Exercise 1
From the work of N.I. Bukharin and E.A. Preobrazhensky “The ABC of Communism”
Training should be compulsory... Training should be free... Training... should be equal for everyone... Training should cover all youth from 8 to 17 years old.
The school must be united. This means... that the division of schools into male and female must be abolished and children of both sexes must be educated together... A unified school means a single ladder along which every student in a socialist republic can and must go, starting from the lowest threshold - from kindergarten garden - and finishing at the highest level...
The school of a socialist republic must be a labor school. This means that training and education must be combined with work and must be based on work...
Communist society says to a student graduating from a unified labor school: “You don’t have to be a professor, but you must be a producer of values.”
Task 2
Analyze the documents and write down answers to the questions.
From the work of N.I. Bukharin and E.A. Preobrazhensky "The ABC of Communism"
In bourgeois society, a child is viewed... to a large extent as the property of his parents. When parents say: “My daughter, my son,” this now means not only the existence of a family relationship, but also the right of parents to raise their own children. From a socialist point of view, this right is based on absolutely nothing... The child... belongs to the society in which and thanks to which he was born, and not just the “society” of his parents. Society has the primary and fundamental right to raise children. And from this point of view, the claims of parents to imprint their limitations in the psychology of their children through home education must not only be rejected, but also ridiculed in the most merciless way... The future belongs to public education.
From an article by Marxist teacher V.N. Shulgin We are not called upon to raise a Russian child, a child of the Russian state, but a citizen of the world, an internationalist, a child who fully understands the interests of the working class and is capable of fighting for the world revolution... We are not raising our child for defense of the homeland, but for global ideals.
1. What were the main goals of education proclaimed by the proletarian state?
2. Why did the Bolsheviks distrust the family education of a child?
1. Raising a child in society, instilling in him the ideals of socialism.
2. To make him like everyone else, so that he thinks the same way the party thinks, and not his parents.
Task 3
Analyze the materials in the paragraph. Insert the names of writers and poets missing in the text: I.A. Bunina, 3.N. Gippius, M. Gorky, A.I. Kuprina, V.V. Mayakovsky, D.S. Merezhkovsky, I. Severyanin, M.I. Tsvetaeva.
From the book by P. N. Milyukov “Essays on the history of Russian culture”
Naturally, the writers, who were fully established, connected with the previous social environment and did not want to put up with the new situation, were the first to move away and, for the most part, emigrated abroad. Here, first of all, we should name A. Bunin, the last singer of the noble estate, A. I. Kuprin, the incomparable painter of the disappeared way of life... The luminaries of the next, romantic period, the senior symbolists, disturbed in their contemplations and rhyme-making by the harsh reality, also left immediately or gradually emigrated : Z. N. Gippius, D. S. Merezhkovsky, I. Severyanin, M. I. Tsvetaeva. M. Gorky occupied a special position relative to the Bolsheviks, who provided them with many financial services before the revolution; he somehow “fell down.” But V.V. Mayakovsky and his army of futurists were doubly noisy... How could he not merge with the revolution. After all, before the revolution he was the most leftist of the leftists, the most zealous destroyer of literary traditions.
Task 4
Use the paragraph text to choose the answers to the questions.
1. What was the main idea of change of leadership:
a) in the spread of Bolshevik ideology in foreign countries;
b) in uniting all anti-Soviet forces in exile;
c) in reconciliation with Soviet power in the name of recreating the great Russian state?
2. Which name falls out of the general logical series:
a) M. Gorky; b) A.I. Kuprin; c) S.V. Rachmaninov; d) S.S. Prokofiev; d) A.N. Tolstoy; f) M.I. Tsvetaeva?
Task 5
Task 6
Using the text of the textbook and materials you found yourself, write a short essay on the topic “The Bolsheviks and the Russian Orthodox Church.”
The Bolsheviks saw the church as a competitor who could massively influence the minds of people. Now, in order to build a new society, it was necessary to educate a “new man” who would support the ideas of socialism and take part in building a new society and promoting the world revolution. All further activities of the party were aimed at eliminating dissent and destroying the old order. First, the Decree on the separation of church and state was adopted, then trials were held against church ministers. Temples and monasteries began to close, church property was confiscated in favor of the revolution. Priests and their families were deprived of the right to vote, and their children could not receive special or higher education.
The Bolsheviks were determined, even to the point of the complete physical destruction of the clergy and the eradication of faith from the minds of people.
Construction of a Soviet school
On September 30, 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee approved the “Regulations on the Unified Labor School of the RSFSR.” Despite the obvious costs - the cancellation of lessons, homework, textbooks, grades and exams, the provision was significant because it affirmed the principle of free education.
By decree of the Council of People's Commissars of August 2, 1918, the workers and poor peasants received the priority right to enter universities. Workers' faculties (workers' faculties) were created at universities.
Ideology and culture
The creative intelligentsia was initially enthusiastic about the revolution, but soon they realized how strict state control over any manifestations of creative search would become.
Many representatives of the creative intelligentsia went abroad. (I.A.Bunin, A.I.Kuprin, A.K.Glazunov, S.S.Prokofiev, F.I.Shalyapin, I.E.Repin, etc.)
A.A. Akhmatova, M.A. Voloshin, M.M. Prishvin, M.A. Bulgakov, remaining in their homeland, went into deep spiritual opposition.
A number of creative intelligentsia collaborated with the new government, believing that the revolution would awaken the creative forces in the country. V.V. Mayakovsky glorified the revolution in his poems. (“Ode to the Revolution”, “Left March”). A.A. Blok (poem “The Twelve”). Artists K.S. Petrov-Vodkin, who painted the painting “1918 in Petrograd,” and V.M. Kustodiev, who painted the painting “Bolshevik.” V.E. Meyerhold staged the first Soviet play “Mystery-bouffe” based on Mayakovsky’s play. The performance was designed by artist K. S. Malevich.
Many famous scientists considered it their duty to work for the good of the Motherland, although not everyone shared the ideological views of the Bolsheviks. The founder of aircraft construction N.E. Zhukovsky, the creator of biochemistry and geochemistry V.I. Vernadsky, the chemist N.D. Zelinsky, the father of astronautics K.E. Tsiolkovsky, the physiologist I.P. Pavlov, the agronomist I.V. Michurin, the plant grower K. A. Timiryazev.
With the end of the civil war, the Bolsheviks sharply increased control over the spiritual life of the country. In August 1921, repressions began. The chemist M.I. Tikhvinsky and the poet N.S. Gumilyov were shot.
At the end of August 1922, about 160 prominent scientists and philosophers were expelled from the country. Among them are philosophers N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, E.N. Trubetskoy. The greatest scientist - sociologist P.A. Sorokin and others.
Until 1925, culture developed in relative spiritual freedom. In 1925, a resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks was adopted “On the party’s policy in the field of fiction.” Party dictatorship began to take hold in the spiritual life of the creative intelligentsia.
Change leadership
After the October Revolution, about a million of its citizens were forced to leave the country. Most of them were extremely hostile to Soviet power. However, a number of emigrants saw deep roots in the “senseless and merciless rebellion.” The Bolsheviks managed to drive anarchy into the state mainstream. In the NEP they saw confirmation that they were right. In July 1921, a collection of articles, “Change of Milestones,” was published in Paris, reflecting these views. A number of emigrants began to return to their homeland. In 1923, A.N. Tolstoy returned. In the 30s, S.S. Prokofiev, M.I. Tsvetaeva, M. Gorky, A.I. Kuprin returned.
“Smenovekhovstvo” also suited the Bolsheviks, since it made it possible to split the emigration.
Ideology of "new art"
As part of their atheistic education, the Bolsheviks tried to eliminate their main competitor in the spiritual life of the country. The adoption of the decree on the separation of state and church on January 23, 1918 opened a policy of arbitrariness towards the church. Temples and monasteries began to close, and their property was confiscated by the authorities. Patriarch Tikhon, elected in 1918, was anathematized by the Bolsheviks. In 1922, Patriarch Tikhon was arrested. After his death in 1925, the election of a new patriarch was prohibited. Metropolitan Peter, who took on the duties of patriarch, was exiled to Solovki. Until 1943, the church was led by the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Sergius. (patriarch in 1943-1944).
By creating a literary, artistic, cultural and educational organization - “Proletkult”, the Bolsheviks tried to bring the creative intelligentsia into the organized mainstream, preaching “pure proletarian culture” and demanding that the cultural traditions of the past be thrown into the trash heap.
In 1925, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) took shape. Writers of a new generation have come to literature. I.E. Babel - “Cavalry”, A.S. Serafimovich with the novel “Iron Stream”, K.A. Trenev “Spring Love”, M.A. Sholokhov - “Don Stories”, D.A. Furmanov - “ Chapaev."
During the NEP years, satire flourished. “The Twelve Chairs” by I. Ilf and E. Petrov and Mayakovsky’s satirical plays “The Bedbug” and “Bathhouse” were published. Amazing stories by M. Zoshchenko.
The art of posters blossomed. The work of the sculptor I.D. Shadra is enveloped in revolutionary romance - “Cobblestone is a weapon of the proletariat. 1905." Gigantic construction plans in the spirit of constructivism are presented by the architects. “Tower of the Third International”, designed in 1919 by V.E. Tatlin.
The history of world cinema includes S. Eisenstein’s films – “Battleship Potemkin”, “October”.
The spiritual life of Soviet society in the first years of Soviet power was still distinguished by relative freedom, but gradually more and more spiritual life began to be squeezed by the ideological party attack on culture.
Spiritual life of the USSR in the 30s of the XX century
The 30s are the years "cultural revolution" proclaimed by the Bolsheviks. The main objectives of the “cultural revolution” were considered to be the elimination of illiteracy and significant improving educational level people. The most important, fundamental aspect of the “cultural revolution” was establishment and undivided dominance in the spiritual life of society of Marxist-Leninist teachings.
Education
In the 1930s the transition to universal 4th grade education. IN 1937 has become mandatory 7 years training. School curricula have been revised and new textbooks have been created. Lessons, subjects, schedules, grades, strict discipline and penalties, including expulsion, have been returned to school. In 1934, the teaching of geography and history was restored on the basis of Marxist-Leninist principles. More than 20,000 new schools were opened between 1933 and 1937. According to the 1939 census, literacy in the USSR was more than 80%. The Soviet Union came out on top in the world in terms of the number of pupils and students
The science
Stalin's statement that all sciences, including natural and mathematical sciences, are political in nature, led to the persecution of scientists who disagreed with this statement.
A group of biologists and philosophers led by T.D. Lysenko opposed geneticists, declaring it “bourgeois science.” The correct "class" approach was appreciated. The country's leading geneticists, led by N.I. Vavilov and N.K. Koltsov, were repressed. As a result, Soviet genetics fell hopelessly behind advanced world science in its development.
Stalin paid special attention to history, which became the most important ideological discipline. Would have been published in 1938 "A short course on the history of the CPSU (b)", personally edited by Stalin and becoming a new concept of the country's history. Ideological dogma and party control have had an extremely negative impact on the state of the humanities.
Despite everything, Soviet science continued to develop. Leading Soviet scientists made significant contributions to world science.
Physics: S.I.Vavilov (optics problems). A.F. Ioffe (physics of crystals and semiconductors). B.V. and I.V. Kurchatov (research of the atomic nucleus. I. Kurchatov became the creator of the Soviet atomic bomb.)
Chemistry: N.D. Zelinsky, S.V. Lebedev. The production of synthetic rubber, plastics, etc. has been established.
Socialist realism
Soviet art developed in the grip of party censorship, and was obliged to follow within the framework of a single artistic direction - socialist realism. Marxist-Leninist ideology was driven into society by any means. The decisions of the party bodies regarding the state and further development of culture were the ultimate truth and were not subject to discussion. Reflecting the life of Soviet society not through the realities of the present day, but only through the myths about a beautiful tomorrow implanted in society is the political basis of the method of socialist realism. All creative workers had to follow this strict party policy. Dissenters had no place in the life of society.
At first, the majority of Soviet people perceived the propagated myths in an atmosphere of faith in a wonderful tomorrow. The authorities skillfully used these moods of the people, generating labor enthusiasm and anger towards the “enemies of the people”, absolute devotion to the leader and readiness for exploits.
The development of Soviet culture in the 30s was contradictory. Despite the strictest control and ideological pressure, Soviet culture achieved significant success.
Soviet cinema
Documentary film
Cinema has become the most popular art form. The whole country watched the documentary. Through the screen it was possible to show the life around people within the framework of party guidelines. The “Great Illusion” of a communist tomorrow, shown through the heroism of myths, influenced the consciousness of people who were building a new life within the framework of a grandiose communist experiment.
D. Vetrov, E. K. Tisse, E. I. Shub worked in documentary films, leaving wonderful footage of the country’s past.
Feature cinema
Art cinematography also worked within the framework of socialist realism.
In 1931, the first Soviet sound film “The Road to Life” (directed by N.V. Ekk) was released. The films of S.A. Gerasimov “Seven Braves”, “Komsomolsk”, “Teacher” are devoted to the problem of the new Soviet generation.
In 1936, the first color film “Grunya Kornakova” directed by N.V. Ekka was released.
In the 1930s, a significant number of Soviet films were produced on a wide variety of topics.
SPIRITUAL LIFE OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY
The nature of changes in spiritual life. Since the second half of the 1980s. Communist ideology, which previously formed the basis of the worldview of the majority of members of Soviet society, entered a period of serious crisis. Official ideologists could not explain the processes and phenomena taking place in the world.
The “revolution from above,” which began in Russia in 1991, was accompanied by the rejection of many traditional values and the adoption of Western spiritual values. Social expectations have changed. If before “perestroika” the majority of the population still believed in official propaganda and the idea of building communism, then this faith was replaced by the expectation of building the “people's capitalism” promised by the new authorities. As economic policy failed and problems in interethnic relations grew, moods began to change again: interest in national culture, traditional spiritual values, old films, songs, and folk traditions gradually returned.
One of the main features of the spiritual life of society in the 90s. became ideological pluralism. Bans and restrictions on all ideological teachings (except those that called for violence and national hatred) were lifted.
However, the changes that have taken place in the spiritual life of society are extremely contradictory. Not every person was able to find his own moral ideal. Not everyone has access to cultural achievements (with the possible exception of television programs). The lack of moral foundations and the poor financial situation of people become the basis for spiritual corruption and the growth of crime.
The influence of religion and the church on public consciousness. The crisis of communist ideology caused a rapid surge of religious sentiment in society. According to sociological research, by the mid-90s. up to 34% of the country's adult population considered themselves believers, and another 35% fluctuated between faith and unbelief.
The international authority of the Russian Orthodox Church has grown noticeably. It was especially evident in attempts to peacefully resolve domestic and international conflicts. During the days of the October events of 1993, Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy II interrupted his trip to North America and returned to Moscow, where he tried to reconcile the warring parties. The Church took part in all major events in Russia, contributing with its authority to the unification of society.
The restoration and construction of temples, mosques, and synagogues began throughout the country. Church literature has again become in demand, and is now published freely and in large editions. Mass pilgrimages of Orthodox Christians to Jerusalem and Muslims to Mecca have been revived.
At the same time, the collapse of the USSR entailed dire consequences for the church. In Ukraine, Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church Filaret announced the creation of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church and proclaimed himself its patriarch; There was a church schism among believers. The parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church were deprived of their property not only in Ukraine, but also in the Baltic republics.
The democratization of political and spiritual life in Russia led to the expansion of a variety of religious sects and movements, including radical ones. Under these conditions, traditional religious confessions for the first time had to worry about maintaining their positions in the struggle for the minds of believers.
Culture in new conditions. New times have also come in Russian culture. The main features of its development in the 1990s. began a sharp reduction in government funding for the needs of cultural institutions; almost complete freedom of creativity; decline in the general cultural level of the population. The “law of the pendulum” led to the fact that the method of socialist realism was forgotten. Many cultural figures rushed to establish the unusual and seemingly tempting postmodernism and conceptualism. However, these delights turned out to be of interest only to a narrow circle of specialists. Those cultural works that received international recognition during these years were created precisely in the traditional realistic vein. Thus, in 1995, N. S. Mikhalkov’s film “Burnt by the Sun” was awarded the Academy Award, and in 1996, S. V. Bodrov’s film “Prisoner of the Caucasus” was awarded a special prize at the Cannes Film Festival.
Documentary cinema has received sustainable development ("The Russia We Lost" by S. S. Govorukhin and others). The tradition of holding Moscow international film festivals has been revived. The All-Russian Film Festival "Kinotavr" began to be held annually in Sochi. However, the number of films produced by the country's film studios has decreased significantly.
Russian literature enriched itself in the 90s. new works by V. P. Aksenov ("Egg Yolk"), V. P. Astafiev ("Cursed and Killed"), G. Ya. Baklanov ("One of Our Own"), B. L. Vasiliev ("Axiom of Self-Search", "Russia is Risen"), E. A. Yevtushenko ("Don't Die After Death"), Yu. M. Nagibin ("Rebellious Island"), A. I. Solzhenitsyn (who completed a major historical and documentary research "The Red Wheel" during these years ").
Directors G. B. Volchek, O. N. Efremov, M. A. Zakharov, O. P. Tabakov, R. G. Viktyuk pleased the audience with new theatrical productions.
A permanent art gallery of works by A. M. Shilov was opened in Moscow. I. S. Glazunov’s personal exhibitions were a success. Art exhibitions held in the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, and the Museum of Fine Arts were very successful among viewers in Moscow and St. Petersburg. A. S. Pushkin ("Berlin-Moscow", "Schliemann's Gold", "Faberge", etc.).
The restoration of the Tretyakov Gallery and the reconstruction of the circus on Tsvetnoy Boulevard have been completed. The historical central part of large Russian cities was revived. Cultural objects, documents, and letters from Russian emigrants who left the country after the 1917 revolution were returned to their homeland.
But the processes in the cultural sphere also had another side. The transition to market relations placed in difficult conditions those who in previous years were the most ardent supporters of change - the intelligentsia, workers in science, culture, and education. Many of them found themselves on the brink of survival, others were forced to emigrate, trying to find use for their talent abroad.
The “discovery of the West” resulted not only in an acquaintance with the best aspects of its culture, but also in a stream of low-quality crafts pouring into the country. This could not but lead to the erosion of many features of traditional morality for Russians.
Education system. The education system, which since 1984 has been in a state of continuous reform, finds itself in a difficult situation. The Education Law eliminated one of the gains of the previous system - free universal secondary education. For most students, training ended in ninth grade, after which graduates had to go into production. But since it was winding down from year to year, no one was waiting for them there either. One of the few positive results of the education reform was the departure of teachers and students from the uniformity and ideologization of the educational process. Many new textbooks and teaching aids have appeared.
New types of educational institutions were opened - gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges, private universities, many of which managed to provide an individual approach to students and improve the quality of education. But in most cases, unfortunately, this did not happen.
Universities began to introduce multi-level training according to the Western model. But the quality of education did not improve. And where the new system was introduced without preliminary preparation, there was a decrease in the level of student training.
The biggest problem in the development of the educational system has been financing. From year to year its volumes decreased, which led to the destruction of the material base and the departure of qualified personnel to other areas of activity. The country was quickly losing those positions in the field of education that it had achieved for decades.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic and political development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Nicholas II.
Internal policy of tsarism. Nicholas II. Increased repression. "Police Socialism"
Russo-Japanese War. Reasons, progress, results.
Revolution 1905 - 1907 Character, driving forces and features of the Russian revolution of 1905-1907. stages of the revolution. The reasons for the defeat and the significance of the revolution.
Elections to the State Duma. I State Duma. The agrarian question in the Duma. Dispersal of the Duma. II State Duma. Coup d'etat of June 3, 1907
Third June political system. Electoral law June 3, 1907 III State Duma. The alignment of political forces in the Duma. Activities of the Duma. Government terror. Decline of the labor movement in 1907-1910.
Stolypin agrarian reform.
IV State Duma. Party composition and Duma factions. Activities of the Duma.
Political crisis in Russia on the eve of the war. Labor movement in the summer of 1914. Crisis at the top.
International position of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
The beginning of the First World War. Origin and nature of the war. Russia's entry into the war. Attitude to the war of parties and classes.
Progress of military operations. Strategic forces and plans of the parties. Results of the war. The role of the Eastern Front in the First World War.
The Russian economy during the First World War.
Worker and peasant movement in 1915-1916. Revolutionary movement in the army and navy. The growth of anti-war sentiment. Formation of the bourgeois opposition.
Russian culture of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
The aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country in January-February 1917. The beginning, prerequisites and nature of the revolution. Uprising in Petrograd. Formation of the Petrograd Soviet. Temporary Committee of the State Duma. Order N I. Formation of the Provisional Government. Abdication of Nicholas II. The reasons for the emergence of dual power and its essence. The February revolution in Moscow, at the front, in the provinces.
From February to October. The policy of the Provisional Government regarding war and peace, on agrarian, national, and labor issues. Relations between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. Arrival of V.I. Lenin in Petrograd.
Political parties (Kadets, Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks): political programs, influence among the masses.
Crises of the Provisional Government. Attempted military coup in the country. The growth of revolutionary sentiment among the masses. Bolshevization of the capital's Soviets.
Preparation and conduct of an armed uprising in Petrograd.
II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Decisions about power, peace, land. Formation of government and management bodies. Composition of the first Soviet government.
Victory of the armed uprising in Moscow. Government agreement with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. Elections to the Constituent Assembly, its convocation and dispersal.
The first socio-economic transformations in the fields of industry, agriculture, finance, labor and women's issues. Church and State.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, its terms and significance.
Economic tasks of the Soviet government in the spring of 1918. Aggravation of the food issue. Introduction of food dictatorship. Working food detachments. Combeds.
The revolt of the left Socialist Revolutionaries and the collapse of the two-party system in Russia.
The first Soviet Constitution.
Causes of intervention and civil war. Progress of military operations. Human and material losses during the civil war and military intervention.
Domestic policy of the Soviet leadership during the war. "War communism". GOELRO plan.
The policy of the new government regarding culture.
Foreign policy. Treaties with border countries. Russia's participation in the Genoa, Hague, Moscow and Lausanne conferences. Diplomatic recognition of the USSR by the main capitalist countries.
Domestic policy. Socio-economic and political crisis of the early 20s. Famine 1921-1922 Transition to a new economic policy. The essence of NEP. NEP in the field of agriculture, trade, industry. Financial reform. Economic recovery. Crises during the NEP period and its collapse.
Projects for the creation of the USSR. I Congress of Soviets of the USSR. The first government and the Constitution of the USSR.
Illness and death of V.I. Lenin. Intra-party struggle. The beginning of the formation of Stalin's regime.
Industrialization and collectivization. Development and implementation of the first five-year plans. Socialist competition - goal, forms, leaders.
Formation and strengthening of the state system of economic management.
The course towards complete collectivization. Dispossession.
Results of industrialization and collectivization.
Political, national-state development in the 30s. Intra-party struggle. Political repression. Formation of the nomenklatura as a layer of managers. Stalin's regime and the USSR Constitution of 1936
Soviet culture in the 20-30s.
Foreign policy of the second half of the 20s - mid-30s.
Domestic policy. Growth of military production. Emergency measures in the field of labor legislation. Measures to solve the grain problem. Armed forces. The growth of the Red Army. Military reform. Repressions against the command cadres of the Red Army and the Red Army.
Foreign policy. Non-aggression pact and treaty of friendship and borders between the USSR and Germany. The entry of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus into the USSR. Soviet-Finnish war. Inclusion of the Baltic republics and other territories into the USSR.
Periodization of the Great Patriotic War. The initial stage of the war. Turning the country into a military camp. Military defeats 1941-1942 and their reasons. Major military events. Surrender of Nazi Germany. Participation of the USSR in the war with Japan.
Soviet rear during the war.
Deportation of peoples.
Guerrilla warfare.
Human and material losses during the war.
Creation of an anti-Hitler coalition. Declaration of the United Nations. The problem of the second front. "Big Three" conferences. Problems of post-war peace settlement and comprehensive cooperation. USSR and UN.
The beginning of the Cold War. The USSR's contribution to the creation of the "socialist camp". CMEA education.
Domestic policy of the USSR in the mid-40s - early 50s. Restoration of the national economy.
Social and political life. Policy in the field of science and culture. Continued repression. "Leningrad case". Campaign against cosmopolitanism. "The Doctors' Case"
Socio-economic development of Soviet society in the mid-50s - the first half of the 60s.
Socio-political development: XX Congress of the CPSU and condemnation of Stalin’s personality cult. Rehabilitation of victims of repression and deportation. Internal party struggle in the second half of the 50s.
Foreign policy: creation of the Department of Internal Affairs. Entry of Soviet troops into Hungary. Exacerbation of Soviet-Chinese relations. Split of the "socialist camp". Soviet-American relations and the Cuban missile crisis. USSR and "third world" countries. Reduction in the size of the armed forces of the USSR. Moscow Treaty on the Limitation of Nuclear Tests.
USSR in the mid-60s - first half of the 80s.
Socio-economic development: economic reform of 1965
Increasing difficulties in economic development. Declining rates of socio-economic growth.
Constitution of the USSR 1977
Social and political life of the USSR in the 1970s - early 1980s.
Foreign policy: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Consolidation of post-war borders in Europe. Moscow Treaty with Germany. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Soviet-American treaties of the 70s. Soviet-Chinese relations. Entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan. Exacerbation of international tension and the USSR. Strengthening Soviet-American confrontation in the early 80s.
USSR in 1985-1991
Domestic policy: an attempt to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country. An attempt to reform the political system of Soviet society. Congresses of People's Deputies. Election of the President of the USSR. Multi-party system. Exacerbation of the political crisis.
Exacerbation of the national question. Attempts to reform the national-state structure of the USSR. Declaration of State Sovereignty of the RSFSR. "Novoogaryovsky trial". Collapse of the USSR.
Foreign policy: Soviet-American relations and the problem of disarmament. Agreements with leading capitalist countries. Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. Changing relations with the countries of the socialist community. Collapse of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact Organization.
Russian Federation in 1992-2000.
Domestic policy: “Shock therapy” in the economy: price liberalization, stages of privatization of commercial and industrial enterprises. Fall in production. Increased social tension. Growth and slowdown in financial inflation. Intensification of the struggle between the executive and legislative branches. Dissolution of the Supreme Council and the Congress of People's Deputies. October events of 1993. Abolition of local bodies of Soviet power. Elections to the Federal Assembly. Constitution of the Russian Federation 1993 Formation of a presidential republic. Exacerbation and overcoming national conflicts in the North Caucasus.
Parliamentary elections of 1995. Presidential elections of 1996. Power and opposition. An attempt to return to the course of liberal reforms (spring 1997) and its failure. Financial crisis of August 1998: causes, economic and political consequences. "Second Chechen War". Parliamentary elections of 1999 and early presidential elections of 2000. Foreign policy: Russia in the CIS. Participation of Russian troops in “hot spots” of the neighboring countries: Moldova, Georgia, Tajikistan. Relations between Russia and foreign countries. Withdrawal of Russian troops from Europe and neighboring countries. Russian-American agreements. Russia and NATO. Russia and the Council of Europe. Yugoslav crises (1999-2000) and Russia’s position.
- Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XX century.
The fight against illiteracy. Construction of a Soviet school. IN AND. Lenin, identifying the main enemies of the socialist revolution, among others, also named the illiteracy of the Russian population.
In 1918, the restructuring of public education began. On September 30, 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee approved the “Regulations on the Unified Labor School of the RSFSR.” This document was based on the most advanced ideas of both Russian and foreign teachers for that time. The new Soviet school was free, and elements of self-government were introduced into it. Pedagogical innovation was encouraged and respect for the child’s personality was cultivated. However, sometimes the pedagogical searches of that time crossed all boundaries of reason: desks were expelled from school, the lesson system, homework, textbooks, and grades were abolished.
By the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of August 2, 1918, “On the Rules for Admission to Higher Educational Institutions,” the workers and poor peasants received priority when entering universities. In order to raise their general educational level to the minimum required for studying in higher education, workers' faculties (workers' faculties) were created at universities and institutes. By 1925, graduates of workers' faculties, sent to study on party and Komsomol vouchers, made up half of all applicants. The state provided them with scholarships and hostels. This is how the Soviet intelligentsia began to be created.
Power and the intelligentsia. The luminaries of artistic culture of the “Silver Age” met the proletarian revolution in the prime of their creative powers. Some of them very soon realized that in the new conditions, Russian cultural traditions would either be trampled upon or brought under the control of the authorities. Valuing creative freedom above all else, they chose the lot of emigrants. By the mid-20s, many of the most prominent cultural masters found themselves abroad (I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin, A. K. Glazunov, S. S. Prokofiev, S. V. Rachmaninov, F. I. Shalyapin, I. E. Repin, V. V. Kandinsky, M. 3. Chagall and many others). M. Gorky also took a critical position towards the Bolshevik government, who in 1921 went abroad and settled on the island. Capri (Italy). However, not everyone chose the fate of emigrants. Some outstanding cultural figures, having gone into deep spiritual opposition to the ruling regime, continued to create in the traditions of Russian dissent - A. A. Akhmatova, M. A. Voloshin, M. M. Prishvin, M. A. Bulgakov.
The Bolsheviks, having come to power, sought to attract scientists to close cooperation, especially those who in one way or another contributed to strengthening the defense and economy of the country or had unconditional world recognition. They were provided with more tolerable living and working conditions compared to other segments of the population. Many famous scientists considered it their duty to work for the good of the Motherland, although this did not mean that they shared the political and ideological views of the Bolsheviks. Among them we find the names of the founder of the theory of modern aircraft construction N. E. Zhukovsky, the creator of geochemistry and biochemistry V. I. Vernadsky, the outstanding chemist N. D. Zelinsky, biochemist A. N. Bach, the father of astronautics K. E. Tsiolkovsky, Nobel laureate Prizes of the physiologist I. P. Pavlov, test agronomist I. V. Michurin, the largest specialist in plant growing K. A. Timiryazev and others.
The beginning of party control over spiritual life. After the end of the civil war and especially after the events in Kronstadt, the Bolsheviks began to increasingly take control of the spiritual life of the country. In August 1921, newspapers published sensational material about the exposure of the so-called Petrograd militant organization, which was allegedly preparing a “bloody coup.” A group of famous Russian scientists and cultural figures was declared active participants in this organization. Although the investigation was carried out hastily and did not have convincing evidence of the guilt of those arrested, some of them were sentenced to death. Among those executed were the famous chemist Professor M. M. Tikhvinsky and the greatest Russian poet N. S. Gumilyov.
At the end of August 1922, the Soviet government expelled 160 of the largest Russian scientists from the country - the pride of not only Russian but also world science. Among those expelled were philosophers N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, L.P. Karsavin, E.N. Trubetskoy, historian A.A. Kizevetter, sociologist P.A. Sorokin and others. These people did not at all strive leave Russia. While not sharing the ideological principles of Bolshevism, they nevertheless were not active fighters against it.
In 1922, a special censorship committee was established - Glavlit, which was obliged to exercise control over all printed products so that materials that were not acceptable to the authorities did not leak onto its pages. A year later, Glavlit was supplemented by the Glavrepertkom, designed to control the repertoire of theaters and other entertainment events.
Nevertheless, until 1925, culture developed in conditions of relative spiritual freedom. Stormy internal party disputes between the Bolshevik leaders prevented them from developing a unified line in the field of ideology. With the strengthening of the positions of J.V. Stalin, the party “turns its face to culture.” In 1925, the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks was adopted “On the Party’s Policy in the Field of Fiction.” It marked the beginning of ideologization and party dictatorship regarding artistic creativity. Speaking to the intelligentsia, N.I. Bukharin invited them to “go under the banner of the workers’ dictatorship and Marxist ideology.” The abolition of artistic diversity began.
Bolsheviks and the Church. The Bolsheviks set themselves the goal of raising a “new man” worthy of living in a communist society. One of the directions of communist education was the moral improvement of the individual, which at all times was the prerogative of the church. Therefore, the fight against religion was determined not only by the atheistic views of the Bolsheviks, but also by their desire to remove a dangerous competitor from the spiritual sphere of society.
The first act of eliminating the church from public life was the decree of January 23, 1918 on the separation of church from state and school from church. This decree served as the basis for complete arbitrariness in the localities in relation to the church and its ministers. Temples and monasteries began to close everywhere. Their property and religious objects were confiscated “for revolutionary needs.” Clergymen were arrested and sent to forced labor. They were deprived of voting rights and subjected to the highest taxes.
After the restoration of the patriarchate in 1917, Metropolitan Tikhon of Moscow became the head of the Russian Orthodox Church. In January 1918, he anathematized the Bolsheviks. When a terrible famine broke out in the Volga region in 1921, Patriarch Tikhon turned to the heads of Christian churches with an appeal to help the starving. The Church Relief Committee he created began active work, rousing all believers in Russia to fight hunger.
Bolshevik leaders could not accept the fact that the church had seized the initiative from the state. In February 1922, the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree on the confiscation of church valuables in favor of the starving. The implementation of the decree in some places resulted in a genuine robbery of church property. This caused a massive protest; over the course of three months, more than a thousand clashes between believers and detachments carrying out requisitions occurred. Lenin decided to use these events to deal a decisive blow to the church.
In April-May 1922, noisy trials of church leaders were organized in Moscow and in July in Petrograd. Several clergy - bishops and metropolitans - were sentenced to death on charges of counter-revolutionary activities. Patriarch Tikhon was placed under house arrest and then transferred to prison.
Anti-religious propaganda intensified, the Union of Militant Atheists was created, and the mass magazine “Atheist” began to be published. After Tikhon's death in 1925, the authorities did not allow the election of a new patriarch. Metropolitan Peter, who took on patriarchal duties, was exiled to Solovki in 1926.
The beginning of a "new" art. New trends and phenomena in the field of artistic culture were gaining strength. The literary, artistic, cultural and educational organization, called Proletkult, began to make itself known more and more loudly. The Proletcultists considered their main task to be the formation of a special, socialist culture through the development of the creative initiative of the proletariat. To do this, they created special art studios and clubs that united creatively inclined proletarians. By 1920, Proletkult organizations numbered up to 400 thousand members. The Theater of Working Youth (TRAM) was created. Future luminaries of Soviet art began their creative activity there: film directors S. M. Eisenstein and I. A. Pyryev, actors M. M. Shtraukh, E. P. Garin and others. Preaching the idea of “pure” proletarian culture, the Proletcultists called for throwing out “to the dustbin of history” all the cultural achievements of the past.
In 1925, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) was formed, which also evaluated literary works based not on their artistic merits, but from the point of view of the social origin of the authors. Therefore, everything that came from the pens of writers who were not of worker-peasant origin was declared “ideologically harmful.”
Writers of a new generation appeared, participants in the revolution and civil war. They not only glorified revolutionary romance, but also explored the most complex life problems and psychological conflicts. Works by I. E. Babel (“Cavalry”), A. S. Serafimovich (“Iron Stream”), K. A. Trenev (“Yarovaya Love”), M. A. Sholokhov (“Don Stories”), D. A. Furmanova (“Chapaev”) were talented and reflected the mood of the people. With their help, literature descended from the transcendental heights of “pure” art and became more accessible to the understanding of the broad masses.
Significant changes have occurred in the visual arts. The communists who seized power needed new forms to appeal to the feelings agitating for a communist future. The art of posters flourished, and talented masters of this genre appeared - V. N. Denis, D. S. Moor. At the same time, a variety of groups emerged in the fine arts with their own platforms, manifestos, and systems of visual media. Among them, the leading place was occupied by the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia (AHRR). In their declaration, the “Ahrrovites” declared that the civic duty of every master is “the artistic and documentary recording of the greatest moment in history in its revolutionary impulse.” This idea was embodied in the works of I. I. Brodsky, A. M. Gerasimov, M. B. Grekov.
The architects had a lot of ideas. They created gigantic plans for the construction of previously unseen “cities of the future,” the style of which was dominated by the ideas of constructivism. In 1919, V. E. Tatlin designed a unique work, “Tower of the Third International,” which laid the foundations of modern industrial design.
Cinema continued to develop. In the 20s The history of world cinema included the films of S. M. Eisenstein “Battleship Potemkin”, “October”, which marked the beginning of the development of a revolutionary theme in this art form.
The October Revolution (the full official name in the USSR is the Great October Socialist Revolution) is one of the largest political events in human history, which influenced the entire history of the 20th century, the stage of the Russian revolution that occurred in Russia in October 1917. As a result of the October Revolution, the Provisional Government was overthrown and the government formed by the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets came to power, the absolute majority of the delegates of which were Bolsheviks - the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks) and their allies the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, also supported by some national organizations, a small part Menshevik-internationalists, and some anarchists. In November, the new government was also supported by the majority of the Extraordinary Congress of Peasant Deputies.
The Provisional Government was overthrown during an armed uprising on October 25-26 (November 7-8, new style), the main organizers of which were V. I. Lenin, L. D. Trotsky, Ya. M. Sverdlov and others. The uprising was directly led by The Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, which also included the Left Social Revolutionaries.
There is a wide range of assessments of the October Revolution: for some, it is a national catastrophe that led to the Civil War, a lag behind other modern states and the establishment of a totalitarian system of government in Russia (or, conversely, to the death of Great Russia as an empire); for others - the greatest progressive event in the history of mankind, which had a huge impact on the whole world, and allowed Russia to choose a non-capitalist path of development, eliminate feudal remnants and, in 1917, most likely saved it from disaster. Between these extreme points of view there is a wide range of intermediate ones. There are also many historical myths associated with this event.
In the context of the national situation of the October days, the seizure of power in Russia by the Bolsheviks was not inevitable; it was made inevitable by specific mistakes of the Government, which had every opportunity to prevent it, but did not do so, being confident that this action of the Bolsheviks was guaranteed to face the same fate as on July days.
Among the enemies of the revolution, V.I. Lenin named illiteracy.
In order to provide the entire population of the republic with the opportunity to consciously participate in the political life of the country, the Council of People's Commissars decided: 1. The entire population of the republic between the ages of 8 and 50, who cannot read and write, is obliged to learn to read and write in their native language or Russian at will... 3. The People's Commissariat of Education and its local bodies are given the right to involve the entire literate population of the country in the education of the illiterates as labor service... 5. For those learning to read and write... the working day is reduced by two hours for the entire duration of the training while maintaining wages.
On September 30, 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee approved the “Regulations on the Unified Labor School of the RSFSR.” It was based on the advanced ideas of Russian and foreign teachers: pedagogical innovation was encouraged, respect for the child’s personality was cultivated, elements of self-government and the principle of free education were introduced. However, there were also costs: desks were removed from the school, lessons, homework, textbooks, grades, and exams were cancelled.
By decree of the Council of People's Commissars of August 2, 1918, the workers and poor peasants received the priority right to enter universities. Workers' faculties (workers' faculties) were created at universities and institutes. By 1925, graduates of workers' faculties, sent to study on party and Komsomol vouchers, made up half of all applicants. The state provided them with scholarships and hostels. Thus began the creation of the Soviet intelligentsia.
Power and the intelligentsia.
In the prime of their creative powers, the luminaries of artistic culture of the Silver Age met the proletarian revolution. Some of them believed that domestic cultural traditions would either be trampled upon or brought under the control of the new government. Valuing creative freedom above all else, they chose the lot of emigrants. By the mid-20s. Writers, poets, composers, singers, musicians, artists found themselves abroad: I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin, A. K. Glazunov, S. S. Prokofiev, S. V. Rachmaninov, F. I. Shalyapin , I.E. Repin, V.V. Kandinsky, M. Z. Chagall and others. M. Gorky, who in 1921 went abroad and settled in Italy, also took a critical position towards the Bolshevik government.
Not everyone chose the fate of emigrants. A number of outstanding cultural figures, such as A. A. Akhmatova, M. A. Voloshin, M. M. Prishvin, M. A. Bulgakov, went into deep spiritual opposition and continued the traditions of Russian dissent. It seemed to many that the revolution, like a cleansing thunderstorm, would rejuvenate the country and awaken creative forces. They walked towards a new life, considering themselves continuers of the revolutionary traditions of Russian culture. The October Revolution was already glorified in the first years in the poems of V. V. Mayakovsky (“Ode to the Revolution”, “Left March”) and A. A. Blok (“The Twelve”), in the paintings of K. S. Petrov-Vodkin (“1918 year in Petrograd") and B.M. Kustodiev (“Bolshevik”), in the first Soviet performance “Mystery-bouffe” based on Mayakovsky’s play, directed by V. E. Meyerhold and designed by K. S. Malevich.
The Bolsheviks sought to attract scientists to cooperation, especially those who contributed to strengthening the country's defense and economy or had international recognition. They were provided with tolerable living and working conditions compared to other segments of the population. Many famous scientists considered it their duty to work for the good of the Motherland, although they did not share the political and ideological views of the Bolsheviks. Let us name among them the founder of the theory of modern aircraft construction N. E. Zhukovsky, the creator of geochemistry and biochemistry V. I. Vernadsky, the outstanding chemist N. D. Zelinsky, biochemist A. N. Bach, the father of astronautics K. E. Tsiolkovsky, Nobel Prize laureate physiologist I. P. Pavlov, test agronomist I. V. Michurin, plant breeder K. A. Timiryazev and others.
Party control over spiritual life.
With the end of the Civil War and especially after the events in Kronstadt, the Bolsheviks began to increasingly control spiritual life in the country. In August 1921, a trial of a certain Petrograd military organization took place. Famous Russian scientists and cultural figures were announced as its active participants. Some of them were shot, including the chemist M. M. Tikhvinsky and the poet N. S. Gumilyov.
At the end of August 1922, the Soviet government expelled 160 scientists and cultural figures from the country, among whom were outstanding philosophers N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, JI. P. Karsavin, E. N. Trubetskoy, historian A. A. Kiesewetter, sociologist P. A. Sorokin and others. Without sharing the ideological principles of Bolshevism, they were not active fighters against it.
In 1922, a special censorship committee was established - Glavlit, which exercised control over all printed products so that materials objectionable to the authorities would not leak onto its pages. A year later, Glavlit was supplemented by the Glavrepertkom, designed to control the repertoire of theaters and other entertainment events.
However, until 1925, culture developed in conditions of relative spiritual freedom. Violent internal party disputes prevented the development of a unified line in the field of culture. With the strengthening of Stalin’s position, the party “turns its face to culture.” In 1925, the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks was adopted “On the party’s policy in the field of fiction.” The abolition of artistic diversity began. The party dictatorship was established. Thus, N.I. Bukharin suggested that the intelligentsia “go under the banner of the workers’ dictatorship and Marxist ideology.”
After the October Revolution and the Civil War, about 2 million of its citizens left Russia - officers, soldiers, representatives of all classes and professions. Most emigrants were hostile to Soviet power and considered its fall inevitable. But there were also those who looked at what was happening in the country differently.
In July 1921, a collection of articles “Change of Milestones” was published in Prague. In the revolution, which took the form of a Russian rebellion, “senseless and merciless,” its authors saw deep roots. The Bolsheviks, they believed, managed to drive anarchy into the state channel and begin the restoration of the Russian state. In order to accomplish this task, even through the hands of the Bolsheviks, it is necessary to stop the fight against Soviet power, which will inevitably lead to the restoration of bourgeois-democratic orders. In the NEP they saw confirmation of the correctness of their conclusions. The main ideologist of supporters of reconciliation with the Bolsheviks - “Smenovekhovtvo” - N.V. Ustryalov compared Soviet power to a radish, which is red on the outside and white on the inside.
“Smenovekhovstvo” was received with satisfaction and even relief by part of the intelligentsia who remained in their homeland, in the service of the new government. This ideology justified and even elevated them, because they could feel involved in the cause of recreating Russia. Such sentiments contributed to the return of many people from emigration to their homeland. One of the first to return in 1923 was the writer A. N. Tolstoy; later, in the 30s, S. S. Prokofiev, M. I. Tsvetaeva, M. Gorky, A. I. Kuprin came to Russia.
“Smenovekhovstvo” also suited the Bolshevik leaders. On the one hand, it made it possible to split the emigration, and on the other, it sanctified the results of the October Revolution. However, they did not allow these ideas to spread in their own country.
Bolsheviks and the Church.
The Bolsheviks set themselves the goal of raising a “new man” worthy of living in a communist society. The fight against religion was due not only to their atheistic views, but also the desire to eliminate a dangerous competitor in the spiritual life of the country. The first act of the struggle was the decree of January 23, 1918 on the separation of church and state and schools from church. It served as the basis for complete arbitrariness on the ground in relation to the church and its ministers. Temples and monasteries began to close everywhere. Their property and religious objects were confiscated “for revolutionary needs.” Clergymen were arrested and sent to forced labor. They were deprived of voting rights, subject to the highest taxes, and their children were deprived of the opportunity to receive special or higher education.
After the restoration of the patriarchate in 1917, Metropolitan Tikhon of Moscow became the head of the Russian Orthodox Church. In January 1918 he betrayed the Bolsheviks anathema.
The Holy Orthodox Church of Christ in the Russian land is now going through a difficult time... the seeds of malice, hatred and fratricidal warfare are being sown everywhere... Come to your senses, madmen, stop your bloody reprisals. After all, what you are doing is not only a cruel deed, it is truly a satanic deed... We conjure all of you, the faithful children of the Orthodox Church of Christ, not to enter into any communication with such monsters of the human race...
When famine broke out in the Volga region in 1921, the patriarch appealed to the heads of Christian churches to help the starving. The church committee for famine relief he created raised the spirit of all believers in Russia.
In response, in February 1922, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree on the confiscation of church valuables for the benefit of the starving. The implementation of the decree resulted in some places in the robbery of church property. Over the course of three months, there were more than a thousand clashes between believers and requisition troops. Lenin used these events to deliver a decisive blow to the church.
It is now and only now, when people are being eaten in starved areas and hundreds, if not thousands, of corpses are lying on the roads, that we can (and therefore must!) carry out the confiscation of church valuables with the most furious and merciless energy and without stopping to suppress any resistance ... The more representatives of the reactionary clergy and the reactionary bourgeoisie can be shot on this occasion, the better. It is now necessary to teach this public a lesson so that for several decades they will not dare to think about any resistance.
In April - May 1922, trials were organized in Moscow and in July in Petrograd, and a number of major church hierarchs were sentenced to death on charges of counter-revolutionary activities. Patriarch Tikhon was placed under house arrest and then transferred to prison.
Anti-religious propaganda intensified, the Union of Militant Atheists was created, and the mass magazine “Atheist” began to be published. After the death of Patriarch Tikhon in 1925, the authorities did not allow the election of a new patriarch. Metropolitan Peter, who assumed patriarchal duties, was exiled to Solovki.
The beginning of a “new art”.
New trends and phenomena in the field of artistic culture were gaining strength. Proletkult, a literary, artistic, cultural and educational organization, was making itself known more and more loudly. Preaching the idea of “pure proletarian culture,” its leaders called for throwing the cultural achievements and traditions of the past “into the dustbin of history.” They created art studios and clubs that united creatively inclined proletarians. In 1925, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) took shape. She demanded that literary works be evaluated not from the point of view of their artistic merits, but from the social origin of the authors. Everything that came from the pens of writers who were not of worker-peasant origin was declared ideologically harmful.
Literature included writers of a new generation, participants in the revolution and the Civil War. They not only glorified revolutionary romance, but also explored life's problems and psychological conflicts. These are the works of I. E. Babel (“Cavalry”), Vs. Ivanov (“Hills. Partisan Stories”), A. S. Serafimovich (“Iron Stream”), K. A. Trenev (“Lyubov Yarovaya”), M. A. Sholokhov (“Don Stories”), D. A. Furmanov (“Chapaev”), A. Vesely (“Russia, washed in blood”).
The talent of the great Russian poet S. Yesenin was revealed in full force. His creative and personal fate reflected the contradictions of the revolutionary era: “I remain in the past with one foot, I slide and fall with the other.”
Satire became a popular genre during the NEP years. She exposed the contradictions of the time, which changed, often not for the better, the characters of people and their souls. This genre was represented by the stories of M. Zoshchenko, the novel by I. Ilf and E. Petrov “The Twelve Chairs”, and the satirical plays of V. Mayakovsky “The Bedbug”, “Bathhouse”. The Bolsheviks needed new artistic forms to influence feelings and agitation for a communist future. The art of posters flourished, talented masters of this genre appeared - V. Denis (“Gang”), D. Moore (“Have you signed up as a volunteer?”, “Help!”). A special place was occupied by a new form of propaganda art - “Windows of Satire of ROSTA” (Russian Telegraph Agency). Sharp satirical posters with short, easy-to-remember poetic texts covered topical events and illustrated telegrams transmitted by the agency to newspapers. V. Mayakovsky played a major role in the creation of “Windows of GROWTH”.
A variety of groups are emerging with their own platforms, manifestos, and systems of visual media. The leading place was occupied by the group AHRR (Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia): the duty of each master, its members believed, was “an artistic and documentary recording of the greatest moment in history in its revolutionary impulse.” This idea was embodied in the works of I. I. Brodsky, A. M. Gerasimov, M. B. Grekov. He created works steeped in revolutionary romance in the 20s. sculptor I. D. Shadr. His work “Cobblestone - a tool of the proletariat” has become a classic. 1905."
Architects created gigantic plans for the construction of cities of the future, which were based on the ideas constructivism. In 1919, V. E. Tatlin designed the “Tower of the Third International,” which laid the foundations of modern industrial design.
The history of world cinema includes the films of S. Eisenstein “Battleship Potemkin”, “October”, with which the development of a revolutionary theme in this form of art began. The spiritual life of Soviet society in the first years of Soviet power was characterized by relative freedom, but as Stalin’s position strengthened, the party’s attack on culture began.