Telnova Polina
This work gives an idea of the words that came into the Russian language from the French language.
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DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE CITY OF SURGUT
MUNICIPAL BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
GYMNASIUM “SALAKHOV LABORATORY”
Educational project
on the topic of: " French loanwords In russian language "
Telnova Polina,
Slide captions:
French borrowings in the Russian language Completed by: Telnova Polina Teacher: Ivanova Venera Mikhailovna Surgut, MBOU gymnasium Salakhov Laboratory 2015
Introduction Every language has foreign words. This is due to the fact that in different periods history during international contacts people exchanged information, achievements, objects (new tools, dishes, products, etc.) with each other. They all came from different countries, along with the “names” they received in their native country. Peoples all over the world “borrow” words from each other. We “borrowed” from the French the words “accessory”, “poster”, “garnish” and others. The French “borrowed” from us the word “satellite” after our scientists launched the first artificial satellite and his call signs were heard over planet Earth.
Goal and objectives Goal: Determine the characteristics of borrowings from French in the Russian language. Objectives: Study literary sources on this topic. Determine the areas of use of borrowed French words. Present the results of the survey and linguistic experiment.
Reasons for borrowing words What makes one people borrow words from another? main reason– borrowed things, objects: the name often goes along with the object. Another reason is the need to designate some special type of objects or concepts. Most often, the need to name objects and concepts arises in various industries science and technology. That is why there are so many foreign scientific and technical terms. A foreign word is easier to learn if it replaces a descriptive phrase.
Borrowings in our time Having analyzed the words of French origin in the Russian language, we grouped French borrowings in the Russian language into the following areas of human activity and tried to create a thematic dictionary of borrowed words from the French language.
Number of Gallicisms in spheres of people's lives and activities Gallicisms penetrate into all spheres of people's lives and activities. Vocabulary related to clothing, art and food was especially enriched with French borrowings.
Questioning The questionnaire asked for 15 words: Ball, volleyball, vinaigrette, blouse, alphabet, gourmet, butterfly, basket, spring, curlers, duck, baguette, bagel, pot, frill. Word 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Percentage of recognition 41% 88% 60% 51% 65% 47% 29% 41% 59% 77% 53% 82% 71% 53% 94% Fig. Recognition of words borrowed from French among words in Russian.
Linguistic experiment Text with borrowings Modified text We walked along the highway and went into a cafe, where we ate broth, croissant, jelly. Next we went to the theater to see the ballet Romeo and Juliet. During intermission we went to the buffet and bought dessert with lemonade. We walked along the roadway and went to a place where they drink coffee, where we ate water boiled with meat, half moon, frozen. Next we went to the building for stage performances to combine dances with the pantomime Romeo and Juliet. During the break between activities, we went to the snack place and bought sweets, served at the end of lunch with a cold drink of water, sugar and lemon juice.
Conclusion Our modern life is filled with foreign words. Foreign words have entered our everyday life so deeply that sometimes, when talking among ourselves, we do not notice their use. Indeed, the role of borrowed French words in the Russian language is very large. They have become part of our Russian language, they are understandable to us, do not cause difficulties in pronunciation, and are used in different styles and do not make communication difficult. Our hypothesis was confirmed. It is impossible to imagine the speech of a modern Russian person without borrowed French words. However, borrowed words are needed only if they better express the main meaning this concept or if they cannot be replaced by a Russian concept. But if there is already a synonymous word in the Russian language, then it is not necessary to replace it with a foreign one. We, as native Russian speakers, should pay more attention to our Russian words and use that lexicon, which our Russian language is rich in.
Word Ball vinaigrette blouse ABC gourmet butterfly basket curlers duck baguette bagel pot frill Percentage of recognition 33% 50% 45% 78% 35% 32% 70% 65% 63% 82% 94% 75% 94%
MOSCOW DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
NORTH DISTRICT EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
EDUCATION CENTER No. 1409
Design and research work
“The influence of the French language on Russian
through borrowing"
“L'influence de la lanque française sur la lanque russe. "Les emprunts"
Performed:
student of class 7 "B" GOU Central Educational Institution No. 1409
Panchenko Yulia
Supervisor:
French teacher
GOU TsO No. 1409
Melnik Olga Evgenievna
2011
Relevance of the problem. Justification for choice 3
Purpose and objectives of the study ________________________________________________4
Object of analysis. Research methods_______________________________________________4
Literature review on the topic_______________________________________________4
Practical significance of the work_______________________________________________5
Main hypothesis______________________________________________________________ 5
II. Main (theoretical) part
Etymology – scientific and folk, historical and phonetic 5
Reasons for borrowing French words and types of assimilation 7
III. Practical part
Research in phonetic etymology 9
Classification of borrowings from French 11
Assimilation of borrowings from French 15
"Dark" words 16
IV. conclusions 17
V. Conclusion 1 8
VI. Application 20
VII. List of used literature 36
Language is a city, for the construction of which everyone who lived on Earth brought his own stone.
R. Emerson
I. Introduction
1. Relevance of the problem. Justification for choice
Russian borrowed a large number of words from French. This process was observed most actively in the 18th-19th centuries, when the French language was perceived by many (for example, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin) not as the language of France, but, above all, as the language of European educated society. It was vocabulary that represented the layer of language most closely connected with the social life of society, sensitively responding to all changes occurring in it.
While studying French and working with vocabulary, I more than once asked myself the question: “Why is this subject called this way and not another?”, “Where did this or that name come from?”, “How to correctly translate the word?” To get answers to all these questions, you need to follow the influence of the French language on Russian, conduct a series of studies in the field of etymology, linguistics and lexicology, penetrate the secrets of the history of the language. The answers I receive will not only help me better understand and learn the language, but will also remove a number of difficulties in the field of translation.
Stages:
Stage I: Preparatory.
Stage II: Planning.
Stage III: Project implementation.
Stage IV: Project design.
Stage V: Project protection.
Purpose and objectives of the study
Tasks:
1. Explore scientific works linguistic scientists.
2. Study borrowings from French into Russian.
3. Trace their etymology.
4. Classify borrowed words into groups.
5. Analyze the results obtained and draw conclusions.
3. Object of analysis. Research methods
Object of analysis: the most common French vocabulary borrowed from the Russian language.
Research material: the work was carried out on the basis of material from etymological dictionaries, dictionaries foreign languages, scientific articles.
Basic methods: research ( organization of activities in which the student
is in the position of a researcher: he independently poses a problem, finds ways to solve it, draws conclusions and generalizations, and does not receive them in ready-made form),
classification method (allows for dividing the objects being studied (i.e. vocabulary) into separate groups.
4. Literature review on the topic
The study of borrowings from the French language was carried out by linguists L. G. Vedenina, V. G. Gak, R. A. Budagov, Marcello-Nizia, J. Picoche and others (they conducted research in the field of the history of languages and culture of peoples, primarily Romanesque, in the area grammatical structure, vocabulary and semantics of languages, in the field of linguoculturology, their works are devoted to the problems of the science of language).
Practical significance of the work
The work will be presented at an open scientific-practical conference"Countries of the world. Story. Culture. Traditions”, at the city project competition “Breakthrough” on the basis of Moscow State Pedagogical Institute and others.
Received product: mini-dictionary of borrowings from the French language.
Project language: Russian, French.
Main hypothesis
II Main (theoretical) part
1. Etymology – scientific and folk, historical and phonetic.
What is etymology? Etymology is the science of the origin of words (from Greek etymo– “true meaning” and logos- “teaching”). The task of an etymologist is to determine when and where a word appeared in a language, what it originally meant, and what other words of the language it is related to. Each story of the origin of a word is a small piece of the big history of the life of a people, the development of its culture, the peculiarities of perception surrounding nature, a story about his beliefs, feelings, fears, hopes.
Having become acquainted with etymology, we can take a different look at the words we use in Everyday life, discover their new semantic shades. For example: what is mountaineering? This is a sport - climbing hard-to-reach mountain peaks. Why is this sport called that way? Etymology will give us the answer to this question. Word mountaineering originated in 19th century French, derived from Alpes“Alps” (it was in the Alps that they began to seriously engage in this beautiful and dangerous sport). By the way, the very name of the Alps is of Celtic origin, and translated simply means “high mountains.”
Why are we talking wardrobe? Because this word was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where garde- robe formed by adding two words: garde– “storage” and robe – "dress". Original meaning“closet where dresses are stored”, later new meanings “clothes”, “dressing room” appeared. Interesting words you can find many and each of them has its own unusual story.
There are 4 types of etymology:
scientific;
folk;
historical;
phonetic.
As for historical etymology, it studies when and where the word came from, its semantic nuances, while phonetic etymology deals with the phonetic changes that the word has undergone during its development.
The method of forming new words by analogy with a word that already exists in another language is called tracing paper. For example, the word influence. If we translate this word in parts - the prefix in-
as our prefix “v-”, root flu-
(verb fluer) as Russian “li-” (verb “to pour”), suffix - ence like the Russian “-yani-” and add to this Russian ending, which French does not have unbending word, then you get the word “influence”. It would seem to be completely Russian, but in fact it is a copy of the French. Words: introduction– introduction, Cendrillon
(diminutive form of cendre– “ash”) – Cinderella – are also examples of tracing paper.
Thus, having become acquainted with various types of etymology, we can take a fresh look at the words that we use in everyday life, at their semantic shades, find out when and where they came from, and what phonetic changes they have undergone.
2. Reasons for borrowing French words and types of assimilation
French comes from Latin and is part of the Romance languages group. Working with sources, I learned that it ranks first in the number of words borrowed from it into the largest European languages: English, German, Italian, Russian, etc. This is explained historical role the French language, which for centuries performed the function of international communication, especially since until the beginning of the 19th century France was the most populated country in Western Europe, and in the Middle Ages every third Western European lived in France.
Why does a language borrow foreign words?
Firstly, due to the need to name objects or new concepts of foreign origin.
Secondly, following fashion, which forces us to borrow words from the country that has priority in one area or another.
What can you borrow? First of all, words and expressions. For example: tour ( tourné e), buffet ( fourchette), foodie ( gourmand), wardrobe ( garde- robe), one-on-one (tê te à tê te) ... You can borrow the internal form of words or expressions. For example:
Français Russe
Tuer le temps kill time
prendre la decision make a decision
lune de miel honeymoon
avoir lieu to take place
romper la glace break the ice
What is borrowing? Borrowing is the transfer of a foreign word phonetically of your language. A borrowed word must satisfy the norms of the borrowing language, so it must assimilate. Assimilation can be:
phonetic(this is a change in stress, a change in the pronunciation of foreign sounds). For example, in French the stress always falls on the last syllable, but in Russian it is movable: autograph – autograph (the emphasis will move from the last syllable to the second).
grammatical(this is a change in gender, the disappearance of the article). For example: une chase longue– chaise longue (in French this is a feminine word, and in Russian it is masculine; in French, gender and number are indicated by the article, and in Russian – by the ending).
semantic(change in the meaning of a borrowed word). For example: in the 19th century, the Russian language borrowed the word from French cô telette(cutlet), where initially it meant “fried meat chop on the bone,” later this word changed its meaning and began to mean “fried minced meat,” which means that the word was assimilated.
Let's look at some correspondences between French words and Russian words of French origin. For example, the final - e in feminine words corresponds to Russian - A or - I: norm, date, accident – norm, date, accident; French h may correspond to Russian G: hymne, hô pital- anthem, hospital. There are also discrepancies, for example, when a borrowed French word changes its gender in Russian (advance, march), as mentioned above, or retains an unpronounceable consonant in its sound ( format – format, granit– granite), etc.
Thus, due to the fact that the French language, for a long time (XVIII - XIX centuries..) performed the function of international communication, and during this period was the language of the Russian aristocracy, it gave our language, as well as some others, many words , to which we are so accustomed that we do not even notice their foreignness. These words were assimilated grammatically, phonetically and even semantically.
III. Practical part
1. Research in the field of phonetic etymology.
Working with sources and conducting research in the field of etymology, I came to the conclusion that some types of etymology can, in turn, be divided into subgroups (see appendix, diagram No. 1). For example, phonetic etymology can have the following modes of formation:
prefixal;
suffixal;
from the base;
by merging 2 words.
Add-on method: the word "absurd" came from French to Russian in the 19th century, where absurde comes from Latin absurdum"ridiculous, stupid" where ab– is a prefix + surdum – “vague, stupid”, so “absurd” is something that does not make sense.
The word "disabled" was borrowed in the 18th century from French, where invalide comes from Latin invalidus“powerless”, it is formed by a prefix from the word validus "strong".
Suffix method: the word "artist" was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where artiste formed using a suffix from the word art "skill, art", from Latin ars, artis- art.
The word "cutlet" was borrowed in the 18th century from French, where cô telette formed in a suffixal way from the word cô té “rib” meant “chop on the bone.”
The word "linguist" is borrowed from French, where linguiste formed in a suffixal manner from Latin lingua- "language".
The word "aviation" was borrowed from French in the 20th century, where aviation derived in a suffixal way from Latin avis"bird".
The word "broth" was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where it was formed by a suffix from bouillir "boil".
From the basics: the word "advance" was borrowed from French in the 19th century, where advance formed from the stem of the verb advancer “to lend,” so an “advance” is a portion of the money in advance.
The word “attaché” (embassy employee - specialist consultant in any field) is borrowed from French, where attaché comes from the verb attacher– attach, i.e. attaché – means attached).
By merging 2 words: The word “lampshade” came from French into Russian at the beginning of the 19th century and was formed by merging two words, where “ abat- jour» formed using a verb abat“weaken” (abattre – weaken) and words jour"daylight". Thus, the word "lampshade" means an object that dims the light.
The word "avant-garde" is formed similarly to the word "lampshade". It was borrowed in the era of Peter I, where avant- garde merger of 2 words avant"ahead" + garde"guard, detachment." Therefore, the word “avant-garde” means people who go ahead.
The word "masterpiece" was borrowed in the 18th century from French, where chef- d’œ vre means “the main work”, formed by merging 2 words: chef + œ vre from Latin opera"work, work."
The word "antonym" came from French in the 20th century, where antonym comes from Greek anti"against" + onyma"Name".
The word "biscuit" was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where biscuit comes from Latin biscoctus: bis"twice" + coctus"baked".
The word "muffler" was borrowed from French in the 19th century, where cache- nez formed from the verb cacher "hide" and words nez“nose”, literally this is where you can “hide your nose”.
The word "centimeter" was borrowed from French in the 19th century, where centimè tre comes from Latin centim"one hundred" + French mè tre"meter".
The word "control" was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where contrô le formed using 2 words: contre"against" + rô le"list".
The word "parachute" was borrowed from French in the 19th century, where parachute comes from Greek para“against” + French chute “fall”, literally that which serves “against the fall.”
In the course of research, I came to the conclusion that the most common methods of phonetic etymology are: suffixal and by merging two words, while the prefix method and the method of formation from a stem (or from a verb) are much less common.
2. Classification of borrowings from the French language.
Working with various etymological dictionaries and carefully studying the most common vocabulary borrowed from French by Russian, I decided to classify it into categories in order to find out from which areas of words more were borrowed and from which fewer. I presented the results of my work in the form of the following table (242 words).
The most common borrowed vocabulary
Russian from French
Nutrition | Clothing/Fashion | Transport/Travel |
|
appetite |
batiste |
Avenue |
|
assorted |
beret |
bus |
|
range |
bijouterie |
automobile |
|
banana |
blouse |
mountaineering |
|
meringue |
shoe |
ticket |
|
biscuit |
bracelet |
the Bureau |
|
wineglass |
brooch |
railway carriage |
|
bouillon |
brunette |
bike |
|
vanilla |
vignette |
turn |
|
the vinaigrette |
veil |
voyage |
|
grilled meat |
gallant |
hydroplane |
|
gourmet |
haberdashery |
depot |
|
delicacy |
riding breeches |
detail |
|
cognac |
wardrobe |
token |
|
cutlet |
makeup |
catastrophe |
|
liquor |
lady |
coupe |
|
lemonade |
neckline |
ditch |
|
marinade |
fashion show |
limousine |
|
marmalade |
perfume |
omnibus |
|
menu |
frill |
platform |
|
Monpensier |
jacket |
platform |
|
nougat |
vest |
travel bag |
|
olive |
hood |
ticket |
|
omelette |
cashmere |
tour |
|
puree |
muffler |
funicular |
|
radish |
cap |
highway |
|
roll |
necklace | |
|
salad |
crepe de chine | |
|
citro |
couturier | |
|
sausages |
T-shirt | |
|
sauce |
cuff | |
|
soup |
manicure | |
|
tartine |
coat | |
|
wine glass |
perfumery | |
|
buffet |
coat | |
|
purse | ||
|
prestige | ||
|
powder | ||
|
jacket | ||
|
brown-haired | ||
|
hair | ||
|
chignon |
Art |
Furniture/Architecture/Interior | The science |
Military theme |
|
album |
shade |
nitrogen |
boarding |
|
role |
balcony |
agronomist |
avant-garde |
|
ensemble |
barracks |
aluminum |
aviation |
|
artist |
lobby |
article |
machine |
|
attraction |
showcase |
atmosphere |
alliance |
|
aphorism |
garage |
biology |
attache |
|
ball |
sofa |
bisector |
bastion |
|
ballet |
shower |
bud |
battalion |
|
bas-relief |
blinds |
vector |
battery |
|
baritone |
interior |
decimeter |
binoculars |
|
benefit |
cabin |
diploma |
bomb |
|
bis |
flowerpot |
discussion |
veteran |
|
Bohemia |
kiosk |
diary |
volunteer |
|
second-hand bookseller |
clinic |
iodine |
hero |
|
variety show |
plant |
critic |
deserter |
|
vernissage |
corridor |
linguist |
landing |
|
vaudeville |
attic |
magnifying glass |
diplomat |
|
guide |
furniture |
oval |
dossier |
|
engraving |
niche |
greenhouse |
dragoon |
|
graphomaniac |
pavilion |
teacher |
understudy |
|
debut |
stalls |
pioneer |
gendarme |
|
motto |
clinic |
prism |
cadet |
|
decadent |
curtain |
centimeter |
camouflage |
|
recitation |
repair |
session |
helmet |
|
decoration |
sanatorium |
semester |
cornet |
|
juggler |
scoreboard |
seminar |
medal |
|
impressionism |
terrace |
spacesuit |
obelisk |
|
stuntman |
floor lamp |
glory |
page |
|
collection |
chaise lounge |
parachute |
|
|
music lover |
partisans |
||
|
still life |
patriot |
||
|
nocturne |
resident |
||
|
note |
sabotage |
||
|
orchestra |
sapper |
||
|
palette |
sergeant |
||
|
papier mache |
blackmail |
||
|
play |
chauvinism |
||
|
premiere | |||
|
piano | |||
|
serenade | |||
|
text | |||
|
trilogy | |||
|
celebration | |||
|
chansonnier | |||
|
masterpiece |
IN separate group we can distinguish borrowed words that come from proper names, names of cities, etc. For example: cognac (cognac), wine glass (fougère), vest (gilet), attic (mansarde), nicotine (nicotine), etc. But these words are not so numerous. However, they are quite interesting, so let’s take a closer look at them.
Cognac is a city in the south of France where cognac grapes were grown, from which a new alcoholic drink was made by aging the grape wine in oak barrels. Winemakers named the new drink after the city.
Fougère is the city where the special glass used to make wine glasses is made.
Gilet (vest) comes from the name of the jester Gill, who began to wear this clothing.
Mansarde (attic) - an attic-type living space under the roof itself, with a slanted ceiling, named after the architect Mansard, who came up with a specially shaped roof.
Nicotine (nicotine) - on behalf of the French envoy to Portugal Nicot, thanks to whom they began to grow tobacco in France.
And, of course, one cannot fail to mention words that have quite a general meaning, but which we use quite often in our lives, they can be attributed, for example, to business vocabulary: tête-à-tête (face to face), vis-à-vis (face to face), beau monde (high society), mauvais ton (bad taste, bad manners), rendez-vous (date)…
The table shows not only from which areas the borrowings were made, but also in what relation they are to each other. To summarize more accurately, let’s present these data in the form of a diagram (see Appendix, diagram No. 1).
So, we see that most words are borrowed from the field of art, clothing and fashion, and military topics. A little less from the field of food, furniture, architecture and interior design, science and transport. Not numerous are the groups of borrowed words that come from proper names, names of cities, as well as business vocabulary.
3. Assimilation of borrowings from the French language.
Consider the word "vinaigrette" it came from the French language in the 18th century, where vinaigrette derived from the word vinaigre vinegar ( vin- wine, and aigre– sour, literal translation – “sour wine”). The French call it a sauce made from vinegar and vegetable oil, which is poured over the salad. But in Russia the word did not take root with this meaning, and in the second half of the 19th century it was semantically assimilated and began to mean a salad of boiled vegetables. At the same time, a figurative meaning appeared - “mash, confusion” (for example: “I have a vinaigrette in my head after the sixth lesson”).
The word "hood" was borrowed from French in the 18th century and also changed its meaning over time. The French language borrowed it from Italian, where the word capuccio comes from Latin caputium"monk's hat" where cappa"headdress". Thus, earlier “hood” was an attribute of monastic clothing, its headdress; later the word was semantically assimilated and “hood” began to be called a headdress in the form of a cap, characteristic of any type of clothing.
Similar examples are the words: Olivier, Vernissage, Grillage, Dominoes, etc.
Studying the assimilation of borrowed words from the French language, I came to the conclusion that words were subject to phonetic or grammatical assimilation more often than semantic ones. This can be explained by the fact that in the Russian language there are no nasal sounds and a gravessed “r”, there is no article and the gender does not always coincide with the French language, and therefore the words had to be assimilated phonetically and grammatically. The meaning of words did not change so often. In this regard, semantic assimilation is more interesting for us.
4. “Dark” words.
While studying the etymology of words, I discovered so-called “dark” words, those that do not have a generally accepted etymology, for example: gymnasium, melon, club, jazz, etc. This is what one of the first Russian etymologists Max Vasmer called them.
Consider the word “gymnasium.” We can say that the origin of this word remains a mystery. Scientists suggest that at the beginning of everything there was a borrowing of the Latin language from Greek, where the Latin gymnasium meant "place for bodily exercises"(both the Greeks and Romans attached great importance physical development youth). In its turn Greek word was derived from the Greek “naked”, since at that time they engaged in physical exercise without any clothing. Meaning " educational institution“Arose much later, when mental development began to be given greater, or at least no less, importance.
The word "club" is borrowed from in English around the mid-18th century, its etymological meaning is not entirely clear. Word club In addition to the meaning of “unification of people”, it has another meaning – “heavy stick”, so the following path of development of meanings is possible: “heavy stick” - “block” - “group of people”. On the other hand, the word club there was also a meaning of “golf club.” Maybe this is where the path to a new meaning began?
I think dark words are interesting work for linguistic scientists. However, to solve this riddle, desire alone is not enough; it requires deep knowledge in the field of linguistics, etymology, knowledge of foreign languages, and much more.
IV. conclusions
So, while doing research in the field of linguistics, linguistics and etymology, I came to the following conclusions:
knowledge in the field of etymology makes it possible to take a fresh look at the words that we use in everyday life, to find out when and where they came from, and what changes have occurred with these words;
The largest number of words was borrowed by Russian from the French language in the 18th – 19th centuries, since it was during this period that the French language performed the function of international communication and was the language of the Russian aristocracy. He gave our language many words to which we are accustomed and do not realize that they came to us from another language;
Most words were borrowed by the Russian language from French from the fields of art, clothing and fashion, and military topics; a little less from the field of food, furniture, architecture and interior, science and transport. Not numerous are " dark words", as well as borrowings that came from proper names, city names, business vocabulary;
in the process of borrowing, French words were subjected to phonetic and grammatical assimilation, less often - semantic. This is explained by the fact that in the Russian language there are no nasal sounds, a gravessed “r”, articles and the gender does not always coincide with the French language, and therefore the words had to be assimilated phonetically and grammatically. The meaning of words changed much less often.
It is necessary to distinguish between borrowings and foreign words. Borrowings are adapted in Russian, pass necessary change. Adaptation to the realities of the Russian language is the main feature that distinguishes borrowings from foreign words.
Foreign words retain traces of their foreign language origin. Such traces can be phonetic, spelling, grammatical and semantic features.
V. Conclusion
So, in the course of research work in the field of linguistics, linguistics and etymology, I achieved the following results:
studied the scientific works of outstanding linguists L. G. Vedenina, V. G. Gak, R. A. Budagov and others;
traced the influence of the French language on Russian;
studied borrowings from the French language;
traced their etymology;
classified the most common borrowed words into groups, traced their relationship, presenting the results of her research in the form of tables and diagrams;
gained new knowledge in the field of etymology, lexicology, linguistics;
expanded her horizons and erudition;
gained vast experience research work, which I hope will be useful to me in the future.
It should be noted that language quickly responds to the needs of society. By the number of words taken from a particular language, one can judge its prestige in various areas. Borrowings become the result of contacts and relationships between peoples and states. The main reason for borrowing foreign language vocabulary is the absence of a corresponding concept in the base of the receptor language.
The process of borrowing words in one language from another involuntarily brings them closer together.
Of course, this gives both a positive result (enrichment of the vocabulary by denoting new concepts and objects) and a negative result - the destruction of the national language.
On the one hand, as it might seem, language must preserve its essence. But on the other hand, attempts to isolate a language may not achieve the expected results. This can stunt the development of the language and make it less vibrant.
The French language had a huge influence on Russian through borrowing, which was reflected in almost all areas of life, since vocabulary was the layer of language most closely connected with the social life of society, sensitively responding to all changes occurring in it. This process was observed most actively in the 18th-19th centuries, when French was the language of European educated society. Availability in Russian large number words of French origin certainly makes learning French easier.
The rhythm of modern life and the development of international relations today create all the conditions for borrowing words in one language from another. Thus, the process of borrowing continues and remains one of the ways of developing a modern language.
This work helped me remove a number of difficulties in the field of translating borrowed words and learning the French language in general. I believe that I managed to achieve all my goals and objectives.
For myself, I have outlined further prospects for research: I would like to return to the problem associated with the so-called “dark words” and try to answer questions that still do not have a clear answer today.
“Any living language is generated by reality and serves it. The problems of language will open up new facets to us, since both society and people are in constant movement and development. Together with them, the languages of the peoples of the world move and develop with their old and ever-new problems. This means that the problem of the relationship between language and man remains one of the central problems of the scientific world."
(translation of the work into French, see appendix, page 22)
VI. Application
Scheme No. 1
|
from the base |
Diagram No. 1
La lanque est une ville pour la construction de laquelle chaque habitant de la Terre apporté sa pierre.
Have you just started learning French? I assure you that you know many more words than you have already learned in a couple of lessons from the textbook. How so? Why?
Because in the Russian language there are often French words.
When I collected this list, I was not interested in words naming French realities, such as “baguette”, “champagne”, “petanque”, “pastis” and so on. I was interested in those words that have become so firmly established in our language that they no longer even seem like borrowings. For example, makeup, cream, mode. But there are other words in this list that clearly look foreign. At some point, I suddenly clearly saw French roots in them, and this surprised me so much that I thought maybe others would be interested too. This is, for example, entrecote, couturier, vernissage.
Where the meaning of a French word coincides with Russian, I will not write a translation. IN otherwise I will indicate in brackets what this word means in French.
Et voilà, 100 French words in Russian in the order in which they came to my mind:
- Crew– fr. équipage – ship's crew. There is also a verb équiper - to provide what is necessary. Hence - equip, equipment.
- Shocking– in French there is no word épatage, but there is a verb épater - to surprise, amaze.
- Makeup– comes from the verb maquiller – to apply makeup; change someone's appearance; also fake numbers
- Cream– une crème (first meaning – “cream”)
- Pomade– une pommade (Interestingly, “lipstick” in French is called le rouge à levres (literally red for the lips), and une pommade is an ointment.
- Papillot– une papillote
- Kare– le carré (from the adjective carré – square)
- Shower– une douche
- Dressing table– le trumeau – wall
- Sideboard– une servante – servant
- Flowerpots– le cache-pot – lit. hide-pot
- Shade– un abat-jour – lit. dims the light
- Chaise lounge– une chaise longue – long chair
- Stool– un tabouret
- Chaise- une causette - chatter
- Pince-nez– le pince-nez, from pincer – to pinch and le nez – nose
- Floor– un etage
- Mezzanine– un entresol – an apartment between the rez-de-chaussée (the first floor on which no one lives in France) and le premier étage itself.
- Whatnot– une etagere
- Voyage– un voyage (travel), voyager – to travel
- Baggage– les bagages (usually plural)
- Travel bag– from sas de voyage (lit. travel bag)
- Travel bag– le nécessaire (lit. needed)
- Mode– le regime
- Duel– le duel
- Fiction– les belles lettes (that’s what fiction is called in French)
- Grimace– une grimace
- Vernissage– un vernissage (unofficial opening of an artist’s exhibition on the eve of the official opening)
- Inauguration– inauguration (opening, for example, of an exhibition)
- Turn– un virage (literally turn)
- Collage– un collage (derived from the word coller – to glue; the collage technique was invented by Picasso)
- Decoupage– le découpage – from découper – cut
- Impressionism– l’impressionisme (from une impression – impression)
- Dude– un pigeon (1. dove, 2. dude)
- Couturier– un couturier (tailor), couture– la couture (sewing)
- Fashion show– le défilé – the first meaning is “march, parade” (from the verb défiler – to march)
- Parade– une parade
- Coat– un paletot
- Studio– un atelier
- Chiffon– le chiffon – rag, rag, towel
- Muffler– le cache-nez – lit. hide your nose
- Chauffeur comes from the French chauffeur - lit. stoker, stoker. Because the first vehicles were powered by steam or coal. The suffix -eur is a suffix indicating the performer of a certain action. So, the one who chauffe (chauffer - heat, heat) is chauffeur.
- Coifeur– from coiffeur – coiffer – to comb.
- Entrepreneur– entrepreneur (someone who undertakes something, organizes something), from entreprendre. From the same word and entreprise (enterprise) - enterprise.
- Another “theatrical” word - intermission– comes from entractre.
- Role– emploi – work, employment, position
- Conductor– le dirigeur (from diriger – to manage)
- Ballet– le ballet
- Proscenium– avant-scene
- Understudy– le doubleur
- Aport! – apporte – lit. bring it. It’s interesting what the French themselves say va chercher(go look)
- Fas! – face – lit. face. French dogs hear at such a moment attaque! (attack!)
- Redoubt– la redoute
- Hussar– un houssard
- Duel– le duel – duel, fight
- Musket, musketeer– un mousquet, un mousqueutaire
- Vanguard– l’avant-garde – vanguard
- Motto– la plan
- Revenge(take revenge – prendre sa revanche)
- Stagecoach– une diligence
- Brothel– un bordel
- Landing stage– from débarquer – to go ashore
- Buffet– la fourchette – fork
- Menu– menu – small (since we're talking about about limited number of dishes)
- Entrecote– une entrecôte – a piece of beef cut between the ribs and backbone
- Cutlet– une côtelette – lamb rib
- Omelette– une omelette
- Aperitif– l'apéritif
- Digestif– le digestif (from digérer – to digest)
- Souffle– un soufflé – exhale
- Prompter– un souffleur – from souffler – breathe, exhale, prompt
- Eclair– un éclair – lightning
- Caramel– le caramel
- Chance– une chance – luck
- Rendezvous– un rendez-vous – meeting, comes from the verb se rendre – to come somewhere
- Dispatch– une dépêche, de dépêcher – to hurry, se dépêcher – to hurry
- Courier– via fr. un courier from ital. "messenger"
- Pavilion– un pavilion
- Enfilade– une enfilade
- Firecrackers– des petards
- Solitaire– la patience – the first meaning is “patience”
- Pique– picker
- Aerobatics– le pilotage – control of the aircraft
- Ace– un as – ace, first in his business
- Obstetrician– un accoucheur (accoucher – to give birth)
- Promenade– une promenade – walk (from se promener – to walk, stroll)
- Summary– un résumé – summary
- Cour d'honeur– la cour d’honneur – court of honor
- Melange– un mélange – mixture, mishmash
- Boucher(cafe name) – une bouchée – a piece that can be bitten off in one go. From la bouche - mouth.
- Letual(cosmetics stores) – l’étoile – star
- There is such a thing French expression– amis comme cochons – literally friends are like pigs. And they say this about very close relationships between friends. But who would have thought that an entire expression could be borrowed into the Russian language and become... “ mischief“!
- Alley– une allée
- Boulevard– un boulevard
- Entourage– entourage – environment
- Director– le directeur
- Illusion– une illusion
- Imitation– une imitation
- Calorie– one calorie
- Shop-un magazine
A little about phonetics
My favorite rule: The letter h is not pronounced. Never. And it is written regularly.
Hennessy brand cognac is widely known. And the word Hennessy is read approximately as “ansi”. The emphasis is always on the last syllable, that's true. The French themselves, however, may disagree about the emphasis. Many of them believe that French has no accents at all, which surprised me very much.
Poils and poêle are pronounced the same: "poile". That's it.
Ils portent (they wear) is pronounced "il port".
The famous "merci beaucoup" ("thank you very much") is spelled merci beaucoup.
My name, as written in the passport - Lisakov Sergey - by French rules you need to read “Lizakov Sergey”. To make it look like Lisakov Sergei, you need to write Lissakov Sergueï. However, the French usually get the name right the first time.
Examples
- a place to change clothes or store outfits
- a collection of outfits that someone owns
Croissant - Croissant(pronounced "croissant"). Literally: growing, from the verb croître - to grow. The growing month is also called. Most legends about the etymology of this word agree that crescent-shaped rolls (these were the original croissants) depicted a religious symbol of the Turks in their shape.
In astronomy, it is customary to distinguish between the waxing (croissant) and waning (decroissant) Moon, but the French call any crescent Moon a croissant.
Brass knuckles - Casse-tête. The verb casser is to break, tête is head. In French, the word casse-tête is used primarily to refer to puzzles rather than head-breaking devices.
One-on-one - Tête-à-tête. Head to head.
Boris, have you seen my brass knuckles? Otherwise, I’m planning a little tete-a-tete here.
Counterpart - vis-à-vis. The one who is opposite you. Applies not only to people. Moreover, most often I heard about vis-a-vis in the context of the view from the window. In advertisements for the rental/sale of real estate it is often specified that the apartment is without vis-à-vis, i.e. The view from the window is open, and not to the neighboring house. Visibilité - visibility, overview.
Makeup artist - from Visage: face.
Creme brulee - Crème brûlée. Burnt cream, verb brûler - to burn.
Solitaire - Patience: patience.
It takes a lot of patience to play solitaire.
Chimes - Courant: running, from the verb courir - to run. In French, this word is not applied to any watch. How this happened in the Russian language is written in the journal “Science and Life”, No. 5, 2004.
Fleet - Flotte. From the verb flotter - to float (in the sense of staying on the water, not drowning). There is even such a thing - flottant (literally - “floating”).
Garage - Garage. The verb garer is to park.
Blinds - Jalousie[ʒaluzi]: jealousy. One version of why jealousy became curtains: the French empire had Muslim colonies in Africa, where, among other things, women were not supposed to look out of windows. The owners of harems are seen as jealous here. Remaining unnoticed, women could look out of the windows thanks to the blinds, because in northern Africa it is not comme il faut to close the windows tightly.
Comme il faut - Comme il faut: as it should be. Faut is actually pronounced "pho".
The verb "to be" in French is falloir. Il is either the pronoun “he” or an indication of the impersonality of the sentence, as in this case. As you can see, verbs in French are conjugated in an interesting way. Probably more difficult than in Russian. But their nouns are not declined, just like in English.
Sharomyzhnik - from Cher ami (male), chère amie (female)[ʃeʀami]: dear friend. The origin is indicated according to Vasmer's etymological dictionary. The soldiers of the Napoleonic army retreating from Russia, many of whom were in very poor condition and deserted, addressed these words to the Cossacks and peasants in search of food or mercy. The peasants immediately understood that in front of them was a real sharomyshnik and nothing more. Likewise, those who often used the phrase “give for Christ’s sake” were called Christ-seekers.
In Dostoevsky's novel The Demons, one of the main characters, Stepan Trofimovich Verkhovensky, very often uses the expression cher ami (addressing men) or chère amie (addressing women). Both phrases are pronounced, however, in the same way.
Pimp - Souteneur- defender. The verb soutenir means to protect.
Wall up - Emmurer. Mur - wall. Walled up, demons!
Gauze - it seems, from the name of the commune (roughly corresponds to our concept of “urban district”) Marly-le-Roi 10 km from Versailles. In French, a gauze-like fabric is called gaze. The word gaze, according to the French wiki dictionary, comes from the city of Gaza, where it was manufactured. I haven’t found out how our fabric came to be called gauze. However, the proximity of the place to Versailles gives some clues. I would be glad if someone would share the whole story of how cheesecloth became cheesecloth.
Backstage - Coulisse. The verb coulisser means “to slide along a groove,” like a wardrobe door, for example, or like curtains, curtains, curtains.
Dresser - Commode- comfortable. In French, commode can be a noun and mean "chest of drawers" or can be an adjective and mean "comfortable, pleasant" in reference to a person's character.
Diamond - Brillant, literally - “sparkling”, participle of the verb briller - “to sparkle”. In Russian, the word “diamond” is used to denote a mineral, and “diamond” is a cut diamond.
I don’t know how exactly the word “diamond” appeared in the Russian language, because the French ( ordinary people, not specialist jewelers) use diamant for both rough and polished diamonds. If necessary, to be more precise, a diamond can be called a diamant brut (brut - “raw”), and a cut diamond can be called a diamant taillé (taillé - zh.: “cut”). They do not use the word brilliant in relation to diamonds. However, historically, the word brillant arose in the 17th century and meant a method of cutting a stone that produces 57 facets. This cutting method is very popular to this day.
One more detail: in terms of spelling and pronunciation, the English “brilliant” is more similar to the Russian “brilliant” than the French “brilliant”. In English, “brilliant”, among other things, means this very method of cutting a diamond, and diamonds are mainly called “diamond”. Perhaps the word came into the Russian language from English, where it came from French.
Stuntman - Cascadeur. I connected this word with a helmet, but it should have been with a cascade: cascade - fall, also waterfall.
Landing - Descente. The verb descendre is to descend. So, during rush hour, people on the bus may ask if you will drop off at the next stop.
Lieutenant - Lieutenant. This word came into the Russian language, perhaps not directly from French. Lieu - place, tenant - holding (participle of the verb tenir - to hold). Viceroy. Derived from the Latin locum tenens.
Overture - Ouverture. The verb ouvrir means "to open". Open - ouvert.
Refined sugar - Raffinade. The verb raffiner means “to cleanse.” It turns out that the cubes have nothing to do with it. Surprisingly, I never paid attention to the similarity in the names of refined sugar and refined sunflower oil. And they are simply purified.
Apport! - Apporte!. The verb apporter is translated as “to bring.” Rapporter is also translated.
Submit a report.
“Apport!” Nikolai Ivanovich shouted, crumpling up and throwing Ilya’s report into the corner.
Deodorant - Deodorant. Odeur - smell. Déodorant is a disinfectant. In chemistry, substances that absorb unpleasant odors are called Desodorisant.
Furniture - Meuble(pronounced "mebble")
Cavalier - Chevalier[ʃəvalje] (from cheval- horse; pronounced roughly like "cheval"). Chevalier - Jr. noble title in France from the time of Dartagnan (D’Artagnan), apparently originally: horseman. I came across this word in some Russian publications Three Musketeers. Chevalier Dartagnan. Both our “cavalry” and cheval and chevalier come from the Latin word caballus - horse. Apparently, just as the chevalier ceased to be directly connected with the horse, so did the gentleman.
It is said that in the language of those who deal with horses, horse is the word for a species of animal. The female is a mare and the male is a stallion. The word “horse” can, in the mouth of a specialist, mean either a stallion or a gelding (castrated stallion). This city dweller often calls the mare a horse, because the word horse is feminine. In this light, the following scheme would be more correct:
Horses (species of animals) - equus, male horse (stallion) - le cheval, female horse (mare) - la jument.
Some associate the origin of the word "trash" with cheval. But this explanation seems more plausible to me.
It is also curious that in Russian the word “kavaler” can mean courteous and polite person, but in French “cavalier” can mean, on the contrary, a cheeky, unceremonious person. I came across this in the film “Ne nous fâchons pas”.
Pince-nez - Pince-nez(pronounced "pansne"). Pincer - to pinch, to grab; nez - nose. Clothespins, for example, are called pince à linge.
Muffler - Cacher-nez. Cacher - hide, nez - nose. Flowerpot - cache-pot, where pot - pot.
Chestnut - Chataigne[ʃatɛnj], that is, brown-haired. And I kept thinking, what hair color is darker - chestnut or brown-haired?
Boot - Bottine, boot - botte.
Curb - Bordure: edge, edge, border, frame. Curb - the boundary of a sidewalk. Here I remember the wildest assumption about the St. Petersburg curb - my brother decided that it was a “barrier brick”, a limiting block. And I, in turn, thought that he meant “bare brick”, bare brick.
Sidewalk - Trottoir. The verb trotter means “to walk quickly.” And the French word for scooter is trottinette.
Shooting range - Tir. The verb tirer means “to shoot.” In football they shout tire! instead of “hit!”
March - Marche. Walking. Step march! The minibus goes along the route: route - road, route. The router is here. He's a router. It’s funny that the word “route” is made up of two French words (in fact, but in etymology, I don’t know), but the French themselves do not use such a word: they say itinéraire.
Serpentine - from Serpent(pronounced "serpan"). The mountain serpentine curls like a snake, and the snake curls like a firecracker serpentine.
Parterre - Par terre. Terre - land, par - preposition, can be translated as “in, on, for, from”, etc. Sweep the floor - Balayer par terre. By the way, the French word bel-étage (beautiful floor) confuses the French. They don’t use that phrase anymore, but we liked it. By the way, “beautiful”, as far as I know, will be beau (bo). And belle is beautiful. We need to clarify what kind of bel this is and whether it is used now.
Short - Bas, "ba". Double bass, bass - low sounds. The Netherlands (which is the Netherlands, i.e. Low Lands), sounds very piquant in French: Pays-Bas (Paiba) - Country (Land) Low.
Speaking of piquancy: Piquant- thorn, thorn, hence, apparently, the hot sauce. Mountain peak.
Dispatch - Dépêche. The verb dépêcher is to hurry, to hurry. Send a dispatch to the bistro.
Fern - Fougère(pronounced "wine glass"). Here's your time! Perhaps in the city, named “Fougere” in honor of the fern growing abundantly around it, tall glasses began to be produced, which were named after the city. I'm not sure, I half made this story up.
Fruit puree - (pronounced "compote"). Having learned this, I immediately remembered the inscription on the yogurt that surprised me at the time: Yogurt with compote. Finally, the mystery is revealed!
What do the French call compote? When I tried to explain to a Frenchman that this thing is obtained after boiling fruit, he shrugged and said: “Soupe” (pronounced “soup”, also used for soup).
In French there is a word that reads like compote - this is compoté. But it means “stewed.” Thick peach stew. Chic! Charm! Voila!
Newspaper - Journal[ʒurnal], magazine. Jour - day. Daily reading. But “magazine” is more often magazine. Bonjour!- Good afternoon. Bon - good.
Lampshade - Abat-jour. The verb abattre means “to chop”, jour means “day”, in this case daylight. Limitation of light.
Duty - de jour. Orderly.
Floor lamp - Torchère. Torche - torch. ch is pronounced "sh" in French.
Display, monitor, screen - Affichage. Posts information. French verb afficher (announce, post, show) comes from the Latin affigere, which means the same thing. The latter is composed of the prefix ad (on) and the verb figere (to stick, put, place). Fiche - peg, pin.
Buffet - La fourchette, literally - “fork”.
A double-edged pun. When the French meet, they say to each other ça va? , which can literally be translated as “is this coming?” (as far as I know, this is exactly how this expression appeared: the doctor often asked some monarch about natural functions). ça va sounds like our “owl”.
“Owl” in French will be chouette [ʃuɛt]. But the word chouette has another meaning: cool, cool, great, cute. It turns out that the following dialogue is possible (on the verge of preserving the meaning):
- What's up? - Chouette!
Moreover, in both remarks the owl is mentioned in one way or another. I often play out such a dialogue with Guillaume (whose name, by the way, is written like this: Guillaume).
Deja vu - Déjà vu. Already seen. The verb "to see" in the infinitive is voir.
Wallet - Porte monnaie: I carry money. The verb porter is to wear. It is noteworthy that the word “briefcase”, which comes from porte feuille (I carry a leaf), is pronounced “portfoy” by the French and also means a wallet, not a bag.
Sabo - Sabot- hoof. The same word is used to describe wooden shoes. This is where the verb saboter comes from, which has several meanings, among other things it means “to make noise using a sabot.” Legend has it that the word "sabotage" occurred because workers threw such clogs into mechanisms to disable them, but this is only a legend.
Cutlet, entrecote, Ivory Coast. Cote- edge, shore, edge. Cotelette - rib; Originally cutlets were meat on the bone. On the contrary, entrecôte is the meat between the ribs; entre means between - entr'acte means "between acts." Cote d'Ivoire - coast Ivory. And the Cote d'Azur in France is called Côte d'Azur.
Chaise lounge - Chaise longue[ʃɛzlong]: the chair is long.
First - Premiere. Premier League, Prime Minister. Premiere étage - first floor.
A cut - Couple. The bills are apparently cut paper.
Print - Imprimer[ɛ̃prime]. Impression - impression. When I learned this, I immediately realized that the words “impression” and “print” are very similar for a reason.
Terminal - Terminal. The verb terminer means to end, limit. Terminator. This, by the way, is what the border is called light and dark parts Moons.
Wardrobe - Garde-robe. Garder - to store, robe - dress. The wardrobe in the theater is usually called vestiaire by the French, from the word veste - jacket. Garde-robe in French can mean:
And in the Middle Ages, the word garde-robe was even used to describe a toilet.
Shawl - Chale[ʃal]. Chaleur - warmth, heat.
Piercing - Piercing. Percer - to penetrate, to crash. The pier crashes into the sea. It never occurred to me to connect piercings and piercings.
Souvenir - Souvenir. Literally: remember.
Gap - Breche. Hole.
Fast - Bistro(bistro). Probably, almost everyone has heard about this term, which supposedly came into the French language from Russian in 1814, when Russian soldiers and officers, having captured Paris with their allies, hurried the slow French.
In fact, they say that the first establishments called “Bistros” in Paris appeared 70 years after the occupation of Paris by Russian troops. I must say that this version is nevertheless very popular among the French; several people told me about it. Actually, they came up with it - in Paris in Montmartre, at the Mère Catherine restaurant there is a sign with the following text:
Courage - Courage- courage, boldness, bravery, courage.
Spring - Resort. Spring.
Land mine - . And this is what Google returns for the query fougasse:
In French, the word "fougasse" is more often used to refer to Provencal bread with a soft crust of thick crumb, made from wheat flour, yeast and olive oil, sometimes with added sugar or garnished with onions, black olives, anchovies, and bacon.
Vasmer's etymological dictionary says that since the time of Peter I, the word “fugad” from the French appeared in our lexicon. fougade - mine. These words come from the Latin focus - fire (if you focus Sun rays with a magnifying glass, you can light a fire), but I haven’t found whether the buns and shells are somehow connected.
Star - Étoile. The famous chain of stores l’Étoile is a “star”. With the article le, which is shortened to l when preceded by a vowel.
Haute couture - Haute Couture. The phrase “haute couture” probably comes from the French haute couture - high fashion (couture literally means “sewing”). The word haute is actually read as "from", but means "high". But for us it turned into an excuse, a rather interesting metamorphosis.
And also: tank, fitter, motor, shower, installation, massage, drainage, entourage, espionage, conductor, mezzanine, hood, corrugation, protégé, sapper, landscape, silhouette, pirouette, pantaloons, long johns, fiction, repertoire, tank, maneuver , masterpiece, brothel, attic, advance, veil, duchess, nightmare, fillet, dictation, regime, depot, assorted, hood, couloir, rendezvous, role, et cetera. By the way, the conjunction “and” will be et not only in Latin, but also in French.
P.S. Shock: the Russian conjunction “a” has no analogues in French and English.
The vocabulary of our language includes not only native Russian words. There are also borrowed ones among them. What are the origins of this phenomenon?
Reasons for borrowing
The life of any people is certainly connected with other countries and states. This usually occurs through economic, cultural and trade relations. The vocabularies of peoples also experience mutual influence during contact. And this is not surprising, because language is the main means of communication. As a result of this influence, foreign words necessarily appear in the dictionary of a particular people.
Borrowing history
Since the eighth century, various foreign words began to enter the Russian language. This phenomenon became one of the ways to develop his vocabulary. There is nothing surprising about this. The fact is that the vocabulary of any people at all times has been sensitive to the changing needs of society. Borrowed words in the Russian language appeared in the process of developing relations between countries. They came to us due to the fact that the corresponding concepts were absent in the vocabulary of our people.
The nature and volume of borrowing can indicate the historical paths of scientific, cultural and economic ties, and geographical discoveries. The result of all these processes was the penetration into Russian phraseology and the vocabulary of other languages.
Main stages
In history, one can observe certain periods that differ from each other in their preferential borrowing. Yes, at the very ancient period Many words came to us from Latin and Germanic languages. The next stage is associated with the colonization of North-Eastern and Northern Rus' by the Slavs. During this period, numerous borrowed words in the Russian language appeared from the Finno-Ugric vocabulary. On the next historical stage Christianity began to emerge.
This was a period when borrowings appeared in the Russian language from Old Church Slavonic and Greek. Some changes affected the vocabulary in the 16th-18th centuries. This period is characterized by borrowings from Polish language. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the bulk of foreign words entered our dictionary thanks to connections with French and German peoples. The next period concerned English words. They began to enrich our vocabulary in large quantities in the 20-21st centuries.
Linguistic signs of borrowings
What can we say about the foreign origin of the word? The main features of borrowing are:
- The sound "a" at the beginning of a word. This construction contradicts our phonetic laws. Those starting with the letter "a" are borrowed words in the Russian language. Examples of words of this type are numerous. These are “abbot” and “aria”, “lampshade” and “anathema”, “arba” and “paragraph”, “angel” and “questionnaire”.
- The sound "e" at the beginning of a word. This is how Latinisms and Greekisms usually begin. For example, “era” and “epoch”, “exam” and “ethics”, “effect” and “floor”.
- The "f" sound in a word. The fact is that the Eastern Slavs did not have such a sound in their language. It appeared only to denote letters in borrowed words. These are “fact” and “forum”, “sofa” and “scam”, “broadcast” and “form”, “profile” and “film”.
- Using a combination of two or more vowels in words. According to the laws of our phonetics, such a construction was simply unacceptable. This is why it is so easy to find borrowed words in Russian. Examples of words: "punctuation" and "radio", "theater" and "out", "poet" and "veil", "cocoa" and "halo".
- A harmonious combination of identical vowel sounds. This feature is typical for Turkic language. These are words such as “pencil” and “shoe”, “sarafan” and “caravan”, “drum” and “ataman”.
A morphological feature of foreign words in some cases is their immutability. These are nouns that sound the same in any case, without a certain shape singular or plural. Examples of such words are the following: “taxi” and “coat”, “coffee” and “maxi”, “beige” and “mini”.
History of borrowing French words
A significant part of the foreign words that are included in the vocabulary of the Russian language are Gallicisms. The term comes from the Latin "Gallic". It means expressions and words that were borrowed from the French people and constructed according to the phonetic laws of their language.
Gallicism became especially pronounced in the 18th century. It was during this period that French words confidently entered Russian speech. They were literally imbued with the spirit of this European country. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from French are “visiter” and “charm”, “compliment” and “favorite”, “curtsey” and “cavalier”, “guverner” and “cocotte”.
Gallicisms have penetrated into all spheres of human activity and life. This especially affected wardrobe items. This is evidenced by such words borrowed from the French language as “costume jewelry” and “accessory”, “jabot” and “veil”, “peignoir” and “manteau”. A lot of Gallicisms have appeared in the culinary field. The Russian dictionary has been replenished with such words as “mayonnaise” and “meringue”, “mashed potatoes” and “delicacy”.
Many Gallicisms are associated with the sphere of art. These are “accordion” and “overture”, “debut” and “poster”, “applause” and “palette”, “vaudeville” and “ensemble”.
The infusion of Gallicisms into the Russian language did not stop in the 19th and 20th centuries. Foreign words in this era were usually associated with economics, social life and politics. The following examples can be given: “diplomat” and “bureaucracy”, “democrat” and “capitalism”, “shareholder” and “press”, “budget” and “bourgeoisie”. Words such as “run” and “authoritarian” are also borrowed from French. Gallicisms include “exaggerate” and “importer”.
French loanwords in the Russian language are an example of how a foreign culture becomes an example to follow. Especially strong influence Gallicisms on Russian vocabulary were observed in the 18th-19th centuries. In the next two centuries, borrowed words began to be considered more prestigious and beautiful. For example, "boutique". In France this is a small shop. In Russia, this word took on a completely different meaning. Boutiques began to be called expensive stores offering customers fashionable clothes.
Phraseologisms borrowed from French
Gallicisms include not only words. Many phraseological units and catchphrases. At one time they were uttered by political or historical figures- kings and politicians, generals, etc.
One of these expressions belongs to Louis VIII. He said: "Precision is the courtesy of kings." era religious wars in France gave us such a phrase as “a state within a state.” It concerned rich youth from the bourgeois-noble classes, wasting their lives. And the “old guard” was the name given to selected units of Napoleonic troops. They included best soldiers and officers. Everyone knows the expression “Balzac age.” It belongs to the group of literary borrowings.
It is interesting that such a common expression among us as “out of place” is also a Gallicism. Literally it means “to be in an unenviable position.”
The history of the appearance of German words in Russian
The process of penetration of Germanic vocabulary began in the 13th century. It intensified significantly three centuries later. However, borrowed words in Russian from German began to appear most often in the 17th and 18th centuries. Their penetration occurred not only through written means, but also through oral means. The list of German loanwords in Russian is quite impressive. It concerns the following sections of vocabulary:
Military - “assault” and “parade ground”, “carriage”, “corporal” and “bayonet”, “grenade” and “soldier”;
Production - “chisel” and “workbench”, “washer” and “shaft”, “matrix” and “slate”, “template” and “format”;
Merchant - “accountant” and “freight”, “bill” and “cashier”;
Medical - “paramedic” and “bandage”, “plaster” and “cotton wool”, “syringe” and “resort”;
Socio-political - “dictation” and “falsification”, “aggressor” and “priority”, “slogan” and “discrimination”;
Chess art - "grandmaster" and "endgame";
Household - “sandwich” and “pretzel”, “dumplings” and “pate”, “apron” and “rutabaga”, “hairdresser” and “corkscrew”;
Arts - “landscape” and “easel”, “tour” and “dance”, “flute” and “choreographer”.
The main grammatical and phonetic features of borrowed German words are combinations of sounds “ey”, “ay”, as well as the initial “shp”, “sht” (“spy”, “stamp”). In addition, they are given out by an addition that does not have connecting vowels (“mouthpiece”, “sideburns”).
The history of the appearance of Anglicisms
Borrowings from Foggy Albion penetrated into our language much later than French and german words. This process began in the 16th century. This period was characterized by successful trade between countries. Borrowed words in Russian from English appeared along with new concepts and goods, as well as scientific works.
The next active period of penetration of Anglicisms into our language began in the times of Peter the Great. During this period, borrowings that came to us with British Isles, concerned trade, everyday relations, as well as scientific activities.
In imperial Russia, the prestige of the English language was kept at a high level thanks to the significant role of Great Britain on the world stage. The following stages of borrowing date back to the 20s of the twentieth century. This was the period of formation of the independent Russian state.
Examples of Anglicisms
Borrowed words in the Russian language, which came to us from Britain, began to especially replenish our vocabulary after 1925. These are “stand” and “combine”, “tanker” and “container”, “TV” and “trolleybus”, etc.
Strengthening interaction with Western European countries at the end of the 20th century. led to the appearance of numerous borrowed words in Russian from English during this period. Examples are found in all areas of activity. There is nothing surprising in this, because English is the language of the global Internet, the largest radio and television companies, as well as many magazines and newspapers.
Borrowed words in Russian from English, examples from the following areas:
Socio-political - “businessman”, “management”, “dealer”;
Computer technology - "laptop", "hacker", "monitor".
Currently, there is a large list of wardrobe items, the names of which came to us from abroad. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from English are “grinders” and “body”, “cardigan” and “top”. You can also find “foreigners” in the cultural sphere - “promotion”, “remix”, “show business”, etc.