The vocabulary of the Russian language, like a mirror, reflects the entire historical development of society. Processes production activities human, economic, social, political, cultural development life - everything is reflected in vocabulary, which is constantly changing and improving. In fact, with the development of science, technology, industry, Agriculture, culture, with the emergence and development of new social and international relations new concepts arise, and therefore words for naming these concepts. On the contrary, with the disappearance of any phenomenon of reality or object from life, the words that name them go out of use or change their meaning. After October revolution gone
Section 1. Accuracy of word usage 147
from the use of the word strike, auction, mercy, charity, governor, province, zemstvo, governess, prefecture, worship, gymnasium, philanthropist, merchant, nobleman. Now, with the return of these phenomena to life, these words have again entered our speech.
Depending on how actively words are used in speech, the entire vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into two large groups: active vocabulary (or active vocabulary) and passive vocabulary (passive vocabulary). Active vocabulary consists of everyday words ( common words), the meaning of which is clear to all people who speak Russian. As a rule, they call the concepts modern life. These may be old, but not obsolete words: man, water, work, bread, house and etc.; terms: lawyer, court, industry, science, atom etc.
The passive vocabulary includes vocabulary that is very rarely used in everyday communication. It is, as it were, stored in memory until a convenient, necessary occasion. These are either outdated words or new ones that have not yet received widespread use.
Outdated vocabulary
So, outdated words. If they name objects of old life, culture, old socio-political and economic relations, disappeared from life, for example: boyar, chain mail, smerd, armyak, serf, then before us historicisms. Some words that arose in the Soviet era and who named the phenomena of the first or later years Soviet power: NEPman, food detachment, food tax, surplus appropriation system, People's Commissar, Stakhanovite, Economic Council, Komsomol etc. In the post-perestroika period, the word becomes historicized kopek.
In addition, outdated words can denote currently existing phenomena and objects, for example: cheeks(cheeks), peeit(poet), airplane(airplane), this(this), hood(robe), youth(teenager), etc., i.e. these are outdated names of modern things and phenomena. And these words are called archaisms. In the process of language development, they were replaced by synonyms: cavalry - cavalry, bed - bed, provinces - periphery, province - region, orphanage - orphanage etc. The last three words seem to be returning to our speech again.
The use of obsolete words in each text must be justified. Historicisms are usually used in special,
148 Part I. Operation linguistic units in a lawyer's speech
scientific and historical literature, which denotes phenomena of past years. Archaisms, as a rule, fulfill stylistic functions, giving the speech a touch of solemnity, pathos or irony. So, F.N. Plevako in famous speech in the case of an old woman who stole a 30-kopeck teapot, deliberately uses an archaic form twelve languages, which not only gives the speech solemnity, but also colors it with an ironic shade. The same function in Ya. S. Kiselev’s defensive speech is performed by the archaic form of the name of the imaginary victim - Natalia Feodorovna and outdated - stolen . In colloquial speech, outdated words most often give an ironic tint and create humor.
IN writing lawyer, which is a type formal business style, outdated words are inappropriate. However, they can be recorded in the interrogation protocol in the responses of the interrogated. The use of outdated words without taking into account their expressive connotation leads to stylistic errors: The accused Shishkin, who committed the beating of household members, is in the arrest house. Inappropriately used outdated words can give the text a purely clerical flavor: A certificate of rent is attached to this application. Their frequent repetition leads to tautology.
There are a large number of archaisms and historicisms in the Criminal Code of 1903 1: exactions, police, excise, gambling house, nobles, merchants, zemstvo service, hard labor, class meetings, demands, alms, fortress, workhouse, usury, code, administration, health, permission, blasphemy, crime, shops, this, these, which, these, natives, midwife, adultery, exchange, therefore, foreign tribes, subjects, trustworthy, prisoner, deanery, arrest, province, district, rank, unrest, extortion, imprisonment, worker, obscenity, legalization. We also find archaic forms here: wandering, drinking, allowed, hypnotism, establish, contagious illnesses, family rights. The Criminal Code of the RSFSR retains from outdated words act , as the most accurately naming a criminal act or omission, commit has a specific legal connotation. Outdated words such (Article 129) concealment (Article 185) emphasize the official language of the law.
In Art. 232 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, which names remnants of local customs, instead of the term relatives used it justifiably
Section 1. Accuracy of word usage 149
obsolete colloquial synonym relatives, denoting members of a clan.
In explanatory dictionaries, obsolete words are given with the mark outdated
§ 2. New words
In addition to outdated vocabulary, passive vocabulary includes neologisms(from Greek neos - new + logos - word) - words that have recently appeared in the language. Neologisms appear along with a new phenomenon, object or thing, and their novelty is felt by speakers. Great achievements in scientific, cultural and industrial development in the post-October period gave rise to a large number of new words, for example: collective farm, metro, escalator, Komsomolets... Some new words communicate new achievements and discoveries. Thus, several decades ago, the root was productive for the formation of new words space-: after the word astronaut words appeared with cosmic speed cosmophysicist, spaceship, cosmodrome, space navigation, cosmovision, geocosmos etc. Many new words appeared from the root body -: television equipment, television tower, teletype, teleconference and etc.
Nowadays, new words are constantly being born. In almost every newspaper, in every magazine you can find a word that has just appeared. Most of the new words name the phenomena of political, economic, public life, and therefore they quickly enter into active composition vocabulary: perestroika, agricultural industry, state acceptance, arrangement, exchange, impact, privatization, involved, informals, denationalization, electorate etc. These can be names of fashionable things and phenomena: mixed fabrics, sneakers, Varenka, disco, impregnation, video salon, negative phenomena that have appeared in life: distortions, homeless people, scourge, morbidity... Became actively used in print spoken words promise, liked, help: Today there is a pronounced increase in delinquency among minors, and this again promises a surge in 2-3 years total number crimes 2.
New words can be formed as a result of changes in the semantics of existing words in the language. Yes, a polysemantic word official denotes 1) an employee government agency... 2) a person who formally relates to his duties -
150 Part P. Functioning of linguistic units in a lawyer’s speech
there. IN Soviet period it was used in the 2nd meaning, in the 1st meaning it was historicism. Nowadays, it again denotes an employee of a government agency. Word shuttle has three meanings: 1. Cheln. 2. Part loom in the form of an oblong oval box or block with wound yarn for laying weft threads. 3. The part of a double-thread sewing machine that feeds the bobbin thread. Nowadays, this word has a new meaning: it refers to people traveling abroad for the purpose of buying and reselling goods. The transfer of the meaning of the word occurred on the basis of the similarity of actions: to move “back and forth.” The words have a new meaning lump, substitute; run over, thimble, get, poured, cool, screw up b and etc.
New words are acquired by the language in different ways. From passive vocabulary they move into active vocabulary and become commonly used if the concepts they denote are firmly established in life. Some of the words do not take root in the language, some remain individually authored. Discordant neologisms such as rsagozh (from react), blackmail(instead of blackmail), kindergartenism, denationalization etc. Neologisms are formed incorrectly heavily polluted, oil-contaminated, negotiable, although the “authors” used them as terms. Similar words give the speech a comic tone: As a result of prolonged rains, large potholes formed on the roads. Or: Even though the warehouse was special, material values discounted prices 3 . Individual neologisms become obsolete in the language along with the passing away of the phenomena or objects they denote. This is what happened with words nonsense, informals, state acceptance. Perhaps the word is becoming historicist perestroika. Interesting history of the word turtleneck . It entered our language in the 60s, calling a women's sweater fashionable in those years; after a few years it fell out of use as turtlenecks were no longer worn. And now again, along with the fashion for the thing, this word has returned to the active vocabulary. Until it is published this manual, the word may become outdated again.
In general, new words are an inexhaustible source of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.
Self-test questions
1. Why is the vocabulary of the Russian language divided into active and passive? 2. What vocabulary is included in the active vocabulary
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composition, which one - in passive vocabulary? 3. How do historicisms and archaisms differ? What are their functions in speech? 4. What are neologisms? When do they enter the active vocabulary?
1. Uncommon vocabulary. Definition of the concept.
2. Areas of use and functions of historicisms and archaisms.
3. Neologisms, new words.
4. Errors caused by the use of passive vocabulary.
Exercise 1. In examples taken from the Criminal Code of 1903 (see p. 148), note historicisms and archaisms; justify the legality of their use in the text of the law. Choose modern synonyms for archaisms.
Task 2. Read 15 articles each from the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, the Criminal Procedure Code of the RSFSR, the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and the Civil Procedure Code of the RSFSR, draw a conclusion about the presence of passive words in them.
Exercise 3. Answer in what procedural acts and why it can be used outdated vocabulary and neologisms. Give examples.
Task 4. Read several defensive speeches by Ya.S. Kiseleva, mark outdated words in them. Explain the reasons for using them.
Task 5. Tell us how you perceive the use in print and on the radio of such words as disassembly, soviet, party, collapse, lumps, cheating, chernukha, bucks . What are their meaning , stylistic coloring, sphere of use?
Exercise 6. Fix errors caused by inappropriate use outdated vocabulary and neologisms.
The police department, which received a statement from the victims, filed a lawsuit against the cloakroom attendants. The indicated actions of the suspect allow us to leave the preventive measure the same. Surplus equipment that is owned by management should be transferred to the inter-factory fund. The confiscated vase, as being of no value, was destroyed by breaking. The accused departed in an unknown direction, where he remained until his arrest.
152 Part P. Functioning of linguistic units in a lawyer’s speech
Task 7. Get acquainted with the works: 1) New words and meanings: Dictionary-reference book. materials of the press and literature of the 70s / E. A. Levashov, T. N. Popovtseva et al. M., 1984. 2) New words and dictionaries of new words: [Sb. Art.] / Rep. ed. 3. N. Kotelova. L., 1983. 3) Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. F. P. Filin. M., 1979 (see dictionary entries: neologism, passive dictionary, obsolete words). Express your opinion on the level of importance similar dictionaries for a lawyer.
In modern Russian, obsolete words include those that are known from works of classical literature. They are rarely used in speech.
Reasons for words becoming obsolete:
1) extra-linguistic; 2) intralinguistic.
Historicisms are words whose semantic changes are caused by extra-linguistic factors. These are the names of objects and phenomena of the old way of life, the old culture, social, economic and political relations. Historicisms include the names of social institutions (corvée, quitrent, zemshchina), household items, clothing (arshin, frock coat, caftan), names of people according to social status(smerd, boyar, prince, count, nobleman, hetman, centurion). the word historicism extralinguistic
Neologisms at one time included such words as budenovka, cart, committee of the poor, surplus appropriation, educational program, workers' faculty, but for a short time they became historicisms.
The intralinguistic reasons that determined the appearance of obsolete words include synonymous competition, as a result of which one of the synonymous words gives way to another. Such a process occurred at one time with the words eye and eye, brow and forehead, airplane and airplane, helicopter and helicopter, etc.
In addition, intralinguistic factors include the processes of expanding or narrowing the meaning of words as a result of the elimination of more specialized names. The following example is given in the linguistic literature: in Russian, each finger had a separate name. But the word FINGER was used only for the thumb, the word FINGER for the index finger, etc. Over time, the special names of fingers became unimportant and the word FINGER acquired a general meaning, spreading to all others, and the word FINGER began to be used as an archaic synonym for it.
Varieties of archaisms
Obsolete words that have fallen out of use as a result of intralingual processes are called archaisms. As the language develops, they are replaced by other words that are more acceptable to subsequent generations. Old nominations are becoming passive vocabulary.
In linguistics, there are several classifications of archaisms. So, N.M. Shan divides all archaisms into lexical and semantic. M.I. Fomina, A.V. Kalinin and others divide archaisms into the following groups: lexical proper, lexical-phonetic, lexical-word-formative, lexical-semantic.
Actually, the lexical archaisms are completely outdated (eye, forehead, finger, battle).
Lexico-phonetic archaisms include words that, in the process historical development The sound form has changed (bakcha - melon, busulman - Muslim, stora - curtain, klob - club number - number, calm - style).
Lexico-word-formation archaisms are words in which individual word-formation elements are outdated (friendship - friendship, nervous - nervous, rest - rest, buyer - buyer).
Lexico-semantic archaisms retained their sound form, but changed their meaning (the word druzhinnik is perceived by modern speakers as a participant in a voluntary association, and not a person who was a member of the princely squad).
Historicisms and archaisms are an important stylistic means in literary text, by which you can determine the era in a work on a historical topic.
Neologisms and their types
Neologisms are new words or meanings that have recently appeared in a language. These are the names of new objects that appeared in the process of development of science, culture, technology, production, everyday life, names of new phenomena, actions, processes.
A neologism remains new until it has become commonly used and sufficiently frequent (programmer, computer, cybernetics). These words quickly entered the language and became an integral part vocabulary.
In the language there are such neologisms that name phenomena that are obviously transitory (new materials - crimplen, bologna, styles of clothes and shoes - Romanian, body shirt, hairstyles - gavroche, babetta), etc. Such words from the category of neologisms very quickly fall into the category of outdated vocabulary.
Linguistic scientists distinguish lexical neologisms - new derivatives and borrowed words (lunokhod, nuclear-powered rover, cruise, broiler), which make up about 90%, and semantic ones, which arose as a result of the emergence of new meanings in words functioning in the language, for example: dynasty - 1) series sequentially reigning monarchs from the same family, and 2) representatives different generations from the same family, having the same profession (working dynasty), etc.
Occasionalisms are individually authored formations. They are characterized by one-time use, created “on occasion”, and are inherent only in a given context. Everyone knows the occasionalisms in the works of V. Mayakovsky (hammer, sickle, chamberlain, etc.), K. Fedin (starry eyes), E. Yevtushenko (bezneronie, nesgubinka, teasing, etc.), etc.
Dictionaries of obsolete and new words
There are no special dictionaries of historicisms and archaisms yet. However, many outdated words were included in V.I.’s dictionary. Dalia. Their meanings are reflected in a large academic encyclopedia.
For a long time there were no dictionaries of neologisms. However, back in Peter’s times, the “Lexicon of New Vocabularies” was compiled, which was essentially short dictionary foreign words. Some words were included in V.I.’s dictionary. Dahlem. The Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D.N., became significant in its composition of neologisms. Ushakova. A large number of they were included in the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegova.
In 1971, a dictionary-reference book was published, prepared based on materials from the press and literature of the 60s, “New Words and Meanings,” edited by N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokina. The dictionary explains about 3,500 words that are widely used.
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE VOCABULARY FROM VIEWPOINT
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE STOCK
1. The concept of active and passive vocabulary.
2. Outdated words:
2.1. Historicisms
2.2. Archaisms and their types
Obsolete words are different in terms of origin. These are, firstly, native Russian words ( bargain"bazaar" boyar, merchant); Old Slavonicisms ( gold, hail, cheeks), foreign words (battle"battle", Victoria"victory"). Thus, the concepts of “Old Church Slavonic vocabulary” and “obsolete vocabulary” are not identical.
Obsolete words also differ in their degree of obsolescence. The first group is words with to a large extent archaizations that are incomprehensible to most native speakers. Firstly, these are words that have disappeared from the language and are not found in derivative words ( neck"neck", grid"warrior", strict"uncle"), prosinets"February", ramen"shoulders"; secondly, words that are not used independently, but are found as part of derivative words: babble"beauty" ( ridiculous), memorial"memory" ( memorial), here"fat" ( fat), prati"wash" ( laundress, laundry), publican"tax collector" ( ordeal) treacherous"blacksmith" ( deceit); thirdly, words that in modern Russian are found only in the composition phraseological units: goof"to be in predicament» ( screw up"a machine for making thick ropes"), treasured like the apple of your eye"to take care of something" ( apple of the eye"pupil"); get caught like chickens in cabbage soup"to find yourself in a difficult situation or hopeless situation» ( chickens"rooster").
The second group includes obsolete words known to speakers of modern Russian: verst, arshin, horse tram, voice, finger, NEP, fist, farm laborer, province, Komsomol, imperialism.
Some obsolete words came out of active use as common nouns, but actively function as proper names: Belitsa (squirrel"squirrel"), Volozhin (vologist"slough") Aksamitov (Aksamit"velvet").
Among the obsolete words there are also those that have disappeared from active use in the modern Russian language, but are widely used in other Slavic languages: velmi"very" (white) velma, Ukrainian velmi), stomach“life” (Bulgarian, Croatian) stomach), all"village" (bel. weight, Polish wies); enemy"enemy" (white) enemy, Ukrainian enemy).
Obsolete words differ in the text and by the reasons that led them to the category of obsolete. Words can fall out of active use and become a passive vocabulary for two reasons: 1) due to the fact that the phenomena and things called by these words pass away and become obsolete; 2) the words themselves become obsolete, being replaced by other words.
Words that name objects of a bygone way of life, old culture, phenomena associated with the economy of the past, old socio-political relations are called historicisms. For historicisms there are no and cannot be parallels in the active vocabulary.
Several stand out thematic groups historicisms:
1) historicisms related to the socio-political sphere: tsar, prince, veche, constable, petition, landowner, cadet, kulak, state councilor;
2) names of persons by occupation: mayor, student, factory owner, barge hauler; Comp. example from A.'s novel: Sophia ordered to send privet and loudmouths to call the archers, living rooms and cloth hundreds, townspeople and all good people to the Kremlin;
3) names of military ranks and types of weapons: centurion, lieutenant, cornet, captain, hussar, orderly"soldier, officer's servant" mortar, arquebus;
4) names of old measures of length, area, weight, monetary units: arshin, fathom, verst, pound, pud, hryvnia, altyn, fifty kopecks;
5) names of household items: torch, light, prosak, stupa, armyak, caftan, camisole, laundress. Comp. example from the dictionary: pranik, laundry“Roller for washing clothes on the river”; go away“wash by squeezing, beat with a roller.” I need to cross it again, I didn’t fix it enough, it smells like soap.
A special place among historicisms is occupied by words that arose in the Soviet era and have already become historicisms: food detachment, committee of the poor, educational program, NEP, NEPman, surplus appropriation system, hut-reading room, perestroika, glasnost, state acceptance. Having emerged as neologisms, these words did not last long in the active dictionary, turning into historicisms.
Archaisms(Greek Archaios“ancient”) are outdated names for modern things and phenomena. These words went into passive stock because new names for the same concepts appeared in the language. The fundamental difference between historicisms and archaisms is that archaisms have parallels in the active vocabulary: this- this, eyes- eyes, in vain- in vain, sail– sail.
Depending on whether the word as a whole or its meaning is outdated, archaisms are divided into lexical and semantic; in turn, among the lexical archaisms the following groups are distinguished:
1) proper lexical archaisms - words that are displaced from the active stock by words of a different root: Audrina- bedroom, thief- thief, robber, komon- horse, in advance- because, right hand – right hand, shuitza – left hand, finger- finger, brow- forehead, neck- neck, percy- breast, memorial- memory, Psyche- soul;
2) lexical-word-formative archaisms - words that have been replaced in active use by single-root words with other morphemes: friendship- friendship, assistance– assistance, wealth- wealth, nervous- nervous, carrier– carrier, desolation- desolation, humanity– humanity;
3) lexical-phonetic archaisms are words that in the active vocabulary are synonymous with words with a different sound appearance: peeit– poet, room- number, philosophy– philosophy, Spanish– Spanish, good- brave, hospital- hospital, klob- club. This type of archaism also includes Old Slavonicisms with incomplete combinations:cold, breg, gold, milk.
A variety of lexical-phonetic archaisms are accentological archaisms, in which only the accent is obsolete: symbol – symbol, philologist – philologist, epigraph – epigraph. Wed:
He knew quite a bit of Latin,
To understand the epigraphs(Pushkin).
4) grammatical archaisms differ from modern words with their outdated grammatical forms: hall- hall, scared– fright, manfeta– cuff, piano(f.r.) – piano(m.r.), swan(f.r.) – swan(m.r.), oars – oars, rings – rings.
Lexico-semantic archaisms are words preserved in the active vocabulary, whose meaning has become outdated: language"people", stomach"life", railway station"entertainment establishment" lie"tell", a shame"spectacle" poster"passport for peasants" idol"pagan idol" order"administrative institution" subscriber“an artist who paints buildings and ceilings.”
The functions of historicisms and archaisms in the modern Russian language are different. Historicisms have no parallels in modern language, and therefore they are addressed when it is necessary to name objects and phenomena of the past. Currently, historicisms are actively used primarily in scientific texts on history. Another area of use of historicisms is historical works of art: “Peter the Great” by A. Tolstoy, “Boris Godunov”, “Ivan the Terrible” by V. Kostylev, “I came to give you freedom”, etc. So, in the novel “Peter the Great” there are historicisms boyar, steward, altyn, gridnitsa, volost, priest, dragoon and etc.
Archaisms, being “synonyms” of modern words, differ from them by additional stylistic shades. Therefore, archaisms in texts are used as a vivid stylistic device for the following purposes:
1) to create the flavor of the era, to stylize ancient speech: “ Vivat! Vivat to Mr. Bombardier!»; « Victoria turned out to be very nice...»; « Isn't this world better than embarrassing battles??. Comp. also fragment love letter Petra Grinev to Masha Mironova from Pushkin’s “The Captain’s Daughter”:
You, having learned my misfortunes,
Have pity on me, Masha,
In vain me in this fierce part,
And that I'm captivated by you.
2) as a means of giving speech a high, solemn sound: “ Arise, prophet, and see and listen,
be fulfilled by my will,
And, bypassing the seas and lands,
with the verb, burn the hearts of people!"(Pushkin).
A hundred years have passed, and the young city,
There is beauty and wonder in full countries,
From the darkness of the forests, from the swamps of blat
Ascended magnificently, proudly(Pushkin).
Yevtushenko: “ O Russian cities and towns!»
Block: " And the blood rushes to the cheeks…»; « How long should the mother push?»
3) outdated words are used by writers as a means of creating satire and humor:
: « A lackey's hand is visible in every line; Many in Taganrog are missing their wives and daughters"; [congratulates his brother Alexander on the birth of his daughter in a letter]: May the newborn live for many years, exceeding her physical and moral beauty, her golden voice, and may she eventually snatch a valiant husband for herself (be baptized, you fool!), having first seduced and plunged into despondency all the Taganrog high school students!
: « The director screamed, raising a skinny finger to the dim sky" Examples from the film “Ivan Vasilyevich Changes His Profession” (script based on the play) are also indicative: Is this how you submit a petition to the king? Did the housekeeper make vodka? Whose will you be? Why did you offend the noblewoman? Whose slave? Lepota! and etc.
2.4. Historical dictionaries record the vocabulary of certain historical periods the existence of a language, reflects the meaning and forms of words, as well as the changes that have occurred in these words. The most famous and significant historical dictionary is “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language”. Sreznevsky worked on this dictionary for almost 40 years, but did not have time to complete it. The dictionary was published after the author's death in 1893–1912. In 1958 it was republished in three volumes.
The dictionary contains about 120,000 words extracted from 2,700 sources from the 11th to 14th centuries. The meanings of words in Sreznevsky’s dictionary are conveyed by synonyms; many words have their Greek and Latin equivalents. Each meaning is illustrated with examples. The dictionary also has shortcomings: original Russian and Old Church Slavonic words are not distinguished, there are no grammatical and stylistic marks, it is not always accurate and full interpretation meanings of words. But despite this, the dictionary is the most full meeting vocabulary of the Old Russian language of the 11th – 15th centuries. This dictionary is indispensable when reading ancient Russian monuments and studying the Old Russian language.
Since 1975, the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th – 17th Centuries” began to be published, and the publication is currently ongoing. The dictionary will contain about 60 thousand words with the highest frequency of use. There are no grammatical or stylistic marks. The title of the dictionary expands the concept of “Russian language”. In relation to the 11th – 14th centuries, the generally accepted term is “ Old Russian language", and only since the 14th century has it been called Russian.
In addition to general historical dictionaries, there are dictionaries-reference books for individual written monuments. Thus, since the beginning of the 60s, the historical and philological “Dictionary-Reference Book “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” has been published in separate editions.
The process opposite to the obsolescence of words is the emergence of new words. The development of science, technology, culture, industry, agriculture and the development of new public relations- these are the main reasons that give rise to new words and phrases that serve as names of new objects, phenomena, concepts to satisfy new needs that arise in society. Consequently, every new formation is a social phenomenon.
Words that have appeared in a language to denote new concepts and have not yet entered the active vocabulary are called neologisms(Greek neos– new and logos– word, concept). Such words remain neologisms until they finally get used to the language and merge into active stock vocabulary, as long as they are perceived as words that have a connotation of freshness and unusualness. In the past, neologisms were words outlook, future, citizen, iceberg, bus, hangar.
It is characteristic that a newly appeared word usually immediately leads to the appearance of a new word created according to a certain pattern. As a result, word-formation series arise: airfield – cosmodrome – lunodrome, waterdrome, rocket launcher, tankdrome, tractor track; all-terrain rover - lunar rover, planetary rover, mars rover, grain rover; electron – polytron, heattron, climatron, microtron.
A lot of new words and phrases arose during the Soviet era. This is explained by the fact that it is in revolutionary eras When a radical change in social relations occurs, neologisms appear to satisfy the new needs that have arisen in society.
New words are created on the basis of elements existing in the language - morphemes, i.e. from old linguistic material. Important condition for the appearance of a neologism - the presence of a model (a pattern according to which the word is created). Words are created according to productive patterns that give rise to new words. For example, according to the productive model of the formation of the word television, the words intervision, cosmovision; By analogy with electrons, the following were formed: polytron"electron beam device" climatetron“a structure for creating natural climatic conditions.”
In creating new words, the method of foundation is productive: state apparatus, acupuncture, radiotelephone, European Parliament etc. – and the method of abbreviation (creating complex abbreviated words): bum(face without specific place residence), Military industrial complex (military-industrial complex), riot police(police squad special purpose), mass media(mass media).
Not all words that appear in a language are welcome. Along with successfully formed words, sometimes clumsy, unsuccessful, and sometimes difficult to pronounce words appear. In the 20s - 30s there was an increase in the creation of complex and compound words unnecessarily. This was satirically ridiculed in the play “Bathhouse” and the poem “The Sitting Ones.” The poet cites such ironic formations as glavnachpups(chief manager for approval management), name of institution ABVGJZKom etc. Such arbitrary words should be fought.
Neologisms that arose relatively recently include the words assets, broker, voucher, dumping, distributor, realtor, marketing, manager, digest, thriller, casting, ikebana, bodybuilding, hamburger, pizza, alternative, rating, impeachment, inauguration, summit, sponsor, scanner, monitor, printer, website, file etc. If the words are successfully formed, and the phenomena they denote are firmly established in life, then the name quickly outgrows being a neologism, becoming a word of active vocabulary.
Dictionaries, unable to keep up with life, cannot record a new word in time. The first registrar of all new developments in the language is the periodical press - newspapers and magazines. Periodicals respond with amazing speed to all the discoveries of science and technology, to all events in the social life of the country, production, and international life.
Each era has its own neologisms, which in subsequent eras are perceived as familiar or even outdated.
3.1. There are differences between linguistic and individual author's neologisms. Common linguistic neologisms are lexical new formations that have arisen in the common language and are known to all native speakers: sponsor, toaster, consensus, inflation, electorate etc. General linguistic neologisms are divided into two types - lexical and semantic. Lexical neologisms– these are new names of new or previously existing concepts: designer, rally, acceleration. Semantic neologisms– words with new meanings. These values are the result figurative use words that lead to further development polysemy and expansion of the scope of use of the word. For example: geography“distribution, placement of something in any locality, area”; palette"diversity, varied manifestation of something" steep“making a strong impression; extraordinary"; “showing particular cruelty in his actions and behavior; showing off his physical strength or great influence" roof"cover; that which protects, protects from danger.”
Individual author's neologisms (occasionalisms ) are words that are formed by word artists, publicists, etc. in order to enhance the expressiveness of the statement. Unlike linguistic neologisms, individual authorial neologisms perform not nominative, but expressive function, rarely pass into the literary language and usually do not receive nationwide use (the exception is isolated examples of the type of word pro-meeting). Like general linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms are formed according to the laws of language, according to models from morphemes present in the language, therefore, even taken out of context, they are understandable: potted, Küchelbeckerism(Pushkin), children, window to breathe(Chekhov); multi-storey, disperse, chamberlain(Mayakovsky), knobby, foamy, ringing(Yesenin), leaderism, friendlessness, lovelessness, lumpiness(Yevtushenko).
Among individual author's formations there may also be semantic neologisms: poplar"a pedestrian", troubles"applause", nozzle"imagined" pheasant"electrician", land“sycophancy”, etc.
Neologisms perform mainly a nominative function. General linguistic neologisms are found in scientific, journalistic and conversational styles: American scientists proposed calling element No. 000 “mendelevium” in honor of the great Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. The main task of the flight is docking with the spacecraft. Individual copyrights are used primarily in fiction and journalism:
Let the cheek remember carefully,
How I consoled you after a fight
Roughness of the tongue
All-understanding dog(Eut.).
But usually individual author’s neologisms are used for stylistic purposes, primarily to create humor, satire, sarcasm: Wed. at Mayakovsky's : Husband teases wife; But London is chamberlain and is not too lazy to raise its fist.
There were no dictionaries of new words for a long time, although interest in neologisms appeared a long time ago. Back in the times of Peter the Great, the “Lexicon of New Vocabularies” was compiled, which was essentially a short dictionary of foreign words. I included a few of the new words in my dictionary. The “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, edited, became significant in the composition of neologisms. An even larger number of them were included in Ozhegov’s dictionary, and then in BAS and MAS.
In 1971, a dictionary-reference book was published, prepared based on materials from the press and literature of the 60s: “New words and meanings”, ed. And. The dictionary explains about 3,500 of the most common words. The dictionary is not normative, but many words in it are provided with stylistic markings. Individual author's new formations and occasional words in dictionaries.
Since 1978, the yearbooks “New in Russian Lexicon” have been published in separate editions: Dictionary Materials-77, SM-78, SM-79, SM-80, edited. These releases are experimental editions that contain lexicographic description words not recorded in dictionaries, new meanings of words, phrases from periodicals of a particular year. Historical and word-formation information is provided for new words.
In 2000 at the Institute linguistic research RAS published the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language of the End of the 20th Century: Language changes" This dictionary presents the vocabulary of one of the complex and controversial periods history of the Russian language (1995 – 1997). From the card index created by the authors of the dictionary, numbering about 2 million word usages, the dictionary includes about 5.5 thousand words and expressions that reflect all spheres of modern life. The dictionary provides extensive and varied information about the word: interpretation, examples in the form of quotations, encyclopedic data, stylistic characteristics, features of word usage, and, if necessary, etymology; The dictionary entry contains synonyms, antonyms, stable phrases and phraseological units. The dictionary contains information about the functioning of words in the past and their semantic changes. The dictionary describes dynamic processes that usually remain outside the scope of well-known academic dictionaries.
Active vocabulary
vocabulary that can be used reproductively, in contrast to passive vocabulary, which the communicator understands when reading and listening, but does not use in speech.
Explanatory translation dictionary. - 3rd edition, revised. - M.: Flinta: Science. L.L. Nelyubin. 2003.
See what “active vocabulary” is in other dictionaries:
ACTIVE VOCABULARY- ACTIVE VOCABULARY. Vocabulary that is used productively by students to express thoughts in oral speech and in writing, in contrast to passive vocabulary, which the student understands when reading and listening, but does not use in speech. A. l. called... ...
vocabulary- (from the Greek lexikos verbal, dictionary). 1) The vocabulary of the language. 2) A set of words related to the scope of their use. Vocabulary of oral speech. Colloquial everyday vocabulary. Vocabulary of bookish written speech. Social journalistic vocabulary... Dictionary linguistic terms
Vocabulary- (from the Greek λεξικός relating to the word) a set of words of a language, its vocabulary. This term is used both in relation to individual layers of vocabulary (everyday vocabulary, business, poetic, etc.), and to designate all words... ... Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary
In Russian: 1) by frequency of use (active and passive vocabulary); 2) by period of use (outdated and new vocabulary); 3) by the nature of the reflection of activity (terminological and professional vocabulary); 4) by… …
vocabulary according to the parameter of sociolinguistic use- in Russian: 1) by frequency of use (active and passive vocabulary); 2) by period of use (outdated and new vocabulary); 3) by the nature of the reflection of the activity (terminological and professional vocabulary); 4) on social... ...
Frequency words of the language vocabulary used in everyday communication. The core of active vocabulary consists of neutral (commonly used) vocabulary, which has: 1) epidigmatics – developed system values; 2) syntagmatics –… … Terms and concepts of linguistics: Vocabulary. Lexicology. Phraseology. Lexicography
active vocabulary in Russian- Frequency words of the language vocabulary used in everyday communication. The core of active vocabulary consists of neutral (commonly used) vocabulary, which has: 1) epidigmatics - a developed system of meanings; 2) syntagmatics – broad... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
Training content- active grammar, active vocabulary, active grammatical minimum, active vocabulary, active vocabulary, articulation, aspect of learning, aspects of language, listening, authentic material, database, types speech activity… … New dictionary methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)
Vocabulary training- active vocabulary, active vocabulary, active vocabulary, non-equivalent vocabulary, untranslated semantization, vocabulary, non-equivalent vocabulary, neutral vocabulary, colloquial vocabulary, exotic vocabulary, lexical units,... ... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)
LINGUISTIC FUNDAMENTALS OF THE METHODOLOGY- abbreviation, paragraph, automatic text processing, automatic translation, autonomous speech, speech adaptation, text adaptation, addresser, addressee, alphabet, speech act, active grammar, active vocabulary, active speech, active possession... ... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)
Books
- School explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Active vocabulary of literary language. Interpretation. Pronunciation. Examples of use. Synonyms. Antonyms. Grammatical and stylistic characteristics, E. Skorlupovskaya. The dictionary contains more than 8,000 words and phrases that represent active vocabulary modern Russian language. . Each dictionary entry contains grammatical and stylistic...
Active and passive vocabulary are distinguished due to the different usage of words.
Active vocabulary (active vocabulary) consists of words that the speaker given language not only understands, but also uses, actively uses. Depending on the level language development For speakers, their active vocabulary averages from 300-400 words to 1500-2000 words. The active composition of the vocabulary includes the most frequent words that are used every day in communication, the meanings of which are known to all speakers: earth, white, go, many, five, on.
The active word-ryu also includes socio-political vocabulary (social, progress, competition, economics, etc.), as well as words belonging to special vocabulary, terminology, but denoting current concepts and therefore known to many non-specialists: atom, gene, genocide, prevention, cost-effective, virtual, atom, anesthesia, verb, ecology.
The passive vocabulary (passive vocabulary) includes words that are rarely used by the speaker in ordinary verbal communication. The meanings are not always clear to speakers.
Passive words form three groups:
1) archaisms;
2) historicisms;
3) neologisms.
1 Archaisms (from Greek archaios ‘ancient’) - outdated words or expressions displaced from active use by synonymous units: neck - neck , right hand - right hand, in vain- in vain, in vain, since ancient times- from time immemorial, actor- actor, this- this, that is to say- that is .
The following types of archaisms are distinguished:
1) actually lexical - these are words that are completely outdated, as an integral sound complex: lichba ‘account’, otrokovitsa ‘teenage girl’, influenza ‘flu’;
2) semantic - these are words with obsolete meaning: belly (meaning ‘life’), shame (meaning ‘spectacle’), existing (meaning ‘existing’), outrageous (meaning ‘calling for indignation, for rebellion’);
3) phonetic - a word that retained the same meaning, but had a different sound design in the past: historia (history), glad (hunger), vrata (gate), mirror (mirror), piit (poet), osmoy (eighth), fire ' fire';
4) accented - words that in the past had an emphasis different from the modern one: symbol, music, ghost, shudder, against;
5) morphological - words with an outdated morphemic structure: ferocity - ferocity, nervous - nervous, collapse - collapse, disaster - disaster, answer - answer.
Archaisms are used in speech:
a) to recreate the historical flavor of the era (usually in historical novels, stories);
b) to give speech a touch of solemnity, pathetic emotion (in poetry, in oratorical speech, in journalistic speech);
c) to create a comic effect, irony, satire, parody (usually in feuilletons, pamphlets);
d) for speech characteristics character (for example, a person of clergy).
Historicisms are obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the realities that they denoted: boyar, clerk, guardsman, baskak, constable, crossbow, shishak, caftan, okolotochny, solicitor. Words denoting the realities of the Soviet era also became historicisms: kombe-dy, nepman, revkom, socialist competition, Komsomol, five-year plan, district committee.
U polysemantic words Historicism can become one of the meanings. For example, the commonly used word people has an outdated meaning of ‘servants, workers in a manor house’. The word PIONEER, meaning ‘member of a children’s organization in the USSR’, can also be considered obsolete.
Historicisms are used as a nominative means in scientific-historical literature, where they serve as names of the realities of past eras, and as visual medium in works fiction, where they contribute to the reconstruction of a particular historical era.
Sometimes words that have become historicisms return to active use. This happens due to the return (reactualization) of the phenomenon itself denoted by this word. Such, for example, are the words gymnasium, lyceum, governor, Duma, etc.
3 Neologisms (from Greek neos 'new' + logos 'word') name words that have recently appeared in the language and are still unknown to a wide range of native speakers: mortgage, mundial, glamor, inauguration, creative, extreme, etc. After a word comes into widespread use, it ceases be a neologism. The emergence of new words is a natural process reflecting the development of science, technology, culture, and social relations.
There are lexical and semantic neologisms. Lexical neologisms are new words, the appearance of which is associated with the formation of new concepts in the life of society. These include words such as autobahn 'type of highway', jacuzzi 'large heated bathtub with hydromassage', label 'product label', remake 'remake of a previously filmed film', bluetooth 'a type of wireless communications for data transmission', as well as sponsor, hit, show, etc.
Semantic neo-logisms are words that belong to the active dictionary, but have acquired new ones, previously unknown values. For example, the word anchor in the 70s. received a new meaning ‘a special platform for fixing an astronaut, located on the orbital station next to the hatch’; the word CHELNOK in the 80s. acquired the meaning of “a small merchant who imports goods from abroad (or exports them abroad) with their subsequent sale in local markets.”
A special type of words of this kind are individually authored neologisms, which are created by poets, writers, and publicists with special stylistic purposes.
Their distinctive feature is that they, as a rule, do not become active vocabulary, remaining occasionalisms - single or rarely used new formations: Küchelbecker (A. Pushkin), green-haired (N. Gogol), Moscow soul (V. Belinsky) , passenger , become masculine (A. Chekhov), machinery (V. Yakhontov), frown (E. Isaev), six-story building (N. Tikhonov), vermutorno (V. Vysotsky). overblown (A. Blok), multi-powder, mandolin, hammer-handed (V. Mayakovsky).
Only individual author's formations over time become words in the active dictionary: industry (N. Karamzin), bungler (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), pro-sate (V. Mayakovsky), mediocrity (I. Severyanin), etc.
Creating new words is creative process, reflecting a person’s desire for novelty and completeness in the perception of reality. Native speakers create new words that reflect the nuances of existence and its assessment: for example, psychoteca, soulful, soulful dance, joyfulness, specialness, self-righteousness, etc. (from the collection of neologisms by M. Epstein).
However, the results of word searches should not always be considered successful. For example, the new formations found in the following statements are unlikely to enrich the national lexicon.
The question has been formed and guaranteed.
The store urgently needs a vegetable shop to sell vegetables.
There are also real masterpieces of toy making.
Material assets were stolen, although the warehouse was special.