global corporations consider China as the most promising country in the world market. According to experts, the capacity of the Chinese market is over $300 billion. China actively attracts foreign capital and ranks second after the United States in the number of enterprises with foreign investment. In the mid-90s of the XX century. they accounted for 7.5% of all industrial enterprises and almost 19% of manufactured products. In 1999, such enterprises employed 19 million people and contributed 14.5% of China's GDP. At the end of the 90s of the XX century. Chinese capital exports expanded significantly and amounted to $18 billion. According to this indicator, it ranks 8th in the world. China will remain one of the countries with the most attractive conditions for foreign investment for a long time. Population countries - over 1.2 billion people, and, according to the World Bank, the average salary is only $780 per year. Therefore, it is not surprising that in the Chinese economy at the beginning of the 21st century. up to 39 billion dollars of foreign investment worked, while in all other large countries of the Eastern Asia together - $44 billion. Having achieved significant results in the rate of economic growth, dynamics and volumes of industrial and agricultural production, China, however, continues to lag behind leading industrial countries and countries with moderately developed economies in terms of production levels, productivity, per capita income and life. Its economy remains isolated from global economic processes - only 1/5 of it depends on foreign trade, which is significantly less than in all other developed countries Asia. China's huge domestic market is limitless for any manufacturer. And since the stratum of the poor is quite significant, an increase in the standard of living in the country for many years to come will mean a directly proportional increase in demand for consumer goods. The features of Chinese reforms are of significant interest. Despite the fact that the Chinese government constantly emphasizes the “socialist path” of the country’s development, the monopolization of power by the Communist Party remains, the country’s economy is consistently paving the way to market fundamentals. The country is carrying out large-scale privatization of state property, the financial market is developing dynamically, the tax system is effective, and rampant corruption has been prevented. Economic reforms in China are far from “shock therapy”, gradual and rational. Therefore, the country managed not only to avoid a transformational recession, but also to ensure high dynamism of economic development and a stable improvement in the living standards of the population. The Chinese economic model is based on the following factors: - multiple forms of ownership - from national to private; - coexistence of planned control levers with market ones. The state regulates the economy at the macro level, and the micro level is formed and guided by the market. Since the second half of the 80s of the XX century. The postulate is spreading in the country: “the state directs the market, the market regulates enterprises”; - distribution by work, supplemented by the principle of distribution by capital, i.e. on share contributions, profits from securities, etc.; - a clear sectoral priority scheme: Agriculture- light industry- heavy industry; - consistent implementation of the policy of openness to the outside world. In implementing an open foreign economic policy, China has taken a course towards creating free economic zones (FEZ) of various types. At the end of the 90s of the XX century. There were over 120 such entities that were supported by government policy. In total, the country has, according to various estimates, from 1.7 thousand to 9 thousand economic zones with various preferential regimes. Among them are Xiamin (Amoy), Shantou (Swatou), Zhuhai, Shenzhen, Fr. Hainan and others. China is quite quickly integrating into the world trade and financial systems; a landmark event in this process was its admission to the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Industry

Tags: Asia, Economy

In the late 50s - early 60s of the XX century. production potential of the region, which was based on light industry, was reoriented towards heavy industry. In recent years, a course has been taken to develop high-tech industries. Fuel and energy complex. The basis of energy is the extraction of coal - the raw material for thermal power plants located in coal basins and large cities. Countries in the region (China and South Korea) have rich hydropower resources, but use them little. Powerful hydroelectric power stations were built on the Yellow, Songhua, and Yangtze rivers, as well as in the mountains of Central Honshu. The total electricity production is 1254.2 billion kWh. Nuclear power plants are common. Japan is one of the world leaders in the development of nuclear power plants (40 nuclear reactors with a capacity of 195.5 million kW), built under French and American licenses. South Korea (11 nuclear units with a capacity of 45 million kW), China (2 nuclear power plants with a capacity of 1,200 MW) and Taiwan (6 units) are actively developing nuclear energy. Uranium raw materials are supplied mainly from Africa. Nuclear development is carried out in the DPRK. The search for new energy resources is being intensively carried out. On about. Honshu has small geothermal stations and solar thermal research. Small tidal stations are already operating in China, and small tidal stations are being built in Japan. In China, they also use non-commercial fuels (agricultural and logging waste, reeds, etc.). Ferrous metallurgy. One of the most developed areas of the region. In many countries there are full-cycle metallurgical plants that produce cast iron, steel, and rolled products. Japan's modernized metallurgy is one of the most powerful in the world. The leader of the Japanese metallurgy, the powerful and influential corporation - Nippon Seitetsu - unites over 500 companies, organizations and scientific institutions with an annual capital turnover of several billion dollars. Japan annually produces 101.7 million tons of steel - more than anything else in the world. The main areas of development of China's iron and steel industry (95.4 million tons of steel annually) are the northeast and north. Non-ferrous metallurgy. Less developed than black. The growing demand for non-ferrous metals stimulates a constant increase in their production volumes. Their largest producers are China (tin, copper, antimony, lead) and Japan (aluminum, copper, lead). Bauxite and ore raw materials are imported from the countries of Southeast Asia, Latin America, Africa. China is one of the world leaders in the production of rare earth metals. Mechanical engineering and metalworking. These are one of the most developed areas in the region, whose products amount to over 53 thousand types of products - from mining equipment and tractors to various types of equipment and computers. The production of machine tools, especially automatic machines in Japan, and metalworking in China have gained significant development. Japan ranks first in the world in terms of production of industrial robots. The automotive industry is developing rapidly industry. Japan, since 1981, has firmly held 1st place in the world in terms of the number of cars produced, losing in 1998 to the USA. Every year, the leading Japanese concerns - Toyota, Nissan, Honda, etc. - produce over 10.5 million cars. The competitiveness of Japanese cars is achieved by their comparable cheapness, efficiency and reliability. Until recently, South Korea held a strong position in the global automobile market (2.5 million units), but after the financial collapse of the country’s main automobile concern, Daewoo, this area suffered significant damage. Electronics and electrical engineering have become important areas of industry in recent years. Japanese electronic industry, represented by the Sony, Hitachi, Matsushita, and Toshiba concerns, produces 60% of the world's televisions and is a powerful manufacturer of industrial robots, numerically controlled machines, certain types of microprocessors, and video recorders. South Korea is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic and electrical products for household use: 11 of its corporations belong to the list of the 500 largest in the world, and 4 belong to the list of the 100 largest. Hong Kong (Hong Kong) is known in the world market for the production of slot machines, watches, televisions, tape recorders, microcomputers , electronic toys, integrated circuits, radio components, etc. China is also intensively developing areas of the electronic and electrical industry (Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shanzhou, Xiamin and Pudong), where the production of electronic equipment for military aircraft, missiles, artificial Earth satellites and space equipment, as well as a variety of household electronic equipment. Taiwan specializes in the production of computers and displays for them. The leaders in global shipbuilding are South Korea and Japan, whose companies produce river and sea vessels, various tonnage special vessels: dry cargo ships, tankers, container ships, timber carriers, refrigerators, etc. Shipyards in the region annually launch half of the world’s newly built ships. For many years, Japan has been ranked 1st in the world in terms of their production volume (8.5 million barrels, tons), and South Korea is 2nd (6.2 million tons, tons). Taiwan is one of the world leaders in the production of sports yachts. The production of equipment for the textile, clothing and knitting industries has also been developed, and China is one of the first in the world in the production of household sewing machines. It is a leader in the production of bicycles (it produces 41 million units annually). Chemical industry. The areas of basic chemistry predominate, primarily the production of mineral fertilizers (China ranks second in the world in terms of production volume after the United States - 23.2 million tons). In Japan, the potential of the fields of organic chemistry (production of synthetic fibers and plastics), biochemistry (production of effective medicinal products, crop protection products), and production of vitamins is powerful. Petrochemical production in the region is represented by large plants located in ports that import oil. The chemical-pharmaceutical field is developing successfully (China is one of the largest drug manufacturers, the main center for the production of medicines is Shanghai). Lightweight industry. A traditional area for all countries in the region. The greatest development has occurred in China, which produces 1/4 of the world's cotton fabrics (18.3 billion m2) and 1/10 of chemical fiber fabrics. China is the birthplace of sericulture. For many centuries it maintained a monopoly on the production of silk fabrics and is now a leading manufacturer and exporter of natural silk fabrics. Silk, especially natural, Chinese fabrics are valued all over the world for their high quality. In terms of total production of all types of fabrics, China has taken first place in the world. The largest textile center in the region is Shanghai. Taiwan is one of the world leaders in the production of shoes (especially sportswear), sportswear and equipment (tennis rackets, balls, etc.). Mongolia traditionally develops the production of wool (sheep and camel), which is used to make fabrics, carpets, felts, felt shoes, and leather production has also been established. Hong Kong is famous for its jewelry making, toy production is widely developed there, and it is one of the world leaders in the production of fur products. In Japan, ceramic production has always occupied an important place, and in a modernized form it still plays a significant role today. Traditionally, China produced porcelain and earthenware, ceramic products, carpets and mats, and embroidery. Carving on bone, wood, and stone is common. These and other decorative and artistic goods are successfully exported. Food industry. Covers over 50 industries, the leading among which are the processing of grain, oil and sugar crops, brewing, tea and fisheries. Meat-packing and dairy industries are progressing dynamically industry An important place in China is occupied by the tobacco industry, which produces not very strong cigarettes. The industry of the leading countries of the region is intensively developing high-tech, knowledge-intensive production.

Asia is the largest part of the world in terms of area (43.4 million km², including adjacent islands) and population (4.2 billion people or 60.5% of the total population of the Earth).

Geographical position

It is located in the eastern part of the Eurasian continent, in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, bordering Europe along the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, Africa along the Suez Canal, and America along the Bering Strait. It is washed by the waters of the Pacific, Arctic and Indian oceans, and inland seas belonging to the Atlantic Ocean. The coastline is slightly indented; the following large peninsulas are distinguished: Hindustan, Arabian, Kamchatka, Chukotka, Taimyr.

Main geographical characteristics

3/4 of the Asian territory is occupied by mountains and plateaus (Himalayas, Pamirs, Tien Shan, Greater Caucasus, Altai, Sayans), the rest is occupied by plains (West Siberian, North Siberian, Kolyma, Great China, etc.). On the territory of Kamchatka, the islands of East Asia and the Malaysian coast there are a large number of active, active volcanoes. The highest point in Asia and the world is Chomolungma in the Himalayas (8848 m), the lowest is 400 meters below sea level (Dead Sea).

Asia can safely be called a part of the world where great waters flow. The basin of the Arctic Ocean includes the Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Irtysh, Lena, Indigirka, Kolyma, the Pacific Ocean - Anadyr, Amur, Yellow River, Yangtze, Mekong, the Indian Ocean - Brahmaputra, Ganges and Indus, the internal basin of the Caspian, Aral seas and lakes Balkhash - Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Kura. The largest sea-lake are the Caspian and Aral, tectonic lakes are Baikal, Issyk-Kul, Van, Rezaye, Lake Teletskoye, salt lakes are Balkhash, Kukunor, Tuz.

The territory of Asia lies in almost all climatic zones, the northern regions are the Arctic zone, the southern ones are the equatorial zone, the main part is influenced by a sharply continental climate, which is characterized by cold winters with low temperatures and hot, dry summers. Precipitation mainly falls in the summer, only in the Middle and Near East - in winter.

The distribution of natural zones is characterized by latitudinal zoning: northern regions - tundra, then taiga, zone of mixed forests and forest-steppe, zone of steppes with a fertile layer of black soil, zone of deserts and semi-deserts (Gobi, Taklamakan, Karakum, deserts of the Arabian Peninsula), which are separated by the Himalayas from the southern tropical and subtropical zone, Southeast Asia lies in the equatorial rainforest zone.

Asian countries

Asia is home to 48 sovereign states, 3 officially unrecognized republics (Waziristan, Nagorno-Karabakh, Shan State), 6 dependent territories (in the Indian and Pacific Oceans) - a total of 55 countries. Some countries are partially located in Asia (Russia, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Yemen, Egypt and Indonesia). The largest countries in Asia are Russia, China, India, Kazakhstan, the smallest are the Comoros Islands, Singapore, Bahrain, and the Maldives.

Depending on the geographical location, cultural and regional characteristics, it is customary to divide Asia into Eastern, Western, Central, Southern and Southeast.

List of Asian countries

Major Asian countries:

(with detailed description)

Nature

Nature, plants and animals of Asia

The diversity of natural zones and climatic zones determines the diversity and uniqueness of both the flora and fauna of Asia; a huge number of very diverse landscapes allows a wide variety of representatives of the plant and animal kingdom to live here...

Northern Asia, located in the zone of the Arctic desert and tundra, is characterized by poor vegetation: mosses, lichens, dwarf birches. Then the tundra gives way to taiga, where huge pines, spruces, larches, fir, and Siberian cedars grow. The taiga in the Amur region is followed by a zone of mixed forests (Korean cedar, white fir, Olgin larch, Sayan spruce, Mongolian oak, Manchurian walnut, greenbark and bearded maple), which is adjacent to broad-leaved forests (maple, linden, elm, ash, walnut) , in the south turning into steppes with fertile black soils.

In Central Asia, the steppes, where feather grass, chamomile, tokonog, wormwood, and various herbs grow, give way to semi-deserts and deserts; the vegetation here is poor and is represented by various salt-loving and sand-loving plants: wormwood, saxaul, tamarisk, juzgun, ephedra. The subtropical zone in the west of the Mediterranean climate zone is characterized by the growth of evergreen hard-leaved forests and shrubs (maquis, pistachios, olives, juniper, myrtle, cypress, oak, maple), and the Pacific coast - monsoon mixed forests (camphor laurel, myrtle, camellia, podocarpus, cunningamia, evergreen oak species, camphor laurel, Japanese pine, cypress, cryptomeria, thuja, bamboo, gardenia, magnolia, azalea). In the equatorial forest zone there are a large number of palm trees (about 300 species), tree ferns, bamboo, and pandanus. In addition to the laws of latitudinal zonation, the vegetation of mountainous regions is subject to the principles of altitudinal zonation. Coniferous and mixed forests grow at the foot of the mountains, and lush alpine meadows grow at the tops.

The fauna of Asia is rich and diverse. The territory of Western Asia has favorable conditions for living antelopes, roe deer, goats, foxes, as well as a huge number of rodents, inhabitants of the lowlands - wild boars, pheasants, geese, tigers and leopards. The northern regions, located mainly in Russia, in North-Eastern Siberia and the tundra, are inhabited by wolves, moose, bears, gophers, arctic foxes, deer, lynxes, and wolverines. The taiga is inhabited by ermine, arctic fox, squirrels, chipmunks, sable, ram, and white hare. In the arid regions of Central Asia live gophers, snakes, jerboas, birds of prey, in South Asia - elephants, buffaloes, wild boars, lemurs, pangolins, wolves, leopards, snakes, peacocks, flamingos, in East Asia - moose, bears, Ussuri tigers and wolves, ibises, mandarin ducks, owls, antelopes, mountain sheep, giant salamanders that live on the islands, a variety of snakes and frogs, and a large number of birds.

Climatic conditions

Seasons, weather and climate of Asian countries

The peculiarities of climatic conditions in Asia are formed under the influence of such factors as the large extent of the Eurasian continent both from north to south and from west to east, a large number of mountain barriers and low-lying depressions that affect the amount of solar radiation and atmospheric air circulation...

Most of Asia is located in a sharply continental climate zone, the eastern part is influenced by the marine atmospheric masses of the Pacific Ocean, the north is subject to the invasion of Arctic air masses, tropical and equatorial air masses predominate in the south, their penetration into the interior of the continent is prevented by mountain ranges stretching from the west to the East. Precipitation is distributed unevenly: from 22,900 mm per year in the Indian town of Cherrapunji in 1861 (considered the wettest place on our planet), to 200-100 mm per year in the desert regions of Central and Central Asia.

Peoples of Asia: culture and traditions

In terms of population, Asia ranks first in the world, with 4.2 billion people living here, which is 60.5% of all humanity on the planet, and three times after Africa in terms of population growth. In Asian countries, the population is represented by representatives of all three races: Mongoloid, Caucasian and Negroid, the ethnic composition is diverse and diverse, several thousand peoples live here, speaking more than five hundred languages...

Among the language groups, the most common are:

• Sino-Tibetan. Represented by the largest ethnic group in the world - the Han (Chinese, China's population is 1.4 billion people, every fifth person in the world is Chinese);
• Indo-European. Settled throughout the Indian subcontinent, these are Hindustanis, Biharis, Marathas (India), Bengalis (India and Bangladesh), Punjabis (Pakistan);
• Austronesian. They live in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines) - Javanese, Bisayas, Sundas;
• Dravidian. These are the Telugu, Kannar and Malayali peoples (South India, Sri Lanka, some areas of Pakistan);
• Austroasiatic. The largest representatives are Viet, Lao, Siamese (Indochina, South China):
• Altai. Turkic peoples, divided into two isolated groups: in the west - Turks, Iranian Azerbaijanis, Afghan Uzbeks, in the east - the peoples of Western China (Uyghurs). Also included in this language group are the Manchus and Mongols of Northern China and Mongolia;
• Semito-Hamitic. These are the Arabs of the western part of the continent (west of Iran and south of Turkey) and the Jews (Israel).

Also, nationalities such as the Japanese and Koreans are classified into a separate group called isolates, this is the name given to populations of people who, for various reasons, including geographic location, found themselves isolated from the outside world.

Alexey Voskresensky. Greater East Asia.

GREATER EAST ASIA

A new regional complex is being formed

The topic of my research lately has been energy issues and international relations. In my opinion, there are several very interesting new developments in energy issues. This is primarily due to oil. The oil factor is becoming a significant part of world politics. All previous increases in oil prices in 1973 and 1980, although quite large, only led to the formation of a kind of quasi-market. And after 2000, we can, in principle, talk about the formation of a global energy market.

First of all, after 2000, the influence of the OPEC group of countries decreased. Today they control about 40 percent of world exports. This is significantly less than in the last thirdXXcentury.

A group of new oil consumers has emerged. Countries such as China, India, Brazil, and developing countries in general, today account for approximately 23 percent of global consumption. And this figure will only grow. China has taken second place in the world in terms of hydrocarbon consumption, and India has come close to Germany in terms of oil consumption. This is a completely new situation that has never existed before. That is, we can say that the consumption of oil and energy resources in rapidly developing countries is growing. Exporting countries have ceased to depend on old oil consumers. Accordingly, markets have diversified. And today we started talking about oil diplomacy and the energy factor in international relations.

Competition in the global investment field in the field of oil and gas has intensified. The diversification of energy sources and markets has begun. In fact, we can talk about the emergence of two new fundamental factors that affected the price of oil. The first is the growth of consumption in rapidly developing countries. The second is the depletion of reserves of light oil and easily produced oil. Some new, very interesting factors have appeared, primarily Chinese. Back in 1990, China was an oil exporter, and by 2010 it will become a major importer. By 2020, it will import 60 percent of oil and 30 percent of gas. And this amount of oil will become critical in order to ensure the modernization of China's development. Accordingly, the import of energy resources will become a significant factor in the foreign policy and security concept of a whole group of countries: China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Taiwan, as well as other countries in the region.

China will become an active participant in energy geopolitics. Apparently, his attention to the Middle East, to Russia, and to Central Asia will increase. In 1997, the Chinese company China National Petroleum Company decided to invest 8 billiondollars into oil production in Kazakhstan, Venezuela, Iraq, Sudan, Kuwait, Indonesia, Turkmenistan. Now added to this are Chinese interests in Peru, Mongolia and Canada. When analysts in the same 1997 spoke about the transformation of China into a global factor, their analysis caused a smile. But now one list says that: a) the influence of the Chinese factor in energy diplomacy is increasing, b) China’s interest is becoming global.

In 1998, Chinese leader Jiang Zemin made his first official visit to Saudi Arabia. He then named Saudi Arabia as China's strategic oil partner. And in recent years, China has formulated what are called strategic approaches to energy diplomacy, as opposed to a market approach. What does it mean? These are supplies through state-owned companies, self-sufficiency, investment, first of all, by the state in its own production, as well as in the transportation and production of oil in other countries. These are administrative measures to increase energy efficiency, modernize transport lines, diversify fuels, and strengthen ties with oil exporting countries. Finally, this is investment and economic assistance to exporting countries in creating long-term strategic reserves of raw materials. Today we can say that such a policy is indeed alternative, that it is a definite strategy. And the impact of this alternative concept on other countries should not be discounted.

We can talk about a new issue of connections in international relations in the energy sector. We can talk about new trends in international relations, especially as they relate to regional issues. In fact, we are talking about the fact that the regional level today is beginning to play a new role in terms of the methodology and structure of its influence on global politics.

This level today influences the global redistribution of world power. And therefore, there is close attention to the Asia-Pacific region, which many analysts regard as the future engine of global economic growth. In my opinion, today a new regional complex is being formed – Greater East Asia.

You can accept or not accept such an idea, but the formation of such a complex is a fact that has far-reaching strategic consequences. Moreover, this, apparently, is a global trend, and it affects not only East Asia, but also other regions. For example, the Greater Middle East and the Pan-American regional complex have already become a fact of global reality.

The energy factor is turning into a factor in world politics. Russian resources and energy resources in general, apparently, are becoming the key to the transformation of some regional states into world powers. ANDThe very formation of a new security structure in Greater East Asia is inevitably connected with the energy factor. Perhaps this factor can turn it into a region where the interests of states will be harmonized, and where the contradictions that already exist will not become even more acute.

There are both positive and negative sides to this process. The number of conflicts that previously took place outside the region is increasing. In addition, there are also acute conflicts here that have not gone away. For example, territorial disputes. Let's say, Japan, Russia, China, and Korea. There is the problem of the Paracel Islands, border relations between China and India. And what is most surprising is that the leading powers in the region do not have a common vision of the future.

At the end of the 1990s, some of our analysts considered Japanese investment in Russia to be a natural phenomenon. And they were surprised that there were almost none. One of the arguments expressed by the Japanese side was this. Russia has too large territories. And the large cities of Siberia and the Far East are located at a very great distance from each other and there are not so many of them. Therefore, it is ineffective to invest here. The product created through such investment will be too expensive due to the high costs of transportation and sale.

The Japanese are wary of Russia's military-technical cooperation with China. In recent years, our military-industrial complex has earned about 10 billion dollars from this. This is a significant amount by any measure. Then, maybe, Japan will buy some Russian military product so that Russia will supply less of it to other countries?

There is real life, where some ethically questionable phenomena exist. Let's say, my personal opinion is that the arms trade is generally an immoral matter, because it contributes to the destruction of people. But on the other hand, which I was surprised to learn about, there is the concept of continuing the Cold War in Asia, a concept that is shared by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. And if such a concept exists, then talking about the unethical nature of selling weapons is meaningless.

All major world powers that are involved in Greater East Asia have their own problems. For example, the problem for the United States is that its policies are contested in the region. Moreover, the United States has no internal conviction that it is an Asian power. China's problems stem from its apparent attempts to play a global role or to accumulate the capabilities that will allow it to play that role. And then there's the regional leadership problem, the Taiwan problem, and internal problems.

Regarding the growth of armaments in China. We need to understand that China is turning into a world power, whether we want it or not. Today it is hardly possible to slow down this process from the outside. The Chinese economy will try to ensure its interests by any means, including strengthening its military power. Not necessarily with the use of weapons,but it will try to have such armed forces that will protect the interests of the new state.

About Taiwan issues. It seems to me that no matter how we look at it, there are three things that unite or should unite sober-minded people, regardless of how the Taiwan problem is resolved.

First. The problem must be resolved only peacefully.

Second. This is a matter for the Chinese themselves.

And third. Democracy is better than authoritarianism and totalitarianism.

If we proceed from these three principles, then life will tell us how to act regarding the Taiwan problem.

India's involvement in a large region, on the one hand, increases the role of a power, on the other hand, it causes difficulties in conceptualizing this new role.

Russia's problems are not only the difficulties of developing the resources of the Far East, but also the problem of defining the role of our country in Northeast Asia. This is a problem of military-technical cooperation with some states in the region. In general, Russia’s role in the emerging super-region is more significant than in narrowly understood East Asia. But Japan’s problems: territorial disputes with almost all leading powers, with the exception of the United States, narrow limits of independence in foreign policy. Making Japan a “normal country” will inevitably increase the fears that exist in the region.

VOSKRESENSKY Alexey Dmitrievich,

Head of the Department of Oriental Studies at MGIMO Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation