M.: 2013. - 448 p.
Textbook of major historians A.N. Sakharov and N.V. Zagladin covers the course of human history from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. at the basic level of training. Particular attention is paid to the role and place of Russia in world history, whose original path of development is organically integrated into the eventual outline of the world historical process. The textbook’s questions and tasks, as well as the “Practice” section, are aimed at developing basic universal learning activities and practicing skills project activities. The textbook is intended for general educational institutions: schools, gymnasiums, lyceums and colleges.
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CONTENT
Introduction 3
Section I. WAYS AND METHODS OF KNOWING HISTORY
§ 1. Stages of development of historical knowledge 4
§ 2. Fundamentals historical science 8
§ 3. Russia in world history 16
Section II. FROM THE PRIMITIVE AGE TO CIVILIZATION
§ 4. At the origins of the human race 22
§ 5. States Ancient East 31
§ 6. Culture of the countries of the Ancient East 40
§ 7. Civilization Ancient Greece 46
§ 8. Ancient Roman civilization 53
§ 9. Cultural and religious heritage ancient civilization 62
Section III. Rus', EUROPE AND ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES
§ 10. Europe in the early Middle Ages 70
§ 11. The birth of Islamic civilization 78
§ 12. Slavs in early Middle Ages 83
§ 13. Education Old Russian state 91
§ 14. The heyday of Ancient Rus' 98
§ 15. Socio-economic development of Ancient Rus' 107
§ 16. Political fragmentation Rusi 114
§ 17. Culture of Rus' X - beginning of the 13th V. The Origin of Russian Civilization 122
§ 18. Catholic world on the rise 130
§ 19. Asian states during the European Middle Ages. Fall of Byzantium 137
§ 20. Mongol invasion to Rus 142
§ 21. Rus' between East and West. Politics of Alexander Nevsky 148
§ 22. Western Europe in the XIV-XV centuries 155
§ 23. European culture, science and technology in the Middle Ages 163
§ 24. The world outside Europe in the Middle Ages 170
§ 25. The rise of new Russian centers and the beginning of the gathering of lands around Moscow 174
§ 26. The era of the Battle of Kulikovo. Along the path of Dmitry Donskoy 181
§ 27. Civil war in Rus' 190
Section IV. RUSSIA AND THE WORLD AT THE TURN OF NEW TIMES (END OF XV - XVII centuries)
§ 28. At dawn new era 194
§ 29. Western Europe: new stage development 201
§ 30. The Thirty Years' War and the first revolutions in Europe 209
§ 31. Formation of the Russian centralized state 217
§ 32. The reign of Ivan TV the Terrible 225
§ 33. Culture and life of Russia in the XIV-XVI centuries 236
§ 34. Time of Troubles in Rus' 244
§ 35. Russia under the first Romanovs 253
§ 36. Economic and social development of Russia in the 17th century 262
§ 37. Russia on the eve of transformations 268
§ 38. Culture and life of Russia in the 17th century 274
Section V. RUSSIA AND THE WORLD IN THE ERA OF THE BEGINNING OF INDUSTRIAL CIVILIZATION
§ 39. Industrial revolution in England and its consequences 280
§ 40. The Age of Enlightenment and enlightened absolutism 286
§ 41. Asian states in the 17th-18th centuries 292
§ 42. Russia under Peter I 298
§ 43. Russia during the period of palace coups 303
§ 44. Bloom noble empire 309
§ 45. The mighty foreign policy stride of the empire 315
§ 46. Economy and population of Russia in the second half of the 18th century 320
§ 47. Culture and life of Russia in the 18th century 327
Section VI. RUSSIA AND THE WORLD AT THE END OF THE XVIII-XIX CENTURIES.
§ 48. War of Independence in North America 336
§ 49. The Great French Revolution and its consequences for Europe 342
§ 50. Europe and the Napoleonic Wars 349
§ 51. Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. Patriotic War of 1812 354
§ 52. Russia and the Holy Alliance. Secret societies 359
§ 53. Reaction and revolutions in Europe 1820-1840s 365
§ 54. Europe: the appearance and contradictions of the industrial era 371
§ 55. Countries of the Western Hemisphere in the 19th century. Civil War in the USA 376
§ 56. Colonialism and the crisis of “traditional society” in the countries of the East 382
§ 57. Russia under Nicholas I. Crimean War 389
§ 58. Reunification of Italy and unification of Germany 394
§ 59. Russia in the era of reforms of Alexander II 400
§ 60. Reign of Alexander III 406
§ 61. Social and political development of Western countries in the second half of the 19th century 412
§ 62. Power and opposition in Russia in the middle - late XIX at 417
§ 63. Science and art in the XVIII-XIX centuries 421
§ 64. Golden age of Russian culture 427
Conclusion 443
The author of these lines, who devoted many years to the study of mass sources on the agrarian history of Russia, over time discovered clear contours of the significant influence of the natural and climatic factor on the Russian historical process. With the release of a number of publications on this problem, scientists also appeared, who, in turn, discovered manifestations of this factor. As a result, a team was created that undertook the development of a new course Russian history.
In recent decades in historiography national history There has been a sharp increase in interest in the conceptual constructions of the course of Russian history. A huge number of books are being published. However, many of them are still created in the traditional way, tacitly proceeding from the denial of any significant role of the natural and climatic factor in the development of Russian society. At the same time, modern journalism has recently quite often emphasized the harsh, cold climate of our country. True, the matter does not go further than stating this fact. Yes, and in Russian history courses, the recording of harsh natural conditions is not associated with identifying the features of the Russian historical process.
In the “History of Russia from ancient times to the attention of readers” beginning of the XXI century" in three books an attempt is made to analyze both direct and indirect manifestations of the impact of the natural and climatic factor on the historical process in our country.
It is well known that at the dawn of mankind, nature and climate played a huge role in the formation of races and peoples. Thinkers Western Middle Ages were clearly aware that the activities of people, their vital needs determined by the habitat, and the conditions geographical environment largely determined the mental makeup of peoples and their historical destinies. The influence of the natural-climatic factor is clearly visible not only when the countries of Mesopotamia and the Nile are compared, on the one hand, and the countries of northern Europe, on the other, but also when the historical destinies and rates of development of the west and east of Europe are compared .
The most important feature of the economy of the Russian state has always been the unusually short working field season for agricultural societies. In the west of Europe, thanks to warm currents Atlantic and the influence of Atlantic cyclones, this season was approximately twice as long, and " low season", When lion's share work in the fields stopped; it was only December and January. This detail, which is not striking to a city dweller, is of a fundamental nature. since such a radical difference in the production conditions of the functioning of agricultural societies radically influenced the economic, political and cultural development of the West and East of Europe. In the main European countries favorable natural and climatic conditions contributed not only to the growth of the total surplus product in the form of high yields, but also to the development wide range non-agricultural activities, the growth of cities, industry, culture, etc., created more comfortable conditions everyday life With this type of development, the role of the state in creating the so-called general conditions of production was always minimal, and the center of gravity of development was “below”: in the peasant economy, in the economy of the city dweller, artisan and merchant. The feudal lordship and urban commune were characterized by maximum activity of their administrative, social and sociocultural functions. Ultimately, this resulted in an amazing wealth and variety of forms of individual activity, the rapid development of industry and trade, culture, science, and art.
In the vastness of the East European Plain, with its natural and climatic conditions sharply different from the West, the situation was completely different. The predominance of infertile soils and the unusually short working cycle of agricultural work made individual peasant farming not only ineffective, but also directly dependent on aid at critical moments of production peasant community Even under these conditions, which required the greatest effort and mobilization of all family resources, the Russian peasant did not achieve the required degree of labor concentration. Hence the low level of agriculture, low yields, poor feed supply for livestock breeding, and lack of fertilizers, which ultimately led to a low volume of total surplus product on the scale of the entire society. Similar situation, it would seem, should have doomed our country to the centuries-long existence of only a primitive agricultural society. However, the needs are more or less harmonious development societies brought to life and ultimately gave rise to their role compensatory mechanisms that helped overcome the negative impact unfavorable conditions life activity. One of these mechanisms was a community that existed for a whole millennium, helping out each individual peasant household at critical moments of production. Another mechanism was, upon completion of the unification of the Russian lands, the creation of strict levers of power to withdraw the aggregate surplus product necessary for society, which primarily ensures the functioning of the state itself. This was reflected in the formation Russian autocracy and the regime of serfdom inseparable from it. The Russian autocratic state created in the east of Europe, as shown in this course, was distinguished by a number of institutional features caused by the indirect influence environment. The most difficult task for him was the creation of large-scale industry. The low productivity of Russian agriculture forced almost the entire society to join it. And only through the efforts of the state in the 17th–18th centuries. large industry was created in Russia, however, for the most part based on forced serf labor. But, nevertheless, it was created. Defensive systems were built to ensure the development of the southern and southeastern spaces of the country. Through the forced mobilization of huge masses of people, the necessary infrastructure was created (roads, harbors, shipyards, the brilliant capital itself Russian Empire). As a result of centuries-old efforts, the power achieved tremendous success, becoming the strongest European state. However, the result of this development was asymmetrical, because the overwhelming majority of the country's population continued to engage in agriculture, the extensive nature of which and low yields constantly required new workers and increased exploitation of the peasantry. In the 19th century, the Europeanization of the noble elite and the various intelligentsia reached high level. The geographical proximity of Russia and Europe sharply increased the illusion of similar development paths in society. Meanwhile, the glaring contrast with the West - the backwardness of the countryside and the vast majority of the population - excited public thought, forcing it to look for a way out of the current situation, including through radical leftist ideas. By the middle of this century, when Russian industry had achieved impressive development, the compensatory mechanisms of the communal way of life of the peasantry and the cruel regime of serfdom lost the energy of their progressive development. Russian society was doomed to a painful search for new ways, means and methods of development that would give a powerful impetus to agricultural development.
Reform of 1861, essentially eliminating serfdom and starting bourgeois reforms, gave space, although limited, capitalist development countries. Nevertheless, the agrarian question lay with the heaviest chains on the shoulders of society. The earth still tenaciously held a huge part of the population. The paradoxical agrarian overpopulation of the old agricultural center was restrained by the organization of mass migrations to the east of the country. In turn, Russian industry, having survived in the 1890s. the rapid rise, however, was unable to absorb this “surplus” of the population, since, as before, the total volume of real agricultural production was far from the required norm. P. A. Stolypin's progressive attempts to create a large commercial peasant economy by eliminating the commune for about 20 years did not take into account the daily acute relevance of the archaic commune in the survival of the Russian peasantry. The result is known - three revolutions at the beginning of the 20th century.
Goals and objectives of the game: awakening interest in the study of history with the involvement additional literature; repetition and consolidation of students’ knowledge on the topic: “Rus of ancient times until the end of the 12th century.”
Equipment:
The name of the game, theme, portraits of Russian princes, task cards, table of calculations and results of the game. See Appendix 1.
Epigraph:
“The native side is becoming even more
close and dear when you know her
history."
M.I. Kalinin
I.Organizing time.
Introductory speech by the teacher about the goals and objectives of the lesson. Explanation of the rules of the game. Presentation of commands (2 commands).
II. A game.
1. Stage “Blitz question”»:
- Who did you fight with? East Slavs? (WITH nomadic people)
- Did they have supreme god?(Perun)
- What is a judicial duel? (This is a test designed to identify the culprit)
- What is the significance of the appearance of “Russian Truth” in Rus'? ( This is the first written code in Rus')
- Who performs in Kievan Rus as chief judge? (Prince)
- Why did contemporaries call Yaroslav the Wise? (This prince was very educated and spoke 5 languages; he organized a book-writing and translation center in Kyiv)
- What peoples were part of Kievan Rus? ( Slavic, Finno-Ugric, Baltic)
- What categories of the population were there? (Druzhinniki, boyars, smerdas, serfs, etc.)
- What type of economy predominated? ( Natural)
- What were the castles? ( Wooden fortified points)
2. Stage “Resolve the card”:
Number (label) the sections of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”:
– Dnepr
– Lake Ladoga (Nevo)
– Volkhov
– Lovat
– Ilmen-lake
– Baltic (Varangian) Sea
– Black (Pontus) Sea
3. Stage “Historical Event” (Guess the date)
Baptism of Rus'? (988)
Creation of "Russian Truth"? (1072)
When was Lyubech Congress princes? (1097)
Uprising in Kyiv? (1068)
Reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113 – 1125)
The first mention of Moscow? (1147)
4. Stage “Catch a mistake”
Correct at least six errors (some appear more than once) in the following text.
After a fire that destroyed the house and all outbuildings, boyar Mikula went to the castle to ask the monk for a “kupa” to build a new home. Mikula walked along the concrete path straight to the castle doors. He was met by the owner of the castle, Smerd Vyshata. He invited him to have tea. Mikula tried to persuade Vyshata for a long time, but he never agreed to give him a loan. For the “kupa” he received, Mikula agreed to become a tiun at Vyshata.
5. Level “Crossword”
1. Owner of the estate (boyar). 2. Slave (servant). 3. collective of peasants (community). 4. Peasant carrying military service(stinker). 5. Housing large landowner(lock) horizontally. 5. Feudal-dependent peasant (purchase) vertically. 6. inherited land ownership(fiefdom). 7. Prince's warrior (armourer). 8. The head of the tribe, and then the state in Rus' (prince). 9. Manager of the estate (tiun).
6.Stage " Idioms»
Explain their meaning and origin.
1. Every day is not Sunday– in life there are not only pleasures.
Maslenitsa is an ancient Russian holiday dedicated to saying goodbye to winter and welcoming spring. It is celebrated with folk festivals, skiing from the mountains, games, fun, burning of a straw effigy of winter, and visiting. Pancakes are always baked at Maslenitsa, which, being round shape, are symbols of the sun, the rebirth of life after hibernation. They are served with milk, cream, sour cream - a favorite treat for cats. Immediately after Maslenitsa comes Lent, during which you should abstain from entertainment and fatty foods for six weeks.
2. After the rain on Thursday- unknown when or never.
Our ancestors especially revered the main pagan god Perun - the god of thunder and lightning. According to legend, Perun's day was Thursday, so it was on this day that prayers were offered to him for rain. But during times of drought, these prayers often went unheard and did not help. That’s when the expression “after the rain on Thursday” was born; it began to be applied to everything unrealistic, to what is unlikely to ever come true.
3. Easier than steamed turnips- O a simple matter, which does not require much art.
Before late XVI II, when potatoes began to be grown in Rus', turnips were the main vegetable on the peasant’s table. You don't need to cook it great skill- a pot of turnips was put on the stove, where they steamed into a soft, sweetish treat. The simplicity of preparing this culinary dish has become a symbol of a very simple matter.
4. Let the red rooster- start a fire.
The rooster among the Slavs was the personification of fire. Perhaps this was because the roosters of the Russian breed had red-fiery plumage, and the tail feathers resembled tongues of flame when the wind blew. The peasants had a belief that during a thunderstorm, a red rooster, together with lightning, jumps from a cloud onto the roof of a thatched hut and a fire breaks out. IN real life Often the fire occurred from deliberate arson, then they said: “They let him have a red rooster.”
5. Tight to tucked- absolutely, exactly.
IN Old Slavonic language“Tyutelka” is a blow, a hit. When the ax accurately hit the same place, the masters said: “It hit the neckline.”
7. Stage “Man is a mystery”
On the stand are portraits of Igor, Ivan Kalita, Oleg, Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh.
Determine who we are talking about?
- This woman brutally took revenge for the death of her husband. Say your husband's name. (Igor)
- During the reign of this prince, Moscow became the spiritual center of Rus'. (Ivan Kalita)
- This prince remained “prophetic” in history. (Oleg)
- This prince created a law on order in Novgorod, inflicted a major defeat on the Pechenegs, paid great attention culture, education, construction of churches and monasteries. (Yaroslav the Wise)
- Grandson of Yaroslav the Wise. He was a commander and statesman, wrote “Instructions for Children.” (Vladimir Monomakh)
III. Summarizing.
Awarding the winning team. Presentation of the laurel wreath and medals by history experts.
- What new things have you learned?
- What did you learn?
- Who turned out to be the best, and what helped achieve victory?
VI. Analysis – Reflection(discussion, questioning, assessment of emotional state).
Of course, it’s good to have a discussion or survey about the past game. But if there is absolutely no time left, you can use A.N.’s technique. Lutoshkin, which is called “Color Painting”. Its purpose is for students to assess their emotional state during an event. Each student enters data on their emotional state in the box opposite their name on the list with a colored pencil. Each color represents different mood: red – enthusiastic, joyful, active mood; orange – joyful, bright; yellow – light; green – calm, even; blue – sad, sorrowful; purple – anxious, sad; black – a state of extreme dissatisfaction. Such a color matrix will help the teacher “see” the mood of the team, determine the general and individual character emotional states of schoolchildren.
Bibliography
- Games in history lessons: Method. Teacher's manual. – M.: Publishing house VLADOS-PRESS, 2001.- 160 p.
- Story. Grades 5-9: revision and generalization lessons in non-traditional forms / author's compilation. S.V. Paretskova, I.I. Varakina. – Volgograd: Teacher, 2007. – 191 p.
- History of Russia: From ancient times to the end of the 16th century: Textbook. For 6th grade. educational institutions / A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina. – M.: Enlightenment, 2002 – 256 p.
- Lesson notes on the history of Russia from ancient times to early XVI centuries: 6-7 grades: Method. Benefit. – M.: VLADOS-PRESS Publishing House, 2001.- 400 p.
- Lesson-based developments on the history of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 16th century: 6th grade. – M.: VAKO, 2006.- 208 p.
A. P. Novoseltsev, A. N. Sakharov, V. I. Buganov, V. D. Nazarov. Rep. ed. A. N. Sakharov
History of Russia from ancient times to late XVII century. Tutorial
Preface
Each era needs its own understanding of the history of the Fatherland in close connection with world history. And this is not happening at all because, as some seem to think, that one ideological conjuncture is being replaced by another, although this cannot be ignored, but simply because the world itself is changing, we are changing along with the world - generation after generation, and the change of ideological stereotypes are ultimately only a reflection of the historical development of both the entire world civilization and our Fatherland. History provides numerous examples of this. So, the second half of the XVIII V . And early XIX V. with the revolutionary upheavals in France and the victory of legitimism in the East of Europe, they introduced the ideology of the Enlightenment, closely connected in public sphere with the ideals of enlightened absolutism, which were reflected in the “History of the Russian State” by N.M. Karamzin, and in the concept of S.S. Uvarov “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”, and in their understanding of the organic, evolutionary development of civilization, not interrupted by revolutions. The rapid development of bourgeois relations in the second half of the 19th century. gave rise, on the one hand, to the concept of liberal, democratic renewal of humanity in accordance with the ideals civil society, the rule of law, and on the other hand, it gave birth to Marxism, which became the ideology of the lower classes rejected in this renewing world. This gave two completely different historical approach to the past and present. The 20th century formulated its understanding of social development. The Russian Revolution, the seventy-year practice of first revolutionary totalitarian, and later totalitarian but the bureaucratic state gave rise to an understanding of history through the prism of Marxism-Leninism, adapted to the practice of the organizers of a new life and the mentality of the millions of masses of disadvantaged people, deprived of life. Another part of the world professed and improved bourgeois-democratic concepts of historical development, including Russia, which were far from the sharply class-based assessments of the adherents of Marxism-Leninism. Your understanding of Russian history and education in the territory former empire revolutionary-totalitarian, and then totalitarian-bureaucratic society was given by Russian liberal-bourgeois emigrant historiography, anti-Stalinist revolutionary emigrant social thought, and later dissident historical vision. And this whole evaluative mosaic became a phenomenon of the 20th century with its terrible wars, confrontation between various social systems, acute ideological intransigence. History courses, written history of the country, in to the liveliest degree reflected this half-scientific, half-ideological phenomenon.
At the end of the 20th century. – turn of the 21st century occurred in Russia and countries of Eastern Europe another social breakdown.
And now in new ones historical conditions scientists can calmly look around, conduct an audit of all the research baggage of the past, and with a full understanding of the social pattern of the emergence of certain concepts, views and even deliberate falsifications of history, try to take from it everything that is truly scientifically valuable and discard unnecessary opportunistic and ideological husk.
This is precisely the goal that the authors of this “History of Russia” set for themselves in three books.
We hope that our “History of Russia” will gratefully reflect the strongest, objectively significant assessments of the history of our Motherland, which are contained in Russian pre-revolutionary, Soviet, emigrant, dissident historiography. This does not mean that we are for a hodgepodge of views; The basis for historical assessment, first of all, remains a fact, a source, a document. The synthesis of world, including domestic, concepts of the history of Russia rests precisely on those introduced by scientists of different schools, different generations and countries with powerful source and documentary layers, which for one reason or another were previously unclaimed.
Behind last years a significant step forward has been made by modern Russian historians, whose works have absorbed a new and fresh source base, original, freed from previous market dominants research approaches, best achievements world historiography. Many of these works served as the basis for the creation of both the “History of Russia” as a whole and its individual sections. Some developments were included in the “History of Russia” in their debatable versions, which is specifically stated in the text of the publication.
A characteristic feature of the real “History of Russia” is also its liberation from any one obsession that allegedly dominated the history of the country. In past centuries, this was the idea of autocratic power, which supposedly fertilized the country and the people, or discussions about great role Orthodoxy in the history of Russia. In the 20th century such was the idea of the primacy of material, economic production and class struggle in world history, including the history of our Fatherland. Without denying the importance of either one, or the other, or the third, the creators of the three-volume book believe that the history of the country is influenced by a much richer and more diverse palette of factors than the meager set of two or three schematic dominants. Moreover, these factors have different meaning in different periods of the country's history. Along with those already noted, the influence of geographical factor on the life of the country, its multi-ethnicity, regional features, foreign policy circumstances, colonization processes, personal factors, the influence of spiritual principles on the evolution of society and a number of other specific circumstances that had a particularly active impact on historical path countries. All this allows us not only to recreate the history of individual classes, but also to approach the evolution of society as a whole, with all its institutions, in its main contradictions and connections between the people as such, consisting of both the highest, privileged layers population, from the “middle” class, from the inhabitants, and from the lower classes of society, who together, linked with each other and in certain periods in acute antagonism, created the history of the country, sometimes moving to its forefront, and sometimes retreating into the shadows and fading in its social significance.
In the history of a people, a country, a state, everyone and everything is dependent on each other, everyone is connected by centuries-old relationships Yami, everyone was and is nqd under the influence of the same historical factors. Not a single period in the history of the country, not a single significant personality does not pop up unexpectedly and unpreparedly, like a jack-in-the-box. And even the 20th century, which brought Russia so many joys and sorrows, unprecedented ups and horrific historical failures, triumphs and tragedies of entire classes, estates, groups, is determined by the nature of the entire social development of the country. The weights of history usually accurately weigh the fate and civilizational significance of a people. And people usually pay for it in full.
A.N. SAKHAROV
WITH ANCIENT TIMES TO THE END OF THE 16TH CENTURY
Textbook for 10th grade secondary schools educational institutions
Approved by the Ministry of Education
Russian Federation
Moscow " Russian word» 2003
BBK 63.3 (2) C 22
REVIEWERS: Doctor of Historical Sciences,
Professor of the Department of Russian History of RUDN University R. Lrslanov; history teacher at Lyceum No. 1560M.N. Chernova
Methodical editing - Ph.D. history Sciences, Associate Professor, Head. Department of Methods of Teaching History, Social Science and Law MPU A.N. Fuchs
Methodological apparatus - G.I. Starobinskaya
Decoration - S.N. Yakubovsky
Sakharov A.N.
From 22 History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 16th century: Textbook for the 10th grade of secondary educational institutions. - M.; “TID “Russkoe Slovo-RS”, 2003. - 320 pp.: ill.
ShVI 5-94853-057-4 (part 1) Yu Sh 5-94853-126-0
In the textbook of Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.N. Sakharov gives a broad panorama of the history of our Fatherland. The author covers in detail political history country, considers issues of its economic life, culture, life. The main milestones and events of Russian history are shown through destinies statesmen, scientists, religious thinkers, cultural figures, scientists, inventors, discoverers of new lands and other outstanding personalities.
Introduction
What do the words “history of Russia” mean? After all, Russia is also a huge territory, which by the beginning of the 20th century. took up a sixth earth's land, and the nature of the country, and the climate, and its economy, and culture, and population. But first of all, the history of Russia is the history of people, peoples who inhabited our Motherland from ancient times to the present day and are united by a common destiny.
Century after century our Fatherland was built, its territory expanded, various peoples involved in the cycle of Russian history. The process was long, difficult, complex and contradictory, sometimes painful and dramatic. Peoples entered into relationships with each other - collaborated, exchanged economic experience, defended themselves from common enemies, and sometimes fought with each other, defending their own national interests, and only later were drawn into the mainstream of general Russian history.
From the very first steps, the history of Russia unfolded in the spaces of Europe and Asia. This means that in the history of our Fatherland, in the traditions and customs of our people, the influence, interaction and confrontation of the West and the East were constantly reflected. Two great civilizations of the Earth - Western (European, Mediterranean, Atlantic) and Eastern, which embodied the experience of the great nomadic empires and settled states of antiquity and the Middle Ages, paved their furrows in the historical field of Russia.
In world history, our Fatherland is the only country, which experienced similar powerful and contradictory influences from the West and the East, which largely determined its historical path as the path of a Eurasian power. Russia remains such even until
today. No wonder in Russian coat of arms double headed eagle looks both west and east.
We have already used the word “people” several times, and we will continue to use it in the future. This word has several meanings. Firstly, the word “people” often means one or another nation: they say “Russian people”, “Tatar people”, etc. Secondly, the word “people” often means working people, the lower classes of society. In ancient times, these were peasants and artisans who differed from the prosperous and wealthy segments of the population - merchants, clergy, nobility, aristocracy, both in their financial status and place in society. There is a third understanding of the word “people” - these are all layers of a particular society taken together, society as a whole, people welded together by a common public interest and at the same time sometimes sharply different from each other, and therefore having their own collective and personal interests. These interests can collide and lead society to violent conflicts.
IN in history there are no good or bad peoples, just as there are no bad and good strata of peoples. Everyone - peasants, entrepreneurs, nobility, clergy, aristocracy - is a product of the historical development of the country. Times have changed, the place of this or that part of the people in the history of the country has changed. And you need to have a good understanding of the role of various layers of society in the history of Russia, be able to identify what they gave to the country, and where and when they caused damage to it through selfish interests.
IN At the same time, it is necessary to remember that each member of society is a separate person, separate life, fate, unique biography. On the one hand, a person is part of a team with its common interests, on the other hand, he himself is the embodiment of the whole unique world With own interests, passions,
attachments, ideas, which may, for many reasons, differ from the ideas of other people. All human history, including the history of Russia, is not only a constant search by people for their common great public interest, the interest of the country, but also the struggle between interests
individual and collective, individual and state. To this day persistent attempts continue to bring aspirations to a common denominator individual person and the whole society.
History is both a beautiful and cruel science, because it is designed to show the life of human society in all its diversity - greatness and downfalls, wonderful deeds, amazing inventions, wonderful movements human souls- and low passions; mutual assistance and mutual assistance of people - and violence against the individual and entire nations.
The history of Russia is intended not only to show the past of our people, but also to help the current generation reflect on this past, and learn lessons from it for the benefit of future generations.
Sources of historical knowledge are varied and numerous. The sciences of archeology tell us about deep antiquity (from Greek words“archeos” - “ancient” and “logos” - “teaching”) and anthropology (from the Greek words “anthropos” - “man” and “logos”).
Archaeologists, by excavating ancient settlements, studying human life in caves, analyzing found tools, weapons, household utensils, jewelry, ancient sculpture and painting, recreate the life of people of past eras, their spiritual appearance and beliefs.
Using the remains found, anthropologists reconstruct the appearance of people, their development over thousands of years, and draw conclusions about how peoples and races were formed.
Helps to understand human history and linguistics (from Latin word"lingua" - "language"). Linguists study the origin of languages, their kinship, connections, development and with their help reveal another facet of the historical destinies of various peoples.
With the advent of writing, the history of mankind is evidenced written sources. For Russia, these are chronicles - weather (from the word “year”) records of events, various kinds secular and ecclesiastical laws and statutes, state and international documents, church works, literary works,
memories of people, their diaries, and later - books, newspapers, magazines, reflecting the life of the era, cinema - photographic and phonological materials. Architectural structures, works of art, and household items are invaluable evidence of past eras and a person’s ideas about himself and his life.
All this taken together is carefully studied by history, recreating the appearance of past centuries, including the past of our Motherland.
1. Explain the meaning of the title of this textbook.
2. Why is history both a beautiful and cruel science?
3. In what meaning is the term “people” used in the following sentences:
a) various peoples were involved in the cycle of Russian history; ^ :H&.7 lacyl" ^ ^ ^ ^
b) the history of Russia is the history of people, peoples who inhabited our Motherland from ancient times to the present day and are united by a common destiny.
4. Come up with a sentence in which the word “people”
6. Consider what lessons your generation can learn from our nation's past.
7. What sources of historical knowledge help scientists recreate the appearance of past centuries? G " " . ". "
8. The work of which scientists (historians) has been invested in the study of deep
Homeland of the Indo-Europeans. Indo-Europeans - This ancient population vast territories of Europe and Asia. It gave rise to many modern European and Asian peoples, and later, in modern times, it spread to North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, and to various islands and archipelagos. Most scientists believe that a large area became the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans Southeast And Central Europe, in particular the Balkan Peninsula and the foothills of the Carpathians and, probably, southern Russia and Ukraine. Here, in parts of Europe washed by warm seas, on fertile soils, in sun-warmed deciduous forests, on grass-covered mountain slopes and valleys, where shallow transparent rivers flowed, the oldest Indo-European community of people took shape.
Once upon a time, people belonging to this community spoke the same language. Footprints common origin preserved in many languages of the peoples of Europe and Asia. So, in all these languages there is the word “birch”, meaning a tree or birch. The Indo-Europeans were engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture, and later began to smelt bronze.
From this time, traces of settlements discovered by archaeologists have reached us. On fertile lands Farmers and cattle breeders began to settle along the banks of deep rivers from the Carpathian Mountains to the Dnieper region, and further, to the east, in the vast steppe spaces up to the southern spurs of the Ural Mountains, cattle breeders began to settle.
Settlements of Trypillians. An example of settlements of farmers-pastoralists can be the remains of an ancient settlement in the Dnieper region near the village of Tripolie, dating back to the 4th - 3rd millennia BC. e. Therefore, the inhabitants of that time were called conventionally Trypillians.
Agriculture and cattle breeding increased the economic power of the Indo-European tribes and contributed to the growth of their population. And the domestication of the horse, the development of bronze tools and weapons made the Indo-Europeans in the 3rd millennium BC. e. easier to move in search and development of new lands.
Genealogy of the peoples of Eurasia. From the southeast Europe began the triumphant spread of Indo-Europeans across the expanses of Eurasia. Moving west, they reached the shores of the Atlantic. Another part of them settled in northern Europe and the Scandinavian Peninsula. The wedge of Indo-European settlements has cut
among the Finno-Ugric peoples and buried himself in Ural Mountains. In the south, in the forest-steppe and steppe zones, the Indo-Europeans advanced into Asia Minor and the North Caucasus, reached the Iranian Plateau and settled in India. Now the lands where the Indo-Europeans lived extended from the Atlantic to India. That's why they were named Indo-Europeans.
In TU - III millennium BC. e. the former community of Indo-Europeans began to disintegrate. Later they divided into the eastern group of peoples (Indians, Iranians, Armenians, Tajiks), Western European(British, Germans, French, Italians, Greeks, etc.), Slavic (Eastern, Western and Southern Slavs: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Bulgarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes, etc.) and Baltic (Lithuanians , Latvians, etc.).
However, traces of the former community are visible everywhere. There are many common words and concepts in Slavic and Iranian languages - god, hut, boyar, master, axe, dog, hero etc. All of them came to us from the ancient Iranians. This commonality is also visible in applied arts. In embroidery patterns, in decorations and clay vessels, a combination of rhombuses and dots was used everywhere. In the areas where the Indo-Europeans settled, the domestic cult of elk and deer was preserved for centuries, although these animals are not found in Iran, India and Greece. The same applies to some national holidays- for example, to bear wars, held by many peoples on spring days when the bear awakens from hibernation. All these are traces of the northern ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans.
These peoples have a lot in common in their religious cults. Thus, the Slavic pagan god Perung the Thunderer is akin to the Lithuanian-Latvian Perkunis, the Indian Parjanya, and the Celtic Perkunia. And he himself very much resembles the main one greek god Zeus. The Slavic pagan goddess Lada, patroness of marriage and family, is comparable to the Greek goddess Lata.
The mixing of Indo-Europeans with the tribes that had previously lived here, including the Finno-Ugric, began.
Clay figurines.
Trypillian culture. III millennium BC
Bone ritual hatchet.
II millennium BC e.
The Finno-Ugrians, who previously occupied large areas of the north of Eastern Europe, the Cis-Urals and Trans-Urals, split into new branches - the Ugrians (Hungarians) and Finns. The descendants of the Finno-Ugric population are many Russian peoples of the Volga region and the North - Mordovians, Udmurts, Mari, Komi, etc. People from the lands where the ancestors of the Turks and Mongols lived also appeared here. Their descendants are Kalmyks and Buryats. All of them, like the Slavs, later turned into full-fledged inhabitants of the East European Plain. In the Northern Urals, between the mouths of the Pechora and Ob, were located the Neolithic ancestors of the Ural peoples, who spoke the so-called Uralic languages. The population of Southern Siberia, Altai and Sayan - the ancient Altaians - were explained in Altai languages. In the Caucasus they spoke Caucasian languages. The ancestors of the Georgians emerged south of the Caucasus Range.
The North Caucasians were the first to master the smelting of metal (fortunately it was abundant in the Caucasus) and the manufacture of metal tools and weapons; they raised cattle and pigs, switched to cattle breeding, and were the first to master wheeled carts.
The Ural peoples were the first to launch boats and invent skis and sleds.
The Indo-Europeans who settled in the forest zone switched to cattle breeding and forest-type agriculture, and continued to develop hunting and fishing. All together, the local population, in the harsh conditions of the forest and forest-steppe, lagged behind the peoples of the Mediterranean, southern Europe, Western Asia, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, which were gaining momentum in development. Nature at this time was the main regulator of human development.
Place of the ancestors of the Slavs among the Indo-Europeans. In the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Indo-Europeans of Central and Eastern Europe spoke the same language and represented one whole for a number of centuries. And they were sharply different from those who settled in India, Central Asia and in the Caucasus.
In the middle of the II MILLENNIUM B.C. e. Germanic tribes became isolated. The Balts and Slavs formed a common
Balto-Slavic group. The Balts settled in northern regions Eastern Europe, Germans