Levels of ability development and individual differences. What is “success” and “success”

When we try to understand and explain why different people, placed in the same or approximately the same conditions by life circumstances, achieve different successes, we turn to the concept capabilities, believing that the difference in success can be quite satisfactorily explained by them. We use the same concept when we need to understand why some people acquire knowledge, skills and abilities faster and better than others. What are abilities?

The term “ability,” despite its long-standing and widespread use in psychology and the presence of many of its definitions in the literature, is ambiguous. If we summarize its definitions and try to present them in a compact classification, it will look like this:

1. Abilities are properties of the human soul, understood as a set of all kinds of mental processes and states. This is the broadest and oldest definition of ability available. Currently, it is practically no longer used in psychology.

2. Abilities represent a high level of development of general and special knowledge, skills and abilities that ensure a person’s successful performance of various types of activities. This definition appeared and was accepted in the psychology of the 18th-19th centuries, and is partly used at the present time.

3. Abilities are something that cannot be reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (ensures) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition is now accepted and most common. It is at the same time the narrowest and most accurate of all three.

Significant contribution to development general theory abilities were contributed by our domestic scientist B.M. Teplov. It was he who proposed the third of the listed definitions of abilities, on which we will rely. Let us clarify it using references to the works of B.M. Teplov. The concept of “ability,” in his opinion, contains three ideas. “Firstly, abilities refer to individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another... Secondly, abilities do not refer to any individual characteristics at all, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities ... Thirdly, the concept of “ability” cannot be reduced to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person” 1 .

Abilities, B.M. Teplov believed, cannot exist except in a constant process of development. An ability that does not develop, which a person stops using in practice, is lost over time. Only thanks to constant exercises associated with systematic training in such complex species human activity like music, technical and artistic creativity, mathematics, sports, etc., we maintain and further develop the corresponding abilities.

The success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of different abilities, and this combination, which gives the same result, can be achieved in different ways. In the absence of the necessary inclinations to develop some abilities, their deficit can be compensated for by the stronger development of others. "One of the most important features“The human psyche,” wrote B.M. Teplov, “is the possibility of extremely broad compensation of some properties by others, as a result of which the relative weakness of any one ability does not at all exclude the possibility of successfully performing even the activity that is most closely related to this ability. The missing ability can be compensated within very wide limits by others that are highly developed in a given person.”

Let's consider the question of classifying human abilities. There are quite a lot of them. First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between natural or natural abilities (basically biologically determined) and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin.

Many of natural abilities are common in humans and animals, especially higher ones, for example, in monkeys. Such elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking, and the ability for elementary communications at the level of expression. These abilities are directly related to innate inclinations, but are not identical to them, but are formed on their basis in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms such as conditioned reflex connections, operant conditioning, imprinting and a number of others. Otherwise, in terms of their abilities, their set and mechanisms of formation, humans and animals are fundamentally different from each other. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in social environment. This general and special higher intellectual abilities, based on the use of speech and logic, theoretical and practical, educational and creative, subject and interpersonal.

Are common abilities include those that determine a person’s success in a wide variety of activities. These include, for example, mental capacity, subtlety and accuracy of manual movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others. Special abilities determine a person’s success in specific types of activities, the implementation of which requires inclinations of a special kind and their development. Such abilities include musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, artistic and creative, sports and a number of others. The presence of general abilities in a person does not exclude the development of special ones and vice versa. Often general and special abilities coexist, mutually complementing and enriching each other.

Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person’s propensity for abstract theoretical reflection, and the latter for concrete, practical actions. Such abilities, unlike general and special ones, on the contrary, more often do not combine with each other, occurring together only in gifted, multi-talented people.

Educational and creative abilities differ from each other in that the former determine the success of training and education, a person’s assimilation of knowledge, skills, abilities, formation

the formation of personal qualities, while the second is the creation of objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new ideas, discoveries and inventions, in a word - individual creativity in various fields of human activity.

Ability to communicate, interact with people, and subject-activity, or subject-cognitive, abilities - in to the greatest extent socially conditioned. Examples of abilities of the first type include human speech as a means of communication (speech in its communicative function), abilities interpersonal perception and assessment of people, the ability of socio-psychological adaptation to various situations, ability to come into contact with by different people, win them over, influence them, etc.

Examples of subject-cognitive abilities are well known. They are traditionally studied in general and differential psychology and are called abilities for various types of theoretical and practical activities.

Until now, in psychology, primary attention has been paid specifically to objective-activity abilities, although the abilities interpersonal character are no less important for psychological development person, his socialization and acquisition of the necessary forms social behavior. Without mastery of speech as a means of communication, for example, without the ability to adapt to people, correctly perceive and evaluate them and their actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, normal life and mental development of a person would be simply impossible. The absence of such abilities in a person would be an insurmountable obstacle precisely on the path of transforming him from a biological being into a social one.

In the development of communication abilities, one can probably distinguish its own stages of formation, its own specific inclinations. One of them is probably the innate ability of children to respond to their mother's face and voice. It determines the primary form of communication in the form of a revival complex. Subsequently, to the ability to communicate emotionally is added, developing on its basis, the ability to understand states, guess intentions and adapt one’s behavior to the mood of other people, assimilate and follow certain social norms in communicating with them.

WITH psychological point In our view, a social norm of behavior is nothing more than the ability to communicate with people, ideally embodied in the relevant knowledge and requirements, to behave in such a way as to be accepted and understood by them. Assimilating social norms, the individual acquires the ability to interact effectively with people. IN Everyday life In the language familiar to us, it is no coincidence that we call a person who knows the rules of etiquette and knows how to follow them, capable of communicating with people.

With no less justification, abilities can be called the ability to convince others, achieve mutual understanding, and influence people. As for the ability to perceive people and give them correct assessments, it has long been considered a special kind of ability in social psychology. Moreover, for many years, the specialist literature has actively discussed the question of whether this ability is innate or acquired, as well as the possibility of its development in different people.

Both interpersonal and subject-related abilities complement each other. Thanks to their combination, a person gets the opportunity to develop fully and harmoniously.

It is not individual abilities that directly determine the success of any activity, but only their successful combination, exactly what is necessary for this activity. There is practically no activity in which success is determined by only one ability. On the other hand, the relative weakness of any one ability does not exclude the possibility of successfully performing the activity with which it is associated, since the missing ability can be compensated by others included in the complex that ensures this activity. For example, poor vision is partially compensated by the special development of hearing and skin sensitivity, and the lack of absolute sound-pitch hearing is compensated by the development of timbral hearing.

Abilities not only jointly determine the success of an activity, but also interact with each other, influencing each other. Depending on the presence and degree of development of other abilities included in the complex, each of them acquires a different character. This mutual influence is especially strong when it comes to interdependent abilities that jointly determine the success of an activity. The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness, and this characteristic refers to a person who is capable of many different activities.

General concept of abilities

Abilities are the mental properties of a person, possessing which a person can relatively easily achieve success in a particular activity.

We always learn about people's abilities only from observing their activities. Capable is usually called the person who demonstrates in a given activity top scores, than others.

Types of abilities. There are as many abilities as there are different types of activities. You can have the ability to learn, to foreign languages, to mathematics, to scientific activity, musical, artistic, literary, organizational, technical abilities...

Human abilities can be divided into two groups: general abilities, i.e. those that manifest themselves in most basic types of human activity (good attention, memory, intelligence), and special abilities that manifest themselves only in certain special types of professional activities (musical abilities ).

Connection of abilities with knowledge and skills. It is necessary to distinguish abilities from knowledge and skills. The latter are based on acquired and fixed systems of temporary connections in the cerebral cortex (for example, knowledge of certain mathematical theorems, ability to solve equations with two unknowns, etc.). Abilities are personality traits based on special characteristics of nervous activity that allow a person to perform a given activity well. However, abilities cannot be separated from knowledge. There is a characteristic mutual dependence between them: abilities facilitate the acquisition of knowledge ( capable person they come faster and easier), but also vice versa, mastering knowledge contributes to the development of abilities.

Connection of abilities with activities. Abilities are always associated with specific activities; outside of activity, they do not exist. At the same time, only in activity does the formation, formation and development of abilities occur: for the development of abilities, fruitful, systematic, sometimes persistent human activity in a given area is necessary.

The connection between abilities and personality orientation. Abilities are organically related to interests and general level human personality development. They appear with greatest strength Only in those types of activities that deeply interest a person do they capture his entire personality.

Abilities and inclinations

A person is not born into the world already having certain abilities. Only some anatomical and physiological features of the body can be congenital, among which features are of greatest importance nervous system, brain. These anatomical and physiological characteristics that form innate differences between people are called inclinations.

have the makings important for the development of abilities (for example, the properties of the auditory analyzer are important for musical abilities, the properties of the visual analyzer are important for visual abilities). But inclinations are only one of the conditions for the formation of abilities. By themselves, they do not in any way predetermine abilities. If a person, even with the most outstanding inclinations, does not engage in appropriate activities, his abilities will not develop.

One should not think that each ability corresponds to a special inclination. Every inclination has multiple meanings; on its basis, different abilities can be developed depending on how a person’s life proceeds.

Thus, inclinations, or, what is the same thing, natural prerequisites for development, do not yet contain abilities. Abilities can develop only in certain conditions of life and activity of people.

Therefore, temporary connections in the cerebral cortex play an important role in the development of abilities. Systems of conditioned connections give the more general features of the brain those qualities that make a person suitable for certain specific types of activity.

Of significant importance in the formation of abilities are, further, such features of higher nervous activity as the speed of formation and strength of conditioned reflexes, the speed of formation and strength of inhibitory reactions (especially differentiation), the speed of formation and ease of alteration of dynamic stereotypes. These features affect the success of various types of activities, including educational activities. The speed and strength of assimilation of new knowledge and skills (formation of new conditional connections), the ability to capture similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of reality (ease of differentiation), the ability to change habitual forms of activity and behavior in accordance with changing conditions (speed of alteration of dynamic stereotypes) depend on them ) etc.

Each of these features may have an unequal degree of development in different types activities, which often leads to the development of special abilities for certain types of activities.

Research shows that in everyday consciousness there is a differentiation of the concepts of “success” and “success”. The concept of “success” rather captures objective achievements in specific activity and in life in general, and the concept of “success” reflects the subjective experience and conditions for achieving success. At the same time, the conditions for achieving success for most subjects are personal rather than external resources.

The image of the ideal successful person . Psychological research makes it possible to identify established stereotypes in society about success and a successful person, prototypes of a successful personality that exist in culture.

According to research by N.V. Leyfried, conducted on a sample of different ages, the ideal successful person in the minds of other people has such characteristics as: determination, sociability, intelligence, material security, responsibility.

When describing an ideal successful person, the emphasis is primarily on personal characteristics and ways to achieve success than on specific performance results and other manifestations of success.

The image of a truly successful person. The study of ideas about a real successful person revealed that a successful person is characterized by: material security, family, career, achievement of goals, prestigious work, high social status, status of the head of the enterprise, your own business.

The main criteria for assessing a successful personality in a real situation are often external, socially significant achievements. This fact Leifried explains that external indicators are objectively more accessible to the individual, which significantly shortens the process social cognition, interpretation of reality and assignment of a particular person to a certain group.

Prototypes of a successful personality. The public consciousness presents different prototypes of a successful personality. N.V. Leifried identifies two most common prototypes of a successful personality, opposite in their characteristics:

• the first is described exclusively external, socially recognized indicators of success that reflect people's most common values modern society;
• the characteristic features of the second are exclusively personal characteristics , which, apparently, reflects the peculiarities of the ideas of people who flexibly take into account modern requirements and the realities of Russian society.

Typology of ideas about success depending on the type of responsibility

Leifried conducts interesting comparison ideas about success depending on the personal type of responsibility. The developed typology can be useful for diagnostics and subsequent consulting of business representatives.

Based on a comparison of indicators of responsibility (locus of control, cognitive, emotional and behavioral-effective components), he identifies the following types:

1. optimally responsible;
2. performing;
3. situational;
4. egoistic;
5. functional.

1. Optimally responsible personality type connects success and the conditions for its achievement with internal personal resources- the ability to take responsibility, realize one’s abilities and capabilities in the process of achieving goals, despite the presence of difficulties.

People of the optimal type name internal, personal characteristics, such as self-realization, satisfaction, and independence, as criteria for success. However, their definitions of success are not generally accepted and do not contain stereotypical statements. They reflect the desire to realize one’s abilities and capabilities, to be active and independent, and to feel satisfied with one’s life. Comparative analysis age-related characteristics of ideas about success of people of this type showed that With age, the role of personal criteria increases in comparison with external: social, status and material criteria. Achieving success, according to representatives of the optimal type, depends, first of all, on the individual himself, the presence necessary knowledge, skills and personal resources, from the ability to realistically assess one’s own capabilities in the process of achieving set goals, and in the presence of difficulties, to find means of overcoming. They think that it is responsibility is the main factor influencing success. This is due to the fact that responsibility presupposes the ability of an individual to correlate the necessary and desirable from the point of view of his individual characteristics and thereby achieve success in his activities and life. The external criterion for assessing a successful personality is professionalism as an indicator of high professional achievements, which presupposes high-quality performance of activities.

The specificity of the views of subjects of this type of responsibility is expressed in the predominance of personal characteristics in the prototypes, and, despite externally oriented factors (for example, “social status” and “work and family”), each of them contains a personal criterion of success. A successful personality in the ordinary consciousness of people of this type is a person who achieves results in different areas . The main characteristics of ideas about a successful person are awareness, radicalism (dynamics of ideas), harmony, rationalism, individuality.

2. Performing type people connect ideas about success and a successful personality with dominance of external, socially recognized criteria. The conditions for achieving success are external factors (luck, favorable confluence circumstances), and personal resources that ensure success in the absence of interest and voluntariness in activities (diligence, patience).

The most common definitions of the concept of “success” among subjects of the executive responsibility type are (64.2%), dream come true(49.1%) and (40.6%). The largest percentage of subjects, without showing independence, give a generally accepted definition of success, determined by the traditions existing in society and the cultural characteristics of the country.

Individuals of the performing type are characterized by a definition of success as diligence (48.1%), which reflects the specifics of responsibility of this type: on the one hand, thanks to diligence, the quality and timeliness of work is ensured (which can be assessed as success), on the other hand, diligence in the absence independence and refusal to act in the presence of difficulties and obstacles will not lead an individual to success.

When describing a successful person, people of the performing type most often indicate only external signs achieved success (with the exception of determination), which can be grouped into three groups:

• the first is related to professional achievements- prestigious job, career growth, professionalism;
• the second combines status characteristics - high social status, the head of an enterprise and, as a result, respect from other people and material security;
• the third is the socially significant values ​​of modern society - family, children and education.

If individuals of the optimal type integrate and modify social information existing in culture and separate groups in accordance with beliefs and personal characteristics, performer-type faces reflect passive attitude towards social reality, reluctance to take a meaningful approach to the formation of ideas and the use of external, social and status indicators in determining the criteria for an individual’s success. It is noteworthy that this trend manifests itself regardless of the age of representatives of the performing type.

Women of this type more often note such descriptors as family and children, responsiveness, caring, kindness, sociability, willingness to help others, attention to other people and attractiveness. For men, the main characteristics of a successful personality are a prestigious job, their own company, business, career achievements, material security, high social status, and a leadership position.

Responsibility as a criterion of personal maturity in individuals of the executive type does not relate to stable personality traits, which is reflected in the idea of ​​success and a successful person. Representations rather characterize traditional for a given society view of success and do not take into account current trends and changes. The content of ideas of responsibility indicates an attitude to rely on ready-made judgments accepted in the group (society as a whole).

3. For representatives of the situational type success is achieving your goals (78,3%), favorable coincidence (76,7%), public acceptance(70%). They often give a generally accepted definition of success, which is not original and unique. The understanding of success as luck (a favorable combination of circumstances) is associated with the predominance of the external locus of control in the subjects of this group. With age, the ideas about a successful person among subjects of the situational type do not change in content. This fact can be explained by the features of this type: responsibility is not a stable property of the individual, but acts only as responsible attitude to a certain type of responsible situations and tasks. Ideas about the success of men and women reflect gender stereotypes existing in society. Men more often give such definitions of success as material security, career growth, and having a prestigious job. Definitions of success as well-being in the family and happiness are typically “feminine”.

Representatives of the situational type do not differentiate the concepts of “success” and “success”. In general, both in defining success and success, they are focused on external, socially recognized criteria. Among the most important conditions for achieving success for people of the situational type, we can highlight: a favorable combination of circumstances, the support of loved ones, determination, and the help of other people. The main characteristics of a successful personality include material security, high social status, having a family, career growth, and a leadership position. These characteristics are objective, clearly defined, which makes it possible to accurately classify a person into a group of successful or unsuccessful people; this demonstrates the characteristic tendency of people of this type to avoid failure.

4. Persons of the egoistic type in ideas about success and success dependent on an area or situation that is significant for a particular person life activity. Partial acceptance of responsibility determines the indication of both external and internal, personal resources as conditions for achieving success. The main indicators of success for subjects of the egoistic type are well-being in everything, achieving goals, satisfaction yourself and your life. For people of this type, satisfaction, even in the absence of initial interest and quality of work performed, is an important characteristic; this, in our opinion, explains the definition of success as well-being and satisfaction.

Specific to subjects in early adulthood is the definition of success as achieving set goals. In this case, objective achievements in specific activities and life activities and a subjective assessment of success are recorded. Middle-adult subjects more often define success as well-being in everything, satisfaction with life, the ability to solve emerging problems, high social status, having a prestigious job, and good luck. Importance increases with age subjective assessment of success(well-being, satisfaction), quantities external signs success(status, prestigious job). The contradictory nature of the responsibility of people of this type is reflected in the content of the ideas about success of middle-aged subjects: 22% define success as the ability to solve problems, emphasizing the role of the individual in its achievement, and 16% - as luck.

The definition of “success” contains references to the subjective experience of success; objective indicators of achievements and its subjective assessment; conditions for achieving success; to consider success as a personality quality. In the minds of people of the egoistic type, ideas about success vague, not specific, dependent on an aspect of life that is significant for a particular person. As a condition for achieving success, people of the egoistic type equally They call external and internal personal resources, which is due, on the one hand, to their independence, a clear presentation of the results of their activities and the ability to overcome obstacles and difficulties, and on the other hand, to partial acceptance of responsibility.

In the most common ideas about a successful person, subjects of the egoistic type of responsibility are dominated by external, socially recognized characteristics: material security, family, career growth. With age, one becomes aware of the role of personal contribution in achieving success. Women of this type equally associate success with family and work, while men are more focused on social positions, the ability to win them and the personal conditions for achieving success. In general, we can say that the contradictory nature of responsibility, the dependence of subjects of the egoistic type on the group and a specific situation determines the content of ideas about success and a successful individual.

5. Functional type of responsibility characterized by the fact that the content of ideas about success, success, and the conditions for its achievement in individuals of this type is dominated by external social criteria, demonstrating a lack of independence, awareness during their formation, a desire to act strictly according to the model, in accordance with the instructions.

As a result of studying the subjects’ ideas about success functional type the following pattern was revealed: out of 12 definitions of success, the last descriptor in the hierarchy was named by 32.2% of the subjects, therefore, on the one hand, we can talk about a clear idea, on the other hand, there is a desire to act strictly according to the model, without showing creativity and noting stereotypical characteristics success. The high frequency group included following definitions success: respect from people around you, well-being in the family, achieving your goal, career growth, material security, high social status. A comparative analysis of the gender characteristics of ideas about success has shown that the typical female understanding of success is well-being in the family, while the male understanding is career growth, material security, and the presence of a prestigious job.

According to functional type subjects, achieving success is primarily associated with opportunities and abilities subject - persistence as an ability long time carry out activities and achieve success in it and sociability as the ability to establish contacts and ultimately have social support to achieve success. Also, the conditions for achieving success are beauty and higher education as external resources that do not depend on the individual. When describing a successful person, subjects of the functional type of responsibility name both external and internal personal characteristics, which corresponds to the phenomenological description of this type: dependence on the group, appeal to socio-psychological support, orientation to instructions, models, ready-made solutions.

It should be noted that psychological research help to see the most typical ideas about personality business people, the correlation of success and the reasons behind their success. This can be the cognitive basis of individual counseling, work on image and personal growth, in the social self-determination of business entities.

Natalya Lvovna Ivanova, Doctor of Psychology, Professor of the Department of Organizational Psychology, State University Higher School of Economics.

Capabilities

Capabilities- these are individual personality traits that are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity. Abilities are not limited to the knowledge, skills and abilities an individual has. They are revealed in the speed, depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of certain activities and are internal mental regulators that determine the possibility of their acquisition. In Russian psychology, the greatest contribution to experimental studies of special (musical) abilities was made by B. M. Teplov. Artistic (visual) abilities are reflected to one degree or another in the works of A.A. Melik-Pashayeva and Yu.A. Poluyanov, literary ones - in the works of E.M. Torshilova, Z.N. Novlyanskaya, A.A. Adaskina and others. Sports abilities were studied by A.V. Rodionov, V.M. Volkov, O.A. Sirotin and others. Information on general abilities is most fully presented in the works of V.N. Druzhinina, M.A. Kholodnoy, E.A. Sergienko.

On the question of definition

The definition of abilities discussed at the beginning of the article is generally accepted. This definition of abilities can be clarified and expanded in the part “Abilities are not limited to the knowledge, skills and abilities that an individual has.” These signs (ZUN) undoubtedly characterize abilities, but do not fully define them. What turns knowledge, skills and abilities into abilities? ON THE. Reinwald believes that abilities are, in fact, a continuation of the development of character traits and relate to the highest levels of personality organization, which acts as a condition for success, putting knowledge, skills and abilities at the service of activity.

There is a need to separate abilities also from mental processes (functions). For example, it is obvious that memory is expressed to different degrees in different people; memory is necessary for the successful performance of certain types of activities, but memory is not considered an ability in itself. To distinguish between mental function and ability, the following point of view is most appropriate: if we are talking about the level of development, about the success of activity, which is ensured by the degree of expression of a given quality (the intensity and adequacy of the course of the mental process), then we mean the ability, and if only the specifics of the course and purpose, then processes (functions) are usually characterized in this way. Therefore, memory, attention, thinking, imagination are mental processes. And their special organization (cognitive styles, cognitive schemes), specificity (focus on the type of activity) and mobilization of forces (the role of the individual) to perform a certain activity, which together ensure the achievement of the necessary result at a cost minimum costs, are ultimately perceived by us as ability (intelligence).

The semantic relationships of the concepts “temperament” and “ability” are constructed differently. People differ in the type of temperament, and the severity of one or another temperament can facilitate or hinder the performance of certain activities (for example, a choleric person will find it difficult to engage in activities that require perseverance), temperament is not knowledge, ability or skill. It is obvious that temperament is not an ability in itself, but acts as the psychophysiological basis of most abilities, both special and general, that is, temperament is part of the structure of inclinations. At the same time, it is also known that strength, as a characteristic of temperament, is an important condition for performing most types of activity.

Conditions for the formation of abilities

B. M. Teplov points out some conditions for the formation of abilities. Abilities themselves cannot be innate. Only inclinations can be innate. Teplov understood his inclinations as certain anatomical and physiological features. Inclinations underlie the development of abilities, and abilities are the result of development. If the ability itself is not innate, therefore, it is formed in postnatal ontogenesis (it is important to pay attention to the fact that Teplov separates the terms “innate” and “hereditary”; “innate” - manifested from the moment of birth and formed under the influence of both hereditary and and environmental factors, “hereditary” - formed under the influence of hereditary factors and manifesting itself both immediately after birth and at any other time in a person’s life). Abilities are formed through activity. Teplov writes that “...an ability cannot arise outside of the corresponding specific objective activity.” Thus, ability includes what arises in the activity corresponding to it. It also influences the success of this activity. Ability begins to exist only together with activity. It cannot appear before the activity corresponding to it has begun. Moreover, abilities are not only manifested in activities. They are created in it./

Abilities and Individual Differences

Each person has a different “set” of abilities. An individually unique combination of abilities is formed throughout life and determines the uniqueness of the individual. The success of the activity is also ensured by the presence of one or another combination of abilities that works for the result. In activity, some abilities can be replaced by others - similar in manifestations, but different in origin. The success of the same activity can be ensured by different abilities, so the absence of one ability can be compensated by the presence of another or even a whole complex. Therefore, the individual uniqueness of the complex of individual abilities that ensure the successful implementation of an activity is usually called “individual style of activity.” IN modern psychology people began to talk more often about competencies as integrative qualities (abilities) that are aimed at achieving results. We can say that competencies are abilities through the eyes of employers. In fact, the employer does not care what internal composition abilities that ensure the completion of the task, the very fact of its implementation is important for them. Therefore, competencies are even named by task: “the ability to perform such and such a task.” And at the expense of what internal resources it will be fulfilled - this is the problem of the applicant (or the psychologist studying the activity).

Abilities and aptitudes

Another term used by Teplov is inclinations. Propensities represent certain attitudes of a person towards an activity. “...Abilities do not exist outside of a person’s certain relationships to reality, just as relationships are realized only through certain inclinations.” The above quote indicates that aptitudes and abilities are closely interrelated. Tendencies represent motivational component activities. Therefore, without the presence of an inclination, a certain activity may not begin, and the ability, accordingly, will not be formed. On the other hand, if there is no successful activity, a person’s inclinations will not be objectified.

Abilities and giftedness

Giftedness is a complex phenomenon. It is associated with a person’s performance of a certain activity, that is, talent consists of various abilities. Giftedness is “a qualitatively unique combination of abilities on which the possibility of achieving greater or lesser success in performing one or another activity depends.” Giftedness does not ensure success in any activity, but only the opportunity to achieve this success.

Types of abilities

Abilities are divided into general and special. The following types of special abilities are distinguished:

1. educational and creative
2. mental and special
3. mathematical
4. constructive and technical
5. musical
6. literary
7. artistic and visual
8. physical abilities

Educational and Creative skills differ from each other in that the former determine the success of training and education, a person’s assimilation of knowledge, skills, abilities, and the formation of personal qualities, while the latter determines the creation of objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new ideas, discoveries and works, in a word - individual creativity in various areas of human activity.

The nature of general abilities (intelligence, creativity and search activity) is determined by the special organization of cognitive functions and individual experience (including knowledge, skills and abilities). These abilities are called general because they are necessary to perform all types of activities, regardless of their degree of complexity. At the same time, different variants are observed in intelligence (see the works of M.A. Kholodnaya).

The nature of special abilities. Studying specifically - psychological characteristics abilities, one can also highlight more general qualities, which meet the requirements of not one, but many types of activities, and special qualities, answering more to a narrow circle requirements of this activity. In the structure of the abilities of some individuals, these general qualities can be extremely clearly expressed, which indicates that people have versatile abilities, general abilities to wide range various activities, specialties and occupations. On the other hand, for each individual type of activity it is possible to identify a common basis that will unite individual private skills into an integral system, and without which this ability will not exist at all. Specific examples: For a mathematician it is not enough to have good memory and attention. People who are capable of mathematics are distinguished by the ability to grasp the order in which the elements necessary for a mathematical proof should be arranged. The presence of intuition of this kind is the main element of mathematical creativity, and it is based not only on knowledge and experience, but on spatial imagination, as the main condition mathematical thinking(this means not only geometry and stereometry, but all mathematics as a whole). For an athlete common basis is the will to win, the desire to be first at all costs. For an artist (in any field of art) this is an aesthetic attitude towards the world. Musical abilities in the existing general psychological classification are classified as special, that is, those that are necessary for successful studies and are determined by the very nature of music as such. Their basis, as the basis of abilities for any type of art, is an aesthetic attitude to the world, the ability to aesthetically perceive reality, but in the case of music it will be sound or auditory reality, or the ability to transform the aesthetic experience of reality into sound reality (thanks to synesthesia). The technological component of musical abilities can be divided into two groups:

1. actually technical (technique of playing a given musical instrument or voice control in singing);
2. compositional (for composing music);
3. controlling, auditory (musical ear - pitch, timbre or intonation, etc.).

IN extreme conditions, when the need arises to solve a super task, a person, thanks to stress reaction certain abilities may be restored or sharply enhanced.

It is customary to distinguish levels of development of abilities, which are sometimes mistakenly mistaken for stages:

1. Capabilities

Separately, we should consider the concept of Giftedness. The origin of this term is based on the idea of ​​a “gift” - high inclinations that nature rewards certain people. The inclinations are based on heredity or on the characteristics of intrauterine development. Therefore, giftedness should be understood as an indicator of a high level of abilities based on natural predisposition. However, N.S. Leites notes that in reality it can be difficult to track whether abilities are largely the result of targeted education (self-development) or whether they are predominantly the embodiment of inclinations. Therefore, in science, to a greater extent, an understanding of this term has been established, which simply indicates a higher level of development of some abilities than most people, especially when it comes to children. And the actual levels of this giftedness are talent and genius. Co-authors I. Akimov and V. Klimenko spoke very successfully and imaginatively about the difference between talent and genius. They examined these options for giftedness in detail, emphasizing that the difference between talent and genius is not a quantitative, but a qualitative difference. They have a different sense of the world. The product of talent is originality; the product of genius is simplicity. However, I. Akimov and V. Klimenko believe that genius does not appear suddenly; it is born from talent; is born as a result of many years of talent’s work on quality. According to another point of view, talent and genius are not stages, they are quite different psychological qualities, and if a talented person may or may not use his talent, then man of genius in fact, he is a hostage of his genius, he may not work in the direction in which he is gifted, for him the punishment is deprivation of his opportunity to create. It is no coincidence that giftedness is called a “deviation,” albeit a positive one.

It is traditional to distinguish also the levels of development of abilities:

• reproductive
• reconstructive
• creative

However, practice (results empirical research) shows that creative abilities and reproductive abilities are of a rather different nature, therefore they develop independently of each other, and in each of them independent levels of development can be identified.

Notes

see also

Links

• Methodology for studying the inclinations of abilities “Verbal portrait” online
• Igor Akimov, Victor Klimenko. About the boy who could fly, or THE PATH TO FREEDOM

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Synonyms:

See what “Abilities” are in other dictionaries:

capabilities- individual psychological characteristics of a person, which are a condition for the successful implementation of one or another productive activity. S. became the subject of special psychological study in the 19th century, when the work of F. Galton laid the foundation... ... Great psychological encyclopedia

Individually expressed capabilities for the successful implementation of a particular activity. They include both individual knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as readiness to learn new ways and techniques of activity. To classify abilities... ... Psychological Dictionary

Data, talent, talent; parenka, couples Dictionary of Russian synonyms. abilities data see also talent, talent Dictionary sinon ... Synonym dictionary

Individual personality characteristics, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a definition. type of activity. S. are not reduced to the knowledge, skills, and abilities that an individual has. They are revealed primarily in speed,... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Modern encyclopedia

Individual personality characteristics, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity. They are not reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities; are revealed in the speed, depth and strength of mastery of methods and... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

CAPABILITIES- CAPABILITIES. Individual psychological characteristics of people, on which their acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities depends. C. determine the success of a particular activity. There are S. for language, mathematical, musical, ... ... New dictionary methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)

Capabilities- ABILITIES, individual personality characteristics, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity. They are not reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities; are revealed in the speed, depth and strength of mastery... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

capabilities- outstanding abilities exceptional abilities remarkable abilities extraordinary abilities extraordinary abilities enormous abilities amazing abilities amazing abilities fantastic abilities ... ... Dictionary of Russian Idioms

CAPABILITIES- individual psychological characteristics of a person, which are the conditions for the successful implementation of a certain activity. There are general and special C. General C are the properties of the mind, which underlie a variety of special. C, allocated in accordance with those ... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia Read more

The structure of abilities is a set of characteristics that determine a person’s propensity to perform a particular type of activity.

What are abilities

Abilities are properties that a person possesses that allow him to engage in a particular type of activity. Their development is determined by the presence of congenital inclinations.

It is worth noting that the structure of abilities cannot be equated with human abilities, skills, and a set of knowledge. Here we are talking about internal psychological processes that determine the speed and stability of the acquisition of certain characteristics.

Many psychologists believe that abilities can be associated with the character traits from which they were developed. This is the highest level at which a set of knowledge and skills is structured and given specific shape.

Ability Stats

For successful implementation, one or another must be inherent various kinds capabilities. Their structure is determined by various factors, including innate inclinations, professional sphere, education and others. Experts identify the following characteristics that describe abilities:

• these are individual characteristics that distinguish people from each other;
• the degree of development of abilities determines success in a particular area;
• are not identical to knowledge and skills, but only determine their quality and ease of acquisition;
• abilities are not hereditary;
• do not arise independently if the person is not engaged in a certain type of activity;
• in the absence of development, abilities gradually disappear.

What are the abilities?

The structure of abilities is largely determined by the specific area of ​​activity in which they are most clearly manifested. In this regard, the following typology is distinguished:

• mental - the ability to quickly and efficiently resolve issues that arise before an individual;
• musical abilities determine the presence of hearing, voice, good sensitivity to tempo, rhythm and melody, as well as quick comprehension of the basics of playing certain instruments;
• literary - this is the ability to fully, expressively and beautifully express one’s thoughts in writing;
• technical abilities imply good combinatorial thinking, as well as a deep understanding of the operation of certain mechanisms;
• physical - imply a strong physique and developed muscles, as well as good endurance and other parameters;
• learning abilities imply the ability to perceive and understand large amounts of information with the possibility of their further practical application;
• artistic skills are the ability to perceive and convey proportions and colors, as well as create original shapes, etc.

It is worth noting that this is not a complete list of abilities that a person may have.

Classification of abilities

The classification structure of abilities can be described as follows:

• According to origin:
  • natural abilities have a biological structure and are determined by the development of innate inclinations;
  • social abilities - those that were acquired in the process of upbringing and training.
• According to the direction:
  • general abilities are necessary due to the fact that they have a wide scope of application;
  • special abilities are mandatory in the case of performing a specific type of activity.
• In accordance with development conditions:
  • potential abilities manifest themselves over time after exposure to certain conditions;
  • actual abilities are those that occur at a given moment in time.
• According to the level of development:
  • giftedness;
  • talent;
  • genius.

Basic signs of abilities

The category of abilities is of quite great interest. The structure of the concept includes three main features:

• individual characteristics psychological nature that serve distinctive feature, distinguishing an individual from other people;
• the presence of abilities determines success in performing an activity of a certain kind (in some cases, in order to perform actions at the proper level, the presence, or, on the contrary, the absence, of certain characteristics is required);
• These are not direct skills and abilities, but individual characteristics that determine their acquisition.

Structure, ability levels

In psychology there are two main ones:

• reproductive (consists in the extent to which a person perceives incoming information, and also characterizes the volumes that can be reproduced);
• creative (implies the ability to create new, original images).

Degrees of development of abilities

The structure of ability development consists of the following main degrees:

• inclinations are the innate characteristics of a person that determine his propensity for a particular type of activity;
• giftedness is the highest level of development of inclinations, which determines the feeling of ease in performing certain tasks;
• talent is an individual talent that is expressed in the tendency to create something new, original;
• genius is the highest degree of development of the previous categories, which determines the ease of completing tasks of any kind;
• wisdom is the ability that allows you to soberly comprehend the events happening around you, as well as draw appropriate conclusions.

Typology of people, depending on abilities

The structure of abilities largely determines the qualities of an individual, as well as his inclination to perform activities of a certain kind. Thus, it is customary to distinguish people of artistic and thinking types.

If we talk about the first, then its representatives react very sharply to what is happening around them, which is accompanied by a surge of emotions and impressions. This often leads to the creation of something new. As for the thinking type, such people are more practical and less susceptible to external influences. They construct their reasoning logically and are also prone to constructing clear logical chains.

It is worth noting that belonging to the artistic type does not mean at all that a person definitely has the structure of abilities that allows him to acquire certain skills, as well as easily perform such work. In addition, people of the artistic type do not lack mental resources at all, but they are not dominant.

The division of personalities into artistic and thinking types is due to the fact that different people have more developed hemispheres. So, if the left predominates, then a person thinks symbolically, and if the right - figuratively.

Basic provisions of the theory of abilities

Modern psychological science identifies several provisions on which the theory of abilities is based:

• Abilities can exist only in relation to a certain type of activity. The structure and development of abilities can be identified and studied only in relation to a specific area, and not in general.
• Capabilities are considered to be a dynamic concept. They can develop in the process of continuous or regular performance of any activity, and can also fade away if the active stage has ended.
• The structure of a person’s abilities largely depends on the age or life period in which he is located. So, at a certain time there may be favorable conditions to achieve maximum results. After this, the abilities may gradually disappear.
• Psychologists still cannot give a clear definition of the differences between abilities and giftedness. Speaking in general terms, the first concept relates to a specific type of activity. As for giftedness, it can be both specific and general.
• Any activity requires a set of certain characteristics. The structure of abilities ensures the success of its implementation.

Correlation of abilities and needs

Psychologists argue that a relationship of limitation and compensation arises between needs and abilities. In this regard, the following main provisions can be highlighted:

• the simultaneous redundancy of abilities and needs limits the possibilities of activity;
• if abilities or needs are deficient, they can compensate for each other;
• if abilities are not enough, then other needs become relevant over time;
• excess needs require the acquisition of new abilities.

conclusions

Abilities represent specific properties of a person, which determine his propensity to perform one or another type of activity. They are not innate. This category includes inclinations, the presence of which greatly facilitates the process of developing abilities. Also, this concept should not be confused with giftedness or talent.

Psychologists identify several features that characterize the structure of a person’s abilities. They distinguish people from each other, and also determine their achievement of success in a particular field of activity. It is a mistake to believe that abilities are hereditary; this can only be said about inclinations. In addition, they cannot arise independently if a person is not engaged in a certain kind of activity. If there is no development, then the abilities gradually weaken and disappear (but this does not mean that they cannot be restored).

Depending on the field of activity, abilities are of several types. Thus, mental ones allow you to quickly respond to changes in the situation, taking meaningful and rational decisions. If we talk about musical abilities, then this is the presence of hearing and voice, perception of tempo-rhythm, as well as easy mastery of playing musical instruments. Literary ones are manifested in the ability to beautifully formulate one’s thoughts, and technical ones - in an understanding of the functional features of certain mechanisms. Speaking about physical abilities, it is worth noting endurance, as well as developed muscles. Educational ones make it possible to perceive and reproduce large amounts of information, and artistic ones - to convey colors and proportions. This is a basic, but far from complete list of human abilities.

Capabilities- these are very complex personal formations, having such properties as content, level of generality, creative potential, state of the art, psychological form. Exists whole line ability classifications. Let us reproduce the most significant of them.

Natural (or natural) abilities They are basically biologically determined by innate inclinations and are formed on their basis in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms.

Specific human abilities have a socio-historical origin and ensure life and development in the social environment (general and special higher intellectual abilities, which are based on the use of speech and logic; theoretical and practical; educational and creative). Specific human abilities, in turn, are divided into:

§ on are common, which determine a person’s success in a wide variety of activities and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements, etc.), and special, which determine a person’s success in certain types activities and communication, where a special kind of inclinations and their development are needed (mathematical, technical, artistic, creative, sports abilities, etc.). These abilities, as a rule, can complement and enrich each other, but each of them has its own structure; The success of performing any concrete and specific activity depends not only on special, but also on general abilities. Therefore, during vocational training specialists cannot be limited to the formation of only special abilities;

§ theoretical, which determine a person’s tendency to abstract logical thinking, and practical, underlying the propensity for concrete practical actions. Unlike general and special abilities, theoretical and practical abilities most often do not combine with each other. Most people have one or the other type of ability. Together they are extremely rare, mainly in gifted, diversified people;

§ educational, which influence the success of pedagogical influence, a person’s assimilation of knowledge, abilities, skills, the formation of personality qualities, and creative associated with success in creating objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new, original ideas, discoveries, inventions, creativity in various areas of human activity. They are the ones who provide social progress. The highest degree of creative manifestations of a personality is called genius, and the highest degree of a person’s abilities in a certain activity (communication) is called talent;

§ abilities manifested in communication and interaction with people. They are socially conditioned, as they are formed during a person’s life in society and require mastery of speech as a means of communication, the ability to adapt to people’s society, i.e. correctly perceive and evaluate their actions, interact and establish good relationships in various social situations, etc. And subject-activity abilities, related to the interaction of people with nature, technology, symbolic information, artistic images, etc.

Abilities ensure the success of a person’s social existence and are always included in the structure of various types of activity, determining its content. They seem to be the most important condition for achieving the pinnacle of professional excellence. According to the classification of professions E.A. Klimov, all abilities can be divided into five groups:

1) abilities required by specialists in the field “man is a sign system.” This group includes professions related to the creation, study and use of various sign systems(e.g. linguistics, languages mathematical programming, methods of graphical presentation of observation results, etc.);

2) abilities required by specialists in the field "man - technology". This includes different kinds work activities in which a person deals with technology, its use or design (for example, the profession of engineer, operator, machinist, etc.);

3) abilities required by specialists in the field “ man - nature" This includes professions in which a person deals with various phenomena inanimate and living nature, for example, biologist, geographer, geologist, chemist and other professions related to the category natural sciences;

4) abilities required by specialists in the field “ Human - artistic image " This group of professions represents various types of artistic and creative work (for example, literature, music, theater, visual arts);

5) abilities required by specialists in the field “ man – man" This includes all types of professions that involve interaction between people (politics, religion, pedagogy, psychology, medicine, law).

Abilities are a set of mental qualities that have a complex structure. In the structure of the ability to perform a certain activity, one can distinguish qualities that occupy a leading position and those that are auxiliary. These components form a unity that ensures the success of the activity.

General Abilities– a set of potential (hereditary, congenital) psychodynamic characteristics of a person that determine his readiness for activity.

Special Abilities– a system of personality traits that help achieve high results in any field of activity.

Talent – high level of development of abilities, especially special ones (musical, literary, etc.).

Talent is a combination of abilities, their totality (synthesis). Each individual ability reaches a high level and cannot be considered a talent unless it is connected to other abilities. The presence of talent is judged by the results of a person’s activities, which are distinguished by fundamental novelty, originality, perfection and social significance. The peculiarity of talent is a high level of creativity in carrying out activities.

Genius– the highest level of talent development, allowing to implement fundamentally new things in a particular field of activity. The difference between genius and talent is not so much quantitative as qualitative. We can talk about the presence of genius only if a person achieves such results of creative activity that constitute an era in the life of society and in the development of culture.

The set of a number of abilities that determine a person’s particularly successful activity in a certain area and distinguish him from other persons performing this activity in the same conditions is called giftedness.

Gifted people are distinguished by attentiveness, composure, and readiness for activity; They are characterized by persistence in achieving goals, the need to work, as well as intelligence that exceeds the average level.

The more pronounced the abilities, the fewer people have them. In terms of the level of development of abilities, most people do not stand out in any way. There are not so many gifted people, much fewer talented people, and geniuses can be found in every field approximately once a century. It's simple unique people, constituting the heritage of humanity, and that is why they require the most careful treatment.

Excellence in a specific activity that requires a lot of hard work is called skill.

Mastery is revealed not only in the sum of skills and abilities, but also in psychological readiness for the qualified implementation of any labor operations that will be necessary for creative solution emerging tasks.

The structure of abilities for certain activities is individual for each person. Lack of abilities does not mean a person is unfit to perform an activity, since there are psychological mechanisms to compensate for missing abilities. Compensation can be carried out through acquired knowledge, skills, through the formation individual style activity or through a more developed ability. The ability to compensate for some abilities with the help of others develops a person’s internal potential, opens up new paths to choosing a profession and improving in it.

In the structure of any ability there are individual components that make it up biological basis or prerequisites. This may be increased sensitivity of the sensory organs, properties of the nervous system and other biological factors. They are called makings.

Makings of- these are congenital anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs and movement that make up natural basis development of abilities.

Most inclinations are genetically predetermined. In addition to congenital inclinations, a person also has acquired inclinations, which are formed in the process of maturation and development of the child in the first years of life. Such inclinations are called social. On our own natural inclinations do not yet determine successful human activity, i.e. are not abilities. These are only natural conditions or factors on the basis of which the development of abilities occurs.

The presence of certain inclinations in a person does not mean that he will develop certain abilities, since it is difficult to predict what kind of activity a person will choose for himself in the future. Therefore, the degree of development of inclinations depends on the conditions individual development person, conditions of education and upbringing, features of the development of society.

The makings are multi-valued. On the basis of one inclination, a wide variety of abilities can be formed, depending on the nature of the requirements imposed by the activity.

Abilities are always associated with mental functions person: memory, attention, emotions, etc. Depending on this, the following types of abilities can be distinguished: psychomotor, mental, speech, volitional, etc. They are part of the structure of professional abilities.

When assessing professional abilities, one should take into account psychological structure this profession, its professiogram. When determining a person’s suitability for a certain profession, it is necessary not only a comprehensive study of this individual scientific methods, but also knowledge of its compensatory capabilities.

In the most generalized form of pedagogical abilities were presented by V.A. Krutetsky, who gave them the corresponding general definitions.

1. Didactic abilities – the ability to convey educational material to students, making it accessible to children, to present the material or problem to them clearly and understandably, to arouse interest in the subject, to arouse active independent thought in students.

2. Academic ability– ability in the relevant field of science (mathematics, physics, biology, literature, etc.).

3. Perceptual abilities- ability to penetrate inner world student, pupil, psychological observation associated with a subtle understanding of the student’s personality and his temporary mental states.

4. Speech abilities– the ability to clearly and clearly express one’s thoughts and feelings through speech, as well as facial expressions and pantomimes.

5. Organizational skills – this is, firstly, the ability to organize a student team, unite it, inspire it to make decisions important tasks and, secondly, the ability to properly organize your own work.

6. Authoritarian abilities– the ability to directly emotionally-volitionally influence students and the ability to gain authority from them on this basis (although, of course, authority is created not only on this basis, but, for example, on the basis of excellent knowledge of the subject, sensitivity and tact of the teacher, etc. .).

7. Communication skills– ability to communicate with children, ability to find the right approach to students, to establish with them expedient, with pedagogical point vision, relationships, presence of pedagogical tact.

8. Pedagogical imagination(or, as they would be called now, predictive abilities) is a special ability, expressed in foreseeing the consequences of one’s actions, in the educational design of students’ personality, associated with the idea of ​​what a student will become in the future, in the ability to predict the development of certain qualities of the pupil.

9. Ability to distribute attention simultaneously between several types of activities has special meaning for a teacher's work.

As can be seen from the above definitions of pedagogical abilities, in their content, firstly, they include many personal qualities and, secondly, they are revealed through certain actions and skills.

21. Age periodization of the human life cycle. Social situation of development, leading activities, new formations

Creation of periodization of personality formation is one of current problems developmental psychology.

Despite the fact that the study of the problem of periodization of human life has a long history, it remains undeveloped. In any case, the generally accepted differentiation of periods of personality formation in domestic and foreign psychology No.

Before considering the psychological foundations of periodization, let us define the basic concepts.

Obviously, one must distinguish differentiation and periodization. Periodization(from the Greek periodos - rotation) - division of a phenomenon into certain periods of time, covering any completed process.

Differentiation(from lat. diferentia - differentiation) - division of the whole into various shapes and steps.

It is also advisable to separate period and stage. Period– this is a period of time covering any completed process; stage- a certain stage in development.

Problems of development, socialization and personality formation are complex and controversial; in the psychological literature there are no unambiguous definitions of these processes, their sources and driving forces are interpreted differently.

Most general concept is development– consistent, progressive (albeit including regression at certain points), generally irreversible quantitative and qualitative changes in the psyche.

Mental development is always the emergence of something new, the transition to which has a spasmodic character; it invariably includes breaks of gradualness. The stability and stability of personality is constantly accompanied by its change and enrichment. Development is the main way of existence of an individual.

The development of the psyche is the main factor in personality development, which occurs in the process of performing multifaceted activities and communication. Personal development is influenced by the social environment.

Differentiation of human ontogenesis determined by the socio-historical conditions of his life and is of a conventional nature. In the life of a person as a biosocial being, biological processes, patterns of maturation of the body and the course of involutionary processes are of great importance.

Personality formation is a process of targeted progressive personality change under the influence social impacts And own activity aimed at self-improvement and self-realization.

Becoming necessarily presupposes the need for development, the possibility and reality of its satisfaction.

The central problem of personality formation is to reveal the patterns of transition from lower level development to the highest. In the development of personality, periods and stages can be distinguished.

Except staged development also distinguishes functional, i.e. carried out within a certain stage and leading to the quantitative accumulation of qualitatively new elements, which form a potential reserve. The creation of these internal development potentials is the result active interaction the individual with the surrounding world in the form of activity, which serves as a constant source of enrichment of the psyche. The result of an activity, if it really is the implementation of a set goal, is always richer and more meaningful.

The problem of periodization of the formation of personality and man was analyzed already in Ancient world. In Russian psychology, it was studied by B.G. Ananyev, L.I. Bozhovich, L.S. Vygotsky, Art. Vlad. Petrovsky, D.B. Elkonin and others. In foreign psychology, Z. Freud, E. Erikson, K. Horney, and others paid attention to the problems of personality and human development.

Main difficulty when considering this issue, it was to highlight periodization criteria.

For example, back in the ancient world Hippocrates as criteria for classifying human life, he identified the so-called. turning point years, based on the idea of ​​digital symbolism. According to the philosopher, every 7 years a radical restructuring occurs in the human body, dangerous to his health and life. In accordance with these ideas, human life was divided into 10 periods of 7 years each.

According to Z. Freud, differentiation of stages of personality development should be carried out taking into account in which area of ​​the human body the libidinal energy is concentrated.

According to E. Erickson, the transition from one stage of personal development is determined by the individual’s readiness to move in the direction of further growth, expansion of the perceived social horizon and radius social interaction(epigenetic principle of personality development).

Domestic psychologists reveal the qualitative uniqueness of each period (stage) of personality development on the basis of such concepts as the social situation of development and leading activity.

Idea social situation development was formulated by L. S. Vygotsky to characterize the system of relations between the child and social reality. “The social situation of development,” he wrote, “represents the starting point for all dynamic changes occurring in development during of this period. It determines entirely those forms and the path along which the child acquires new and new personality traits, drawing them from social reality, as from the main source of development, the path along which the social becomes individual.”

Thus, when considering the periods (stages) of personality formation, one should analyze the social situation of development, which is characterized primarily by the system of relationships between the individual and others. By entering various formal and informal groups, a person determines his attitude to group norms and values, learns new ones social roles. An important point Personal development at a certain stage becomes its attitude towards itself. Awareness of one's properties and qualities leads the individual to the formation of the need to be an individual. “The need to be an individual, the need for personalization ensures the active inclusion of the individual in the system social connections and at the same time it turns out to be determined by these social connections.”

Concept leading activities disclosed in the works of A. N. Leontyev. “This is an activity,” he points out, “the development of which determines the most important changes in mental processes, psychological characteristics of the individual at a given stage of its development.” Each stage of development is characterized by a variety of activities; By implementing them, the personality develops diversified. But there is always one activity that performs a defining, leading function in the development of the individual. A special role in turning a particular activity into a leading one is played by the individual’s attitude towards it. If the activity is performed willingly, with interest, if it has acquired a special meaning for the individual personal meaning, then the main development is initiated primarily by it.

Leading activity has the following characteristics:

§ the main psychological new formations of each stage of personality development depend on it;

§ in its form new types of activities arise and develop;

§ private mental processes arise and are formed in it.

Each stage of development has its own special significance for the human psyche and is characterized by unique psychological neoplasms , which, being included in the composition of genetically later stages, do not dissolve in them, but, on the contrary, are significantly enriched, because the new, more complex system endows with its systemic quality the forms of the psyche, behavior, and activity that arose at the previous stages. Moreover, the more fully they develop genetically early forms psyche, the more rich potentialities are created for its subsequent progress.

The integrity of the process of personality development is ensured by the unity of continuity and discontinuity. Continuity in development expresses relative stability within one social situation. Discontinuity characterizes qualitative changes during the transition from one stage to another. Thus, in the mental development of a person, one can distinguish periods of accumulation of opportunities, new development potentials and phases of disorganization of the existing psychological system of the individual, its restructuring and the formation of a new integrity, the center of which becomes a different psychological new formation than before. These periods are called critical. They are characterized by a change in leading activity and pace of development; increased vulnerability, internal confusion, wandering, overestimation of oneself and others.

22. Age periodization of personality development.

Psychology of adolescence