Race is a historically established group of people that has common physical features: skin, eye and hair color, eye shape, eyelid structure, head shape, and others. Previously, it was common to divide races into “black” (Blacks), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans), but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.
The simplest modern division is not too different from the “color” division. According to it, there are 3 main or large races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.
Negroids are characterized by curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a slightly protruding wide nose, and thick lips.
Caucasians usually have wavy or straight hair, relatively fair skin, different colors eyes, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow, prominent nose with a high bridge, and usually thin or medium lips.
Mongoloids have straight, coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, narrow eye shape, a flattened face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low bridge, and moderately thick lips.
In the expanded classification, it is customary to highlight several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) - indigenous people American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians a branch of the Mongoloids.
Australoids (Australo-Oceanian race) are the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race that had a huge range, limited to the regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, the Kuril Islands. The appearance features of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, massive eyebrows, powerful jaws - sharply distinguish them from Negroids.
Currently, there are few pure representatives of their races left. Mostly mestizos live on our planet - the result of mixing different races, which may have characteristics of different racial groups.
Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same local time.
Before the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local solar time, depending on geographic longitude. However, it was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train schedules. For the first time modern system Time zones appeared in North America at the end of the 19th century. In Russia it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was accepted throughout the world.
For greater convenience (in order not to enter local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conventionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are determined not by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for greater convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the minutes and seconds (time) are usually preserved; only in some countries, local time differs from world time by 30 or 45 minutes.
For the reference point ( prime meridian or belt) adopted by the Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London. At the North and South Poles, the meridians converge at one point, so time zones are usually not observed there. Time at the poles is usually equated to universal time, although at polar stations it is sometimes kept in its own way.
GMT -12 - Date meridian
GMT -11 - o. Midway, Samoa
GMT -10 - Hawaii
GMT -9 - Alaska
GMT -8 - Pacific Time (USA and Canada), Tijuana
GMT -7 - Mountain Time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Mazatlan)
GMT -6 - Central time(USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)
GMT -5 - Eastern Time (USA and Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogota, Lima, Quito)
GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)
GMT -3 - South American Eastern Time(Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland
GMT -2 - Middle Atlantic Time
GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde
GMT - Greenwich Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia
GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time
GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kyiv, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa
GMT +3 - Moscow time, East African time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia
GMT +4 - Samara time, United United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia
GMT +5 - Ekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)
GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk time, Central Asian time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka
GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk time, Southeast Asia (Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)
GMT +8 - Irkutsk time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian time (Perth)
GMT +9 - Yakut time, Korea, Japan
GMT +10 - Vladivostok time, Eastern Australian time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific time (Guam, Port Moresby)
GMT +11 - Magadan Time, Central Pacific Time (Solomon Islands, New Caledonia)
GMT +12 - Wellington
A wind rose is a diagram that depicts the mode of change in wind directions and speeds in certain place, for some period of time. It got its name due to its rose-like pattern. The first wind roses were known even before our era.
It is assumed that the wind rose was invented by sailors who were trying to identify patterns of changes in winds depending on the time of year. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.
A diagram is being built as follows: on rays coming from a common center in different directions, the value of repeatability (as a percentage) or wind speed is plotted. The rays correspond to the cardinal directions: north, west, east, south, northeast, north-northeast, etc. Currently, the wind rose is usually constructed using long-term data for a month, season, or year.
Clouds are classified using Latin words to define appearance clouds observed from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus clouds, stratus - stratus clouds, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - nimbus.
In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually there are several groups of clouds, the first three of which are determined by their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds of mixed types.
Upper clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar latitudes above 3 km, in tropical latitudes above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they consist mainly of ice crystals. The upper level clouds are usually thin and white. The most common forms of upper clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus, which can usually be seen in good weather.
Mid-level clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar latitudes and 2-8 km in tropical latitudes. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common types of mid-level clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shadowed parts, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually occurs as a result of air convection, as well as the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.
Low clouds They are located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is quite high, so they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common types of low clouds are nimbostratus and stratocumulus - dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.
Clouds of vertical development - cumulus clouds, having the appearance of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. They arise as a result of temperature convection and can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus (fair weather clouds) and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like pieces of cotton wool. Their lifetime is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young fair weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while the edges of older clouds are jagged and blurry.
Other types of clouds: contrails, billow clouds, mammatus, orographic, and pileus.
Atmospheric precipitation is water in a liquid or solid state that falls from clouds or is deposited from the air on the surface of the Earth (dew, frost). There are two main types of precipitation: blanket precipitation (occurs mainly during the passage of a warm front) and torrential precipitation (associated with cold fronts). Precipitation is measured by the thickness of the layer of water that fell over a certain period (usually mm/year). On average, precipitation on Earth is about 1000 mm/year. Precipitation below this value is called insufficient, and more is called excessive.
Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the influence of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises upward, where under the influence low temperatures it condenses (transforms gas into a liquid state) and freezes. This is how clouds are formed. As the mass of liquid in a cloud accumulates, it also becomes heavier. When a certain mass is reached, moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.
If precipitation falls in an area with low temperatures, droplets of moisture freeze on their way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together, causing snow to fall out in large flakes. This happens most often at not very low temperatures and strong winds. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has managed to freeze, snow can remain as a cover for up to several months. In some particularly cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, while in warm regions (tropics, the equator) there is no snow at all.
When frozen water particles move within a cloud, they expand and become denser. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail is formed. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the temperature at the surface is high. The sizes of hailstones can vary: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.
Sometimes moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs directly on the surface of the earth. This usually occurs when the temperature drops at night. In the summer, you can observe moisture settling on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. During the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.
Soils are classified by type. The first scientist to classify soils was Dokuchaev. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, Arctic soils, frozen-taiga soils, gray and brown forest soils and chestnut soils.
Tundra gley soils are found on plains. They are formed without much influence from vegetation. These soils are in areas where there is permafrost(In the Northern Hemisphere). Often, gley soils are places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. In areas with such soils, people engage in farming. Potatoes, vegetables and various herbs grow on such land. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils, the following types of work are used in agriculture: drainage of the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigation of arid areas. Methods for improving the fertility of these soils also include adding organic and mineral fertilizers.
Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. This soil is quite thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil cannot be restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common in Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands of the Northern Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.
Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction occurs with the acid. That is why this type of soil is also called acidic. Dokuchaev was the first to describe podzolic soils. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East. Around the world, podzolic soils are found in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils must be properly cultivated in agriculture. They need to be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers added to them. Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow better on them than crops. Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. Their composition is largely similar to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly by water, unlike podzolic soils. Soddy-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (the territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% fertile layer on the surface, and at depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.
Permafrost-taiga soils were formed in forests under permafrost conditions. They are found only in continental climates. The greatest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the surface of permafrost. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountainous permafrost-taiga soils. They form in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are found in Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often, mountainous permafrost-taiga soils are found next to small bodies of water. Outside Russia, such soils exist in Canada and Alaska.
Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. A prerequisite for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forest and herbaceous vegetation. The places of formation contain an element necessary for such soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils predominate in Russia in the territory from Transbaikalia to the Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soils.
Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils are found only in warm temperate climates. The soil color is brown. Typically brown soils look like this: on the surface of the ground there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20 and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a layer of clay of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. Subtypes vary depending on temperatures. There are: typical, podzolized, gley (surface gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are distributed in the Far East and in the foothills of the Caucasus. Low-maintenance crops such as tea, grapes and tobacco are grown on these soils. Forests grow well on such soils.
Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. Which indicates average soil fertility. This soil has chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut colors. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. The following crops grow well on dark chestnut soils without watering: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in the chemical composition of chestnut soil. It is divided into clayey, sandy, sandy loam, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is varied. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, and water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is maintained by annually falling grass and leaves of trees rare in the steppe. You can get good harvests from it, provided there is a lot of moisture. After all, steppes are usually dry. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.
There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. They all differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the verge of crisis. Russian soils must be valued like the land on which we live. Care for soils: fertilize them and prevent erosion (destruction).
The biosphere is a collection of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is populated by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a certain position, like other shells, but is located within their boundaries. Thus, waterfowl and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the earth are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.
Living organisms contain about 60 chemical elements, the main ones of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants can withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200°C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250°C. The inhabitants of the deep sea withstand enormous water pressure, which would instantly crush a person.
Living organisms do not only mean animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living things. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the vast majority of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful reservoir of solar energy. This occurs due to plant photosynthesis. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet occurs.
According to experts, life on Earth originated approximately 3.5 billion years ago in the World Ocean. This is exactly the age that was assigned to the oldest organic remains found. Since scientists estimate the age of our planet to be around 4.6 billion years, we can say that living beings appeared at an early stage of the Earth’s development. The biosphere has the greatest influence on the rest of the Earth's shells, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.
The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its gravity and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are composition, density, pressure and air temperature. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with height. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Between these layers are transition areas, which are called tropopause, stratopause, and so on.
The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to a height of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor. The air density here is greatest. For every 100 m rise, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65°. Top layer The troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.
The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here, the temperature, on the contrary, increases with altitude. At the border with the troposphere it reaches approximately -56ºС, and at an altitude of about 50 km it rises to 0ºС. The region between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called the stratopause. In the stratosphere there is a layer called the ozone layer, which determines upper limit biosphere. Ozone layer It is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Complex chemical processes, occurring in this shell, are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, the northern lights). About 20% of the atmosphere's mass is concentrated here.
The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the thermosphere that follows it is the mesopause.
The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises quite quickly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.
The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is already practically devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually turns into the so-called near-space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.
The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and surface waters sushi. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of volume of water is occupied by groundwater, the third is ice and snow in the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is approximately 1.39 billion km³.
Water, along with oxygen, is one of the essential substances on the ground. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a person consists of approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in shaping the relief of the Earth's surface, transporting chemicals in the depths of the Earth and on its surface.
Water vapor contained in the atmosphere acts as a powerful solar radiation filter and climate regulator.
The main volume of water on the planet is made up of the salty waters of the World Ocean. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salts). The highest salinity of water in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this figure is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic Sea - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of ocean waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known us chemical elements, just in different proportions. The chemical composition of fresher groundwater is more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.
The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of water from one type to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in water that life on our planet originated.
Volumes of hydrosphere waters:
Sea and ocean waters – 1370 million km³ (94% of the total volume)
Groundwater – 61 million km³ (4%)
Ice and snow – 24 million km³ (2%)
Land reservoirs (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) – 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)
The lithosphere is called dura shell The earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land on average ranges from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas its thickness reaches 90 km. The Earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas of the Pacific Ocean - up to 5 km.
The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and included in the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues today, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.
Most of the lithosphere consists crystalline substances, which were formed during the cooling of magma - molten substance in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions formed. Passing through cracks in the earth's crust, they cooled and released the substances they contained. Since some minerals disintegrate with changes in temperature and pressure, they were transformed into new substances on the surface.
The lithosphere is exposed to the influence of the air and water shells of the Earth (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is expressed in weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process by which rock is crushed into smaller particles without changing its chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The rate of weathering is influenced by the biosphere, as well as land topography and climate, water composition and other factors.
As a result of weathering, loose continental sediments were formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. These deposits formed soils that play a vital role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth's crust.
Terrain orientation includes determining one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement towards specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when you are in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.
You can navigate using a map, a compass, or the stars. Landmarks can also be various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin.
When navigating on a map, it is necessary to associate the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to the bank of a river or a road, and then turn the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map coincides with the direction of the line on the ground. Objects located to the right and left of the line on the ground should be on the same sides as on the map.
Orienting a map using a compass is used mainly in terrain that is difficult to navigate (in a forest, in a desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the direction to the north is determined with a compass, and the map is positioned with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that vertical line The coordinate grid of the map coincided with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. Please remember that compass readings can be affected by metal objects, power lines and electronic devices, located in close proximity from him.
After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance after which you need to change the direction of movement. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, having then found it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.
In the absence of a compass, the cardinal directions can be determined as follows:
The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;
On coniferous trees, resin tends to accumulate on the south side;
Annual rings on fresh stumps with north side located closer friend to a friend;
On the north side there are trees, stones, stumps, etc. covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi;
Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern slope is steep;
In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;
Separate trees have crowns that are lush and dense on the south side;
The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;
The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.
A geographic map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.
Cards are classified according to various criteria:
By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (smaller than 1: 1,000,000). Scale determines the relationship between the actual size of an object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring instruments (ruler, curvimeter) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.
Based on their content, maps are divided into general geographical and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physiographic maps are used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.
Based on territory coverage, geographic maps are divided into world maps, maps of continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).
According to their purpose, geographic maps are divided into reference, educational, navigation, etc.
To learn to distinguish Austria from Australia, north from south, dune from dune, you should study geography well. The definition of the word and its meaning can be found in this article. In addition, you will learn what one of the most ancient sciences studies and what its main features are.
What is geography: definition and meaning of the term
Geography is the oldest existing scientific discipline. Its foundations were laid back in the Hellenistic era. Her areas of interest include seas and oceans, mountains and plains, as well as society. More precisely, the features of human interaction with the surrounding nature.
Defining the concept of “geography” is impossible without an interpretation of the word itself. It is of ancient Greek origin and is translated as “description of the earth.” The term consists of two Greek words: “geo” (earth) and “grapho” (write, describe).
In the third century BC (when geography was emerging as a science) this term quite consistent with the essence. Ancient Greek thinkers really were engaged in “description of the earth”, without going much into the intricacies of natural processes and phenomena. However, the current definition of geography cannot be reduced to such a narrow interpretation.
What is science doing at the present stage? To answer this question, you need to understand what geography is. You will find the definition of this scientific discipline further in our article.
Early history of geographical science
So, as we have already figured out, the term “geography” was invented by the ancient Greeks. They also created the first detailed maps terrain. Actually, the foundations of this science were laid precisely in the Hellenic era. Later, the center of its development smoothly moved to the Arab world. Islamic geographers not only explored and mapped a lot of new lands, but also made many important innovative discoveries.
Chinese civilization also greatly contributed to the development of geographical science. In particular, instrumentally. It was the Chinese who developed such a useful thing as a compass, which is actively used in the 21st century.
The most famous representatives of the early period in the history of geographical science:
- Eratosthenes ("father of geography").
- Claudius Ptolemy.
- Strabo.
- Muhammad al-Idrisi.
- Ibn Battuta.
Development of geography in the 16th-20th centuries
During the European Renaissance, the enormous empirical heritage accumulated by geographers of previous generations and cultures was systematized and rethought. The so-called period of the Great Geographical Discoveries set completely new tasks and goals for the “science of geographies,” and a fresh and genuine interest in the profession of geographer arose in society.
In the 18th century this science are beginning to be studied at universities as a separate discipline. In the first half XIX century Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter laid the foundation for modern academic geography as we know it today. Nowadays, thanks to satellite technologies and the latest geographic information systems, geography is entering a completely new stage of its development.
Scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of European geographical science:
- Gerhard Mercator.
- Alexander von Humboldt.
- Karl Ritter.
- Walter Christaller.
- Vasily Dokuchaev.
Definition of geography as a science
“A linear image of the entire known part of the Earth, with everything that is located on it - bays, large cities, peoples, significant rivers.” This definition of geography was given by Claudius Ptolemy back in the second century. Thanks to this science, as the famous ancient Greek astronomer said, we get a unique opportunity to “view the entire Earth in one picture.”
At the beginning of the 19th century, the German geographer Karl Ritter proposed replacing “geographic description” with the term “geography.” By the way, it was he who first divided geography into two independent branches: physical and social (political). “The territory influences the inhabitants, and the inhabitants influence the territory” - Ritter expressed this fair thought back in 1804.
Another German scientist Hermann Wagner gave following definition geography: this is the science of the power of space, which manifests itself in local differences in its material filling. Wagner was quite close in his scientific views to Karl Ritter.
An interesting definition of geography was given by the famous Soviet soil scientist Arseny Yarilov. According to him, this is the science that should orient a person within the boundaries of the home assigned to him by nature.
There are many other interesting interpretations of this scientific discipline. To summarize all of the above, a modern definition should be given: geography is a science that studies the so-called geographical shell of the Earth, in all its natural and socio-economic diversity. We will talk about what this is in more detail in the next section.
Geographical envelope is...
The geographic shell refers to the shell of planet Earth, consisting of four structural layers:
- Troposphere.
- Earth's crust.
- Hydrospheres.
- Biospheres.
Moreover, all these “spheres” are in close interaction, intersecting and penetrating each other. The essence of the concept of the geographical envelope of the Earth was first described back in 1910 by the Russian scientist P. I. Brounov.
Within geographic envelope There is a constant and continuous process of movement of matter and energy. Thus, water from rivers and lakes constantly enters the lower layers of the atmosphere, as well as into the earth’s crust (through cracks and pores). In turn, gases and solid particles from the troposphere enter water bodies.
The boundaries of the geographical envelope are not clearly defined. Most often, its lower line is drawn along the base of the earth’s crust, the upper line at an altitude of 20-25 kilometers. Thus, the average thickness of the Earth's geographic shell is approximately 30 km. Compared to the parameters of our planet, this is minuscule. But it is precisely this thin “film” that is the main object of study for geographical science.
Structure of geographical science
Modern geography is a complex and very voluminous science, which includes dozens of special disciplines. As a rule, it is divided into two large blocks - physical and social (or socio-economic). The first one studies general patterns development and existence of the geographical shell and its individual parts, and the second is engaged in the study of the processes of interaction of society with natural environment.
Among the physical-geographical disciplines, the following stand out:
- Geodesy.
- Geomorphology.
- Hydrology.
- Oceanology.
- Landscape science.
- Soil science.
- Paleogeography.
- Climatology.
- Glaciology, etc.
Among the public geographical sciences It is customary to distinguish the following disciplines:
- Demography.
- Economic geography.
- Geopolitics.
- Geography of culture.
- Medical geography.
- Geo-urbanistics.
- Political geography.
- Regional studies, etc.
Main problems and discussions of modern geography
Oddly enough, the question “what is geography?” remains one of the most complex and controversial among representatives of this science. What geography should study, what goals it should set for itself - these problems still cannot be solved by the minds of the current generation of geographers.
In addition, theoretical geography is trying to solve a number of other pressing problems today. The most basic ones include the following:
- The problem of loss of interest in geography in society.
- The problem of the “dying away” of such purely practical disciplines, such as reclamation, land management, soil science.
- Problem general classification geographical science.
- Definition of a number of key concepts: “geographical envelope”, “landscape”, “geosystem”, etc.
Recently, such a fresh direction as “constructive geography” has been gaining popularity. First of all, due to the strategic nature of their research. This discipline can transform traditionally descriptive and theoretical geography into practical and useful one.
In conclusion
Geography is one of the most ancient sciences. It originated in the 3rd century BC. Today, geography is an independent scientific branch that deals with a deep and comprehensive study of the geographical shell of the Earth, starting from processes in the thickness of the earth’s crust and ending with human production activities.
Absolute altitude– the height of any point on the earth’s surface above ocean level.
Azimuth – the angle between the direction north and the direction towards a given object.
Icebergs, ice mountains- large fragments of continental glaciers that float in the ocean.
Artesian waters– pressure interstratal waters.
Archipelago- a group of islands in the ocean or sea, having the same origin and located close to each other.
Atoll– a ring-shaped coral island with a shallow pool located inside it.
river basin, river basin- the area from which the river collects water.
Endorheic lakes – lakes that do not have river flow. Rivers do not originate from such lakes.
Inland seas– seas that cut deeply into the land; connected to the ocean or adjacent sea by straits.
Waterfall– falling of water from a ledge created in the river bed.
Watershed– the border between river basins.
Reservoirs – artificial lakes on rivers created by building a dam.
water sushi- These are the waters of rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and water in the upper part of the earth's crust. They are divided into surface and underground.
Hills– flat areas of land that are located at absolute altitudes from 200 to 500 m.
depressions– closed areas of land located below sea level.
Volcanism– a set of processes associated with the introduction of magma into the earth’s crust or its release to earth's surface.
Volcanic lakes, crater lakes– lakes in volcanic craters.
Volcanoes- mountains that are formed when magma and other volcanic products rise from the depths of the Earth and erupt on its surface.
Weathering- mechanical and chemical change of rocks on or near the earth's surface under the influence of fluctuations in temperature, air, water and organisms. It can be physical, chemical and biological.
Geyser– periodically gushing hot spring.
Geographic longitude– distance in degrees from the prime meridian to the west or east to a given point. There are Western and Eastern.
Geographic map– a reduced, generalized image of the earth’s surface on a plane using conventional signs.
Geographic latitude– the distance in degrees from the equator north or south to any point. There are northern and southern ones.
Geographic poles– points of intersection of the imaginary earth’s axis with the surface of the globe.
Geography– the science of the natural conditions of the earth’s surface (physical geography), the population of the Earth and its economic activities (economic geography).
Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth. Its main components are the World Ocean and land waters.
Deep sea trenches– long narrow depressions of the ocean floor with depths of over 6000 m.
Horizontals– lines on the map that connect points with the same absolute height.
Mountainous country, mountains- a vast area of the earth's surface that is elevated above sea level above 500 m and is characterized by significant and sharp fluctuations in elevation over relatively short distances. Based on absolute height, there are low, medium and high mountains.
Mountain glaciers– glaciers in the mountains; have a variety of shapes.
Rocks– natural mineral formations that make up the earth’s crust. They are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Mountain rivers– rivers mountainous countries with narrow rocky valleys and fast currents.
Degree grid– a grid of parallels and meridians on the globe and map.
Groundwater– groundwater of the first permanent aquifer from the surface, which is not covered from above by a continuous waterproof layer.
Delta– the mouth of the river in the form of a triangle. Usually formed in shallow areas of the sea or lake at the confluence of a river that carries a large amount of sediment.
Valley mountain glaciers– glaciers in the mountains, shaped like ice streams moving from feeding areas down mountain valleys.
Volcano mouth- a channel through which magma erupts onto the Earth's surface.
Environmental pollution– changes in the properties of the environment as a result of anthropogenic (man-made) input of various substances.
Bay- a part of the ocean or sea that protrudes into the land, but has a free exchange of water with the rest of the water space and differs slightly from it in natural conditions.
Dammed lakes, platinum lakes– lakes that have arisen as a result of blocking, damming, or cluttering a valley with a mountain collapse, lava flow, glacier or its deposits.
Earthquakes– sharp aftershocks and vibrations of the earth's surface.
Earth's crust– the upper solid rock shell of the Earth.
Isobaths- lines on the map that connect points of equal depths of the bottom of oceans, seas and lakes.
Artificial lakes– lakes created by man (ponds, reservoirs).
Source of the river- the place where the river begins.
Source, spring, key– natural outlet of groundwater to the earth’s surface.
Karst– a set of processes associated with the dissolution of rocks by surface and groundwater.
Karst lakes– lakes formed as a result of the dissolution of limestone, gypsum, and dolomite by water.
Oscillatory movements of the earth's crust– slow rise and fall of the earth’s crust.
Crater- a bowl-shaped depression at the top of a volcano or on its slope, through which volcanic products (magma, gases, etc.) erupt.
Lava- magma that spilled onto the earth's surface.
Map legend– a set of symbols used on the map with explanations.
Glacier- a natural accumulation of ice on the earth's surface that has independent movement.
Glacial lakes- lakes formed by glaciers.
Lithosphere– the upper shell of the Earth, covering the earth’s crust and top part mantle.
ocean bed– the actual ocean floor with the earth’s crust of the oceanic type.
Magma- a molten fiery mass that is saturated with water vapor and gases. Formed in the depths of the Earth.
Earth's mantle - the Earth's shell located between the Earth's crust and the Earth's core.
Scale– the ratio of the length of a line on a drawing, plan or map to the length of the corresponding line on the ground.
Continents, continents- large areas of land surrounded on all or almost all sides by oceans and seas.
Continental shoal, shelf– an underwater slightly inclined shallow-water plain up to a depth of 200 meters.
continental slope- part of the bottom of the World Ocean, located between the shelf and the ocean bed at a depth of 200 to 2500-3000 m.
Low water– the period with the lowest stable water level in the river. It happens in summer and winter.
Interformational waters– groundwater that lies between impermeable layers.
Meridians– lines on the globe and maps, conventionally drawn on the surface of the Earth and connecting the poles.
World ocean- all the water space of the globe outside the land.
Monitoring – observation and control of the state of the natural environment, its individual components and their changes by humans.
Sea- a part of the ocean, separated by land and underwater rises from the rest of the ocean's water space and having its own natural conditions.
Moraine– hard debris that is transported and deposited by a glacier.
Sea currents, ocean currents- horizontal movement of water masses in the oceans and seas in the form of huge flows that move along certain paths.
Flood– flooding with water of an area located in a river valley above the floodplain.
Highlands- a large part of a mountainous country, which includes both mountain ranges and sections of plateaus.
Lowland– a plain with an absolute height of up to 200 m.
ravines- deep potholes (ditches) with steep slopes, formed by temporary water flows - storm and melt water.
Lake- a natural closed depression of land filled with water. They differ in the origin of lake basins, flow and salinity.
Oceans- large parts of the World Ocean, separated by continents.
marginal seas- seas that cut shallowly into the land, are widely connected to the ocean and are separated from it by islands, peninsulas and underwater rises.
Landslides– shifts, sliding downwards of rock masses on steep slopes under the influence of gravity.
Location orientation– determination of one’s position in relation to the sides of the horizon and local objects.
Islands- small, compared to continents, areas of land, surrounded on all sides by water. By origin they are continental, volcanic and coral.
Height and depth marks- numbers on maps and terrain plans showing the absolute heights of land and depths of oceans, seas, lakes.
Relative height – the elevation of one point on the earth's surface over another.
Flood– a rapid but short-term rise in the water level in the river.
Parallels– lines conventionally drawn on the Earth’s surface parallel to the equator.
Rifles– shallow areas of the river bed.
Isthmus- a relatively narrow strip of land in a body of water. Connects different land areas.
River feeding- flow of water into rivers. There are rain, glacial, underground and mixed feeding of rivers.
Site plan– a reduced conventional image of a small area of the earth’s surface in a drawing, made to a certain scale.
Plyos– deeper parts of the river bed between shallower ones.
Plateau – a large flat area of land with an absolute height of over 500 m.
Surface water– water carried by streams and rivers, concentrated in lakes, reservoirs, swamps and glaciers.
Underwater continental margins- part of the ocean floor that includes the continental shelf and slope.
Groundwater– water located in the pores, voids and cracks of rocks in the upper part of the earth’s crust (to a depth of 12-16 km).
Floodplain– lower part river valley, flooded with water during floods.
Ice sheet glaciers, continental glaciers– glaciers in the form of domes or shields covering the surface of the land, regardless of the relief.
Minerals, mineral resources – natural mineral formations in the earth’s crust that are mined and used by humans.
High water– a high and prolonged rise in the water level in the river, accompanied by flooding of the floodplain.
Polynyas– non-freezing sections of the river in winter.
Peninsula – a piece of land jutting into a body of water, surrounded on three sides by water.
Thresholds– shallow rocky or rocky areas in a river bed with a fast current. Formed as a result of the release of hard rocks.
Fresh lakes– lakes in which the content of dissolved salts is less than 1 g per liter of water.
Ebbs and flows– periodic rises and falls in water levels in oceans and seas. Caused by the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun.
Strait- a relatively narrow body of water that separates land areas and connects individual parts of the World Ocean.
Pond- a small artificial lake in the valley of a river, ravine, ravine and other depressions in the relief, which was formed by building a dam or digging a pit.
Plains– large areas of land and ocean floor with relatively small fluctuations in relative heights. By nature, the surfaces are flat and hilly, and by absolute height they are represented by lowlands, hills and plateaus.
Lowland rivers– rivers of the plain with wide river valleys and a smooth, calm current.
River regime is a change in the state of the river over time (changes in water level, flow speed, water temperature, etc.). Usually there are high water, low water, and floods.
River– natural water flow, which flows constantly in the same place.
Land reclamation is the restoration of lands disturbed by human economic activity.
Relief– a set of irregularities on the earth’s surface.
river valley- a longitudinally elongated depression from the source to the mouth, created or modified by the river.
River system- a river along with its tributaries.
River plains– plains formed by river sediments.
river bed- a depression in a river valley through which river waters flow.
Snow border (line)– the absolute height above which snowfall exceeds its melting. Snow accumulates and turns to ice. At the snow line, as much snow falls as can melt.
Salinity of water– the total amount of all salts in grams contained in 1 liter. Or 1 kg of water.
Salt lakes, mineral lakes– lakes containing more than 24 g of dissolved substances per liter of water.
Brackish lakes– lakes in which the content of dissolved salts is from 1 to 24 g per liter of water.
Mid-ocean ridges– powerful mountain structures at the bottom of the World Ocean with volcanism and earthquakes.
oxbow lakes– lakes in old river beds, usually crescent-shaped.
Sewage lakes– lakes with river flow. Rivers originate from them.
Tectonic lakes– lakes formed as a result of movements of the earth’s crust, its descent along cracks or troughs.
A waste heap is a cone-shaped dump of waste rock near mining openings (for example, a coal mine).
Mouth of the river– the place where a river flows into another river, lake or sea.
Gorge- a narrow and deep mountain valley with steep slopes.
Tsunami- large sea waves that arise as a result of powerful underwater earthquakes, sometimes underwater volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world– continents or parts thereof and islands located near them.
Scale of heights and depths – a color scale on physical maps and globes that helps determine heights and depths.
Equator – a line on the globe and maps, conventionally drawn on the surface of the globe at the same distance from the geographic poles.
Earth's core– the central part of the Earth, located below the mantle.
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Introduction |
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What does geography study? Study of the earth's surface in antiquity and the Middle Ages Age of Great Geographical Discoveries. Geography of the New Age Modern geography Section 1. Image of the Earth's surface on the plan terrain, globe and map Topic 1. Site plan Location orientation Measuring distances on the ground Site plan Scope of site plans Drawing up a schematic plan of the area Absolute and relative heights Relief depiction of contours Topic 2. Geographic map Features of the image of the Earth on the globe Geographic map Parallels and meridians. Degree grid Geographic coordinates The difference between a site plan and a geographical map. The meaning of the cards. General repetition of the section “Image of the Earth’s surface on terrain plan, globe and map" Section 2. Natural conditions of the earth's surface. Topic 3. Lithosphere and relief of the Earth Internal structure of the Earth Rocks that make up the earth's crust. Slow vertical and horizontal movements earth's crust Earthquakes as short-term movements of the earth's crust Mountains, mountainous countries and highlands Protection of the earth's interior and land surface General review on the topic “Lithosphere and relief of the Earth” Topic 4. Hydrosphere. World ocean. The concept of the hydrosphere Land in the world's oceans. Continents. Islands and peninsulas. Seas, bays, straits. Relief of the ocean floor Salinity and temperature of the oceans Waves in the oceans and seas Ocean currents and tidal phenomena Vegetable and fauna oceans and seas The importance of the World Ocean in people's lives. Ocean protection Exploring the World Ocean Topic5. water sushi Groundwater. Sources River flow patterns Food and river regime Work of flowing waters Drainage and drainage lakes, fresh and salt lakes Protection of land waters General repetition on the topic “Waters of land” APPLICATIONS |
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Absolute altitude - vertical distance from sea level togivenpoints.A.v. points located above sea level are considered positive,below - negative.
Azimuth - the angle between the direction north anddirection toany itemon the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in directionclockwork movementsarrows.
Iceberg - a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded
Antarctic belt - descends from South Pole up to 70° SAnticyclone - area of increased air pressure inatmosphere.Area - area of distribution of any phenomenon or group of living thingsorganisms.
Arctic belt - descends from the North Pole to 70°N.Archipelago - group of islands.
Atmosphere - the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll - coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam - dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan - an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.
Pool - an area of depression that has no drainage on the surface.Shore - a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere - one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.Breeze - local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers.Daytime B. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land.Night B. (or coastal) -Withsushionsea.
"Brocken Ghost" (along the Brocken mountain in the Harz massif, Germany)- a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog whensunrise or sunset.
Wind - air movement relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low.Direction B. determined by the side of the horizon from wherehe blows.Speed V. determined in m/s, km/h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Humidity - content of water vapor.
Watershed - boundary between drainage basins.Elevation - an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves - oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seasAndoceanscaused bytidal forces of the Moon and the Sun(tidal V.), by the wind(wind V.), atmospheric pressure fluctuations(anemobaric V.), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands - a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute altitudes over 3000m. Highest mountain systems planets:Himalayas, vertexEverest (8848 m) located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China -Karakoram, vertexChogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone - a change in natural zones in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographic coordinates - angular values that determine the position of any point on globe relative to the equator and prime meridian.
Geospheres - shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.Hydrosphere - the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain: 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains - vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their borders.
Mountain system - totality mountain ranges and mountain ranges extending in one direction and having a common appearance.
Ridge - elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined upVrow and merging with their bases.
Delta - the area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical - the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley - negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes - accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay - part of the ocean (sea)orlakes), protruding quite deeply into the land, but having free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
Earth's crust - the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell - a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere - high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source - the place where the river begins.
Canyon - a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom.K. underwater -a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst - rock dissolution natural waters and the phenomena associated with it.
Climate - long-term weather regime in a particular area.Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.Climate zone (or belt) is a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe - a sandy or pebble shaft stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater - a depression created after a volcano explosion.
A ridge is a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche - a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.Lagoon - a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographical landscape - a relatively homogeneous area of the geographical envelope.
Glacier - a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km 2 , the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km 3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
Ice age - period of time in geological history Earth characterized by severe climate cooling.Forest-steppe - a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.Forest-tundra - a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman - shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere - one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle - the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland - a large part of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.Australia - in South hemisphere, between Indian and Pacific Oceans(smallest of the continents);North and Yuzh. America - in the West hemispheres, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;Antarctica - in the central part of the South. polar region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);Africa - in South hemisphere (second largest continent);Eurasia - in the North hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).
Meridians geographical - imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World ocean - the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons - winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands - a mountainous country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet is in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands - the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan, the vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland - a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazonian lowland with an area of more than 5 million km 2 in South America.
Lake - a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans - parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands.Atlantic; Indian - an ocean of heated waters;Arctic - the smallest and shallowest ocean;Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide - downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island - a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The world's largest island -Greenland area 2 million 176 thousand km 2 .
Relative height - vertical distance between the top of the mountain and its foot,
Geographical parallels - imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect (atmospheric greenhouse effect) - protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds - constant winds in tropical areas blowing towards the equator.
Plateau: 1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain top.P. underwater - an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos - a deep section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau - a vast area of land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example:East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain - part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.Semi-desert - a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere - half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles - points of intersection of the Earth's rotation axis with the earth's surface.
Magnetic items of the Earth - points on the earth’s surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Arctic Circles (Northern AndSouthern) - parallels located 66° 33" north and south of the equator.
Threshold - a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.
Foothills - hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies - vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows - periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts - vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe -Sahara in North Africa,
Plains - vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on EarthEastern European, orRussian, with an area of more than 6 million km 2 AndZapodno-Sibirskaya in northern Eurasia, with an area of about 3 million km 2 .
River - a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed.Amazon - river in South America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in terms of basin area (7180 μm G) and water content;Mississippi - the largest river Sev. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km);Nile - a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief - a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface (forms of R.) of various origins; are formed as a result of a combination of impacts on the earth's surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed - the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by the river.
Savannah - a landscape of the tropics and subtropics, in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
North Pole - the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the Earth in the North. hemispheres.
Sel - a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado (American name for tornado) - vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye - mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. Almost the entire Far East is occupied by them, eastern part China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope - an inclined area on land or seabed.Windward S. - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow.Leeward S. - facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe - treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining the savannas of the tropical belt in the south.
Stratosphere - layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones (subtropics) - located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts - located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga - zone coniferous forests temperate zone. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon - the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr - a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements - movements of the earth's crust that change its structure and shape.
Tropics: 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23°30° north and south of the equator:tropics of Capricorn (Northern t.) - tropics of the North. hemispheres andTropics of Cancer (South. t.) - South tropics hemispheres; 2) natural zones.
Tropical zones - located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere - lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra - treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones - located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes - located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.Hurricane - storm with wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary - the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front - a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord) - a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill - small in height and gently sloping hill.Cyclones - area of low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami - Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world - regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf - continental shallows with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical - the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall - a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm - calm, calm.
Storm - very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator - an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere - layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere - an area of outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion, destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole, the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the earth in the South. hemispheres.
Earth's core, the central part of the planet with a radius of approx. 3470 km.
Standard plans for describing geographical objects
Geographical location of the mainland
1. The location of the continent relative to the equator, the tropics ( polar circles) and the prime meridian.
2. The extreme points of the continent, their coordinates and the length of the continent in degrees and kilometers from north to south and from west to east.
3. In what climatic zones is the continent located?
4. Oceans and seas washing the continent.
5. The location of the continent relative to other continents.
Terrain relief
1. What is general character surfaces? How can this be explained?
2. How are landforms located in the study area?
3. What are the highest and most dominant altitudes?
Climate
1. In what climatic zone and in what area is the territory located?
2. Average temperatures in July and January. Direction and reasons for their change.
3. Prevailing winds (by season).
4. Annual quantity precipitation and its regime. Reasons for differences in precipitation.
River
1. In what part of the continent does it flow?
2. Where does it start? Where does it flow?
3. In what direction does it flow?
4. Explain the dependence of the nature of the flow on the relief.
5. Identify the river's feeding sources.
6. What is the river regime and how does it depend on climate?
Natural area
1. Geographical location of the zone.
2. Geology, tectonics, relief.
3. Climate.
4. Inland waters.
5. Soils.
6. Vegetation.
7. Animal world.
Population of the country
1. Number, type of population reproduction, demographic policy.
2. Age and sex composition of the population, availability of labor resources.
3. National (ethnic) composition of the population.
4. Social class composition of the population.
5. The main features of population distribution, the influence of migration on its distribution.
6. Levels, rates and forms of urbanization, main cities and urban agglomerations.
7. Rural settlement.
8. General conclusion. Prospects for population growth and labor supply.
EGP of the country (region)
1. Position in relation to neighboring countries.
2. Position in relation to the main land and sea transport routes.
3. Position in relation to the main fuel and raw material bases, industrial and agricultural areas.
4. Position in relation to the main areas of product sales.
5. Change in EGP over time.
6. General conclusion about the influence of EGP on the development and location of the country’s economy.
Industry
1. The importance of the industry and the size of its products.
2. Natural prerequisites for the development of the industry.
3. Industry structure.
4. The main factors influencing the location of the industry and the main features of its geography; sectoral industrial districts.
5. Industry dependence on exports and imports.
6. General conclusion. Industry development prospects.
Agriculture of the country
1. Industry importance and product size.
2. Natural conditions for the development of the industry.
3. Features of agricultural relations.
4. Industry structure, ratio of crop production and livestock production.
5. Geography of crop and livestock production, agricultural areas.
6. The country's dependence on the export and import of agricultural products.
7. General conclusion. Prospects for population growth and labor supply.
Territory of the economic region
1. EGP of the district.
2. Natural conditions, resources of the area and their economic assessment.
3. Labor resources and possibilities for their use.
4. Historical background development of the national economy of the economic region.
5. Specialization of the economy (industry and agriculture).
6. Relationships between industries and territories within the region, forms of production location (TPK, nodes, centers).
7. Cities.
8. Prospects for the development of the region.
The fascinating subject of geography is a scientific field that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means “description of the earth.” Below is a general definition of the term geography:
“Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and the environment, including the influence of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.”
Scientists who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although cartographers ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialization. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas of geographical study: physical geography and human geography.
History of the development of geography
The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps of the surrounding area, but also explained the differences between people and natural landscapes in different places on Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the brightest Islamic minds. The Islamic Golden Age witnessed amazing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their innovative discoveries. New lands were explored and the first grid base for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development early geography. The compass, developed by the Chinese, was used by explorers to explore the unknown.
A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A new interest in geography arose in the European world. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and the explorer led this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main impetus for travel in those times. Europeans advanced in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and... Geography's enormous potential for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized and, in the 18th century, it was introduced as a core discipline at university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software radically changed the science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.
Branches of geography
Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in Earth space, as well as develop ways to solve problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. Primary classification Geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.
Physical Geography
is defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.
Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:
- Geomorphology: deals with the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps clarify various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also tries to predict future changes physical characteristics external appearance of the Earth.
- Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological studies.
- Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all the water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine flora, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition of sea waters and their effects on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of oceanic movements such as waves, currents, tides).
- Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. She explores the planet's rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the Earth's surface, through.
- Soil Science: branch of science that studies various types soils in their natural environment on the surface of the Earth. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (soil formation), composition, texture and classification of soils.
- : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the distribution of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. She also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Every geographical region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship with physical and geographical features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (study of factors influencing individual ecosystems), etc.
- Paleogeography: a branch of physical geography that studies geographic features at various points in time in the Earth's geological history. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics, determined through the study of paleomagnetism and fossil records.
- Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important branch of geographical research in modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate, as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on the climate, and vice versa.
- Meteorology: studies weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that influence local and global weather.
- Environmental Geography: explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment with spatial point vision.
- Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes, forming coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape changes. The study also seeks to understand the impacts of coastal communities on coastal topography and ecosystems.
- Quaternary geology: a highly specialized section of physical geography that studies the Quaternary period of the Earth ( geographical history Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about environmental changes that occurred in the recent past of the planet. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
- Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation and storage of data about the earth's surface.
- Landscape ecology: the science that studies the influence of various Earth landscapes on ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.
Human Geography
Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the influence anthropogenic activities to the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures of the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.
This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the focus of the research:
- Geography population: studies how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle, and migration of human populations.
- Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. Although this section is considered as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography attempts to understand why, how, and when places and regions of the Earth change and the impact they have on human society.
- Cultural Geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, she studies spatial variations human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, etc.
- Economic geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographical space.
- Political geography: examines the political boundaries of countries around the world and the divisions between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the subdisciplines of political geography.
- Geography of health: explores the impact geographical location on people's health and well-being.
- Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living human population world and attempts to understand how and why such standards vary across places and spaces.
- Geography of settlements: is engaged in the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
- Geography of animals: studies the animal world of the Earth and the interdependence between people and animals.