Basic scientific principles formulated by the author based on the research:
- Due to the fact that modern sociocultural processes create new opportunities, types and forms of communication for representatives different cultures, the main condition for the effectiveness of which is mutual understanding, dialogue interaction, a tolerant attitude towards the culture of communication partners, then all this gives rise to the need to introduce scientific circulation the term “intercultural competence”, understood by the author as a sociocultural quality of an individual necessary for its adaptation to foreign cultural conditions, for successful and effective intercultural communication, joint activities and cooperation with native speakers of other cultures.
- Intercultural competence as the most important individual and group characteristic is formed from two sources that have a global and glocal scale: a) the intensive spread and deepening of the total phenomenon of multiculturalism and b) the accelerated formation and development of intercultural communication. The first source can be called ideological - it forms a meaningful series of intercultural competence. The second source can be called technological - it forms the instrumental range of intercultural competence.
- The synergistic flow of the ideology of multiculturalism and the technology of intercultural communication forms spontaneous (chaotic) foundations for the formation of intercultural competence in the human community, however, it is possible to target (order) this process, which has the property of fluctuation, only by giving it attractive properties. The decisive ideological and technological prerequisite for transforming the chaos of the unconscious into the order of the conscious at the levels of the individual, ethnocultural group, ethnic community, and world community is a global and glocal state cultural policy, coordinated on universal human concepts of existence, formed on the basis of equality of communicative capabilities of all actors of intercultural communication, as well as their media education and computer literacy.
- There is a stable relationship and interdependence between the state of intercultural competence and the general structure of the qualities of its subjects, since, on the one hand, increasing intercultural competence helps to strengthen the interest of each subject in the culture of partners and in their own culture, and, on the other hand, knowledge of both cultures contributes to the formation and development of her intercultural competence in the context of cultural globalization. Under these conditions, intercultural competence not only fulfills the task of exchanging information in the process of interaction between people who are carriers of different values and types of behavior, but it also determines and forms the intercultural tolerance of communication partners, thereby adapting representatives of different ethnic and national cultures to each other. friend and to the multiculturalism of a single globalized world.
- Intercultural competence is one of the forms of reproduction, preservation, development and transmission of the culture of each ethnic group in the consciousness and behavior of its individual representatives, as well as in a single fund of universal human values of world culture. It represents a special sociocultural phenomenon that promotes the interpenetration of cultures and their openness to each other, which is the most important condition for the interaction of representatives of different cultures in the globalized multicultural space of the world community.
- Intercultural competence is a spiritual and practical product of a morally and materially stimulated system of education and self-education of citizens, put on an ideological and technological stream by society, the state, international organizations and institutions. Key role The information and broadcasting sphere (mass media) plays here as a structure and institution of the system of social (spiritual) reproduction, giving problem-thematic primacy to facts, events, and phenomena of cultural life, resorting to their social and aesthetic interpretations on the basis of universal human values, avoiding disproportions of “one’s own” and “alien” sociocultural material, restraining the negative impact of widely circulated mass culture on the consciousness and behavior of people.
- The objective basis for the formation and existence of intercultural competence are the ethnocultural differences and similarities of peoples, which are determined by the landscape and climate, their living conditions in different countries, different positions in the structure of society, type of religion, way of life and other reasons. Among the existing cultural differences, a special place is occupied by mentality and language forms self-awareness of each culture, which together form a specific ethnocultural picture of the world, expressed in different visions and assessments of the same phenomena by each culture (including another culture).
- The practice of developing intercultural competence is, to one degree or another, associated with overcoming ethnocultural stereotypes and prejudices, which are sociocultural barriers to intercultural dialogue that significantly limit the effectiveness of intercultural communication. Therefore, the effectiveness of intercultural dialogue is achieved, in particular, by overcoming relevant stereotypes and prejudices by borrowing and using artifacts from one culture to another. As a result, intercultural competence becomes that property of an individual or community that allows partners in intercultural communication to carry out joint activities, create common cultural values, and form a single sociocultural space in which representatives of different cultures and ethnic groups can interact.
Monographs, textbooks and teaching aids
1. Sadokhin A.P. Intercultural competence as a sociocultural phenomenon: Monograph. - Kaluga, Publishing House "Eidos", 2008. - 268 p. (16.7 p.l.).
2. Sadokhin A.P. Introduction to the theory of intercultural communication. Scientific publication. – M.: Higher School, 2005. – 310 p. (19 al.)
3. Sadokhin A.P. Theory and practice of intercultural communication: Textbook for universities. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2004. – 271 p. (17 a.l.)
4. Sadokhin A.P. Intercultural communication: Textbook. – M.: Alfa-M: INFRA-M, 2006. – 288 p. (18 al.)
5. Grushevitskaya T.G., Popkov V.D., Sadokhin A.P. Fundamentals of intercultural communication: Textbook for universities / Ed. A.P. Sadokhina. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2002. – 352 p. (18 a. l.) (author's contribution 6 a. l.)
6. Sadokhin A.P., Grushevitskaya T.G. Culturology. Theory of culture: Textbook for universities. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2004. – 365 p. (20 a. l.) (author's contribution 10 a. l.)
7. Sadokhin A.P. Culturology: theory and history of culture: Textbook. – M.: Eksmo Publishing House, 2005. – 624 p. (39 a.l.)
8. Grushevitskaya T.G., Sadokhin A.P. Culturology: a textbook for university students. – 3rd ed., revised. and additional.. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2007. – 687 p. (40 a. l.) (author's contribution 20 a. l.)
9. Sadokhin A.P. Intercultural competence and competence in modern communication: (Experience system analysis) // Social sciences and modernity. – 2008 No. 3. – P. – 156-166.
10. Sadokhin A.P. Competence or competency in intercultural communication // Bulletin of Moscow University. Episode 19: Linguistics and intercultural communication. 2007. – No. 3. – P.39 – 56.
11. Sadokhin A.P. Intercultural competence: concept, structure, ways of formation // Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology. – T.Kh. – 2007. – No. 1. – P.125 – 139.
12. Sadokhin A.P. Competence and the competence approach in the dialogue of cultures // Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology. – T. XI. – 2008. – No. 2. – P. 80 – 92.
13. Sadokhin A. “Friend - foe” in intercultural communication // Issues of cultural studies. – M., 2007. – No. 3. – P.15 – 19.
14. Sadokhin A.P. Training method in the formation of intercultural competence // Observatory of Culture: Journal – Review, 2007. – No. 3. – P. 90 – 95.
15. Sadokhin A.P. Intercultural barriers and ways to overcome them in the process of communication // Observatory of Culture: Journal – Review, 2008. – No. 2. – P. 26 – 32.
16. Sadokhin A.P. Dialogue of cultures: communication or communication? // Public service. Scientific and political magazine. – 2008. – No. 4 (54). – P.150-154.
Scientific articles, materials, theses
17. Sadokhin A.P. Tolerant consciousness: essence and features // Tolerant consciousness and formation tolerant relations. – M.: Publishing house of the Moscow Psychological and Social Institute; Voronezh: Publishing house NPO "MODEK", 2002 - pp. 20 - 31.
18. Sadokhin A.P. Intercultural understanding as the basis of tolerance // Tolerant consciousness and the formation of tolerant relations. – M.: Publishing house of the Moscow Psychological and Social Institute; Voronezh: Publishing house NPO "MODEK", 2002 - P.163 - 181.
19. Sadokhin A.P., Grushevitskaya T.G. Intercultural interaction and cultural tolerance // Sadokhin A.P., Grushevitskaya T.G. Fundamentals of ethnology: Textbook. manual for universities. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2003.-P. 244-250.
20. Sadokhin A.P. Theories of ethnocultural interaction // Sadokhin A.P. Ethnology: Textbook.- M., Gardariki, 2004.- pp. 245-249.
21. Sadokhin A.P. Globalization in international relations // Sadokhin A.P. Political science. Lecture notes: textbook. – M.: Eksmo, 2006. – P. 194 – 197.
22. Sadokhin A.P. Cultural identity and intercultural communication // Art in the context of civilizational identity. – M.: State Institute art history, 2006. – P. 260 – 270.
23. Sadokhin A.P. Intercultural competence: concept, structure, ways of formation // News of the Academy of Pedagogical and Social Sciences. Vol. XI. – M., 2007. – P. 86 – 98.
24. Sadokhin A.P. Tolerance and competence in intercultural communication // Archetype. – M., 2007. – No. 1. – P.51 – 59.
25. Sadokhin A.P. Diversity of cultures and intercultural communication // University readings. Sat. articles of the Moscow State University IPPC / Editorial Board: Voronkova L.P., Bazhukov V.I. – M.: MAKS Press, 2007. – Issue. 13. – pp. 36 – 48.
26. Sadokhin A.P. Educational workshop in intercultural communication // World of Education - Education in the World. Scientific and methodological journal No. 3 (27). – 2007. – P. 157 – 177.
27. Sadokhin A.P. Training as a method of teaching intercultural competence / Media culture new Russia. Proceedings of the international scientific conference (Ekaterinburg, June 8-10, 2007). Volume II / Ed. N.B. Kirillova and others - Ekaterinburg - Moscow: Academic Project, 2007. - P. 385 - 398.
28. Sadokhin A.P. Competence-based approach in the dialogue of cultures: essence and basic indicators // Intercultural and interreligious dialogue for sustainable development: Materials international conference. Moscow, RAGS, September 13–16, 2007 / Edited by. ed. VC. Egorova. – M.: Publishing house RAGS, 2008. – P. 251–255.
29. Sadokhin A.P. Contemporary museum: intercultural communications and communication gaps // Culture and cultural policy: Materials of a scientific and methodological seminar. Issue 5. Museum in sociocultural realities / Ed. ed. HE. Astafieva, V.K. Egorova. – M.: Publishing house RAGS, 2008. (0.5 pp.)
30. Sadokhin A.P. Basic acculturation strategies in the formation of intercultural competence // Culture and cultural policy. The formation of domestic cultural studies: cultural studies in events and persons. In memory of Professor I.N. Lisakovsky / Under the general. ed. HE. Astafieva, V.K. Egorova. – M.: MAKS-Press, 2008.
Chapter 1. Culturology in the system of humanities 5
The formation of cultural studies as a science 6
Interdisciplinary connections of cultural studies 8
Subject and tasks of cultural studies 11
The structure of cultural studies as a science 15
Chapter 2. The emergence and development of cultural thought 22
Pre-classical period of development of cultural studies 23
The classical period of development of cultural studies 27
Enlightenment and idealistic concepts of culture 35
Chapter 3. Non-classical period of development of cultural studies 45
Culturological concept of evolutionism. G. Spencer, E. Tylor 45
Theory of local civilizations. N.Ya. Danilevsky 48
Philosophy of life about culture. F. Nietzsche 56
Chapter 4. Culturological theories of modernity 63
Morphological concept of history by O. Spengler 63
Concept of Civilizations by A. Toynbee 67
The concept of cyclical development of culture P. Sorokin 73
Psychoanalytic concept of culture 3. Freud 81
The concept of the collective unconscious by K. Jung 84
Functional theory of culture by B. Malinovsky 87
Game concept of culture I. Huizinga 90
Passionary theory of culture by L. Gumilyov 94
Chapter 5. Culture as a subject of study 98
The concept of “culture” 98
Basic theories of cultural genesis 102
Culture and civilization 106
Chapter 6. Structure and functions of culture 114
Artifact, cultural form and cultural system 114
Material and spiritual forms of culture 116
World culture and national (ethnic) culture 122
Mass culture and elite culture 125
Counter culture and subcultures 131
Functions of culture 134
Chapter 7. Dynamics of Culture 145
Models (forms) of cultural dynamics 146
Types of cultural dynamics 157
Sources (mechanisms) of cultural dynamics 160
Factors of cultural dynamics 165
Modernization of traditional cultures 172
Globalization of culture of the modern world 175
Chapter 8. Genesis of culture 179
Culture and nature 180
Culture and language 185
Personal cultural identity 188
Chapter 9. Typology of cultures 199
Historical typology of cultures 200
Formational typology of cultures 201
Civilization typology of cultures 202
Linear typology of cultures by K. Jaspers 204
Modern concepts typologies of cultures 206
Chapter 10. Culture of primitive society 211
Periodization and characteristic features of primitive culture 211
The formation of the culture of primitive society 214
Spiritual primitive culture 217
Artistic culture of primitive society 224
Chapter 11. Culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia 231
Culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia 232
Spiritual culture of Mesopotamia 238
Art of Mesopotamian civilizations 242
Chapter 12. Culture of the civilization of Ancient Egypt 248
The origins of the culture of Ancient Egypt 248
Culture of the Ancient Kingdom 250
Culture of the Middle Kingdom 254
New Kingdom Culture 256
Religion and Art of Ancient Egypt 260
Chapter 13. Unity and diversity of Indian culture 266
Culture Harappan civilization and Aryan culture 267
Culture in the Mauryan era 274
Culture in the Gupta era 281
Culture of India during the Middle Ages and Modern times 286
Chapter 14. Traditional culture China 294
The main stages of the development of the culture of Ancient China 295
Spiritual culture and religion of China 297
Art of Ancient China 303
Chinese culture of the Middle Ages 305
Chapter 15. Hebrew culture 317
Origins and beginning of Hebrew culture 317
History of the religion of the ancient Jews 319
Monuments of ancient Jewish culture 325
Chapter 16. Ancient culture Ancient Greece 328
Periodization of the culture of Ancient Greece 328
Creto-Mycenaean culture 330
Culture of the Homeric period 333
Culture of the archaic period 335
Culture of the classical period 341
Hellenistic culture 350
Chapter 17. Ancient culture of Ancient Rome 356
Culture of the Republic Era 357
Culture of the Empire 363
Culture of the Late Empire 369
Chapter 18. Culture of Byzantine civilization 373
Evolution of Byzantine culture 374
Early period of Byzantine culture 375
"Dark Age" and "Macedonian Renaissance" 380
"Palaeologian Renaissance" 385
Chapter 19. Culture of civilizations of pre-Columbian America 391
Olmec culture 391
Culture of the Mayan civilization 393
Culture of the Aztec civilization 397
Culture of the Inca Civilization 400
Chapter 20. European culture of the Middle Ages 405
Features of the culture of the Middle Ages 406
Three types of culture of the Middle Ages 412
Artistic styles Middle Ages 422
Chapter 21. Arab-Muslim type of culture 429
Origins and foundations of Arab culture 430
Arab-Muslim culture of the Middle Ages 434
Chapter 22. Traditional culture of Japan 445
Spiritual and religious foundations of Japanese culture 445
Artistic culture of medieval Japan 449
Chapter 23. Culture of the Renaissance 457
Prerequisites and features of Renaissance culture 457
Italian Renaissance Culture: Intelligence, Harmony and Power 464
Northern Renaissance 478
Chapter 24. European culture of modern times 486
Characteristic features of the era 487
Culture and art of the 17th century. Classicism and Baroque 491
Culture and art XVIII V. Rococo and sentimentalism 502
Chapter 25. Main directions of European artistic culture XIX century 507
Socio-historical features of the era 508
Romanticism 510
Critical realism and the principle of the typical 513
Impressionism and post-impressionism 518
Symbolism and decadence: artistic consciousness and creative method 522
History of Russian culture 528
Chapter 26. Russian culture of the era of Kievan Rus 529
Origins and conditions for the emergence of Russian culture 529
Old Russian pagan culture 532
Culture of Kievan Rus, Ancient Novgorod and Pskov 536
Typological features of ancient Russian culture 550
Chapter 27. Medieval culture Moscow Rus' 553
27.1. Russian culture of the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion 554
27.2 The beginning of the culture of Muscovite Rus' 558
Russian culture of the 16th century. 563
Worldization of the Russian XVII culture century. 570
Chapter 28. Two faces of Russian culture of modern times 582
Culture of the era of Peter's reforms 583
Culture of Russia 30-50s of the 18th century. 590
Formation of a national Russian culture 596
Chapter 29. “Golden Age” of Russian culture 608
Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century: development of identity and self-awareness 609
Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century: citizenship, morality and democratic orientation 620
Chapter 30. Culture Silver Age: personality and its spiritual world 631
New artistic movements in Russian literature 632
Fine Art of the Silver Age 639
Chapter 31. World culture of modern times (instead of conclusion) 643
Main features and trends of modern world culture 644
Contemporary modernism 647
Modernism in the fine arts 654
Postmodernism and its features 663
Brief dictionary of special terms 669
The main task of higher education is to train not just a specialist in some narrow field of production and management, but to form an individual capable of creatively solving the problems facing her and consciously making decisions on all issues that are vitally important to her.
Labor market research clearly shows that modern society does not need specialists who are capable of solving narrowly utilitarian problems only within the framework of the complex of knowledge and skills acquired during training. Today it is not enough to master the specialty written in the diploma; you need to be aware latest achievements in your professional field, and be able to apply them creatively in your workplace. And this is accessible only to a comprehensively educated person, with high level general culture, which can find new non-traditional solutions to the problems it faces. The speed and unconventional thinking of specialists are determined not only by the volume of highly specialized knowledge, but also by their erudition and breadth of outlook.
The textbook is a comprehensive and systematic presentation of the main issues of cultural knowledge in accordance with the requirements of the state educational standard higher professional education. The authors saw their main goal as presenting in a holistic form the content of modern cultural knowledge, showing the history of the development of cultural thought, considering the development of the cultures of the countries of the East, West and Russia from antiquity to the present, introducing readers to the categorical apparatus of this discipline, revealing the essence of the main problems modern cultural studies. Along with highlighting the fundamental facts of the cultural history of mankind, the authors tried to attract Additional materials, which should contribute to a more in-depth study of the topics presented in this training course.
For students of higher educational institutions, it may also be of interest to humanities specialists, students of high schools, lyceums and colleges, as well as to a wide range of readers.
The main task of higher education is to train not just a specialist in some narrow field of production and management, but to form an individual capable of creatively solving the problems facing her and consciously making decisions on all issues that are vitally important to her.
Labor market research clearly shows that modern society does not need specialists who are capable of solving narrowly utilitarian problems only within the framework of the complex of knowledge and skills acquired during training. Today it is not enough to master the specialty written in the diploma; you need to be aware of the latest achievements in your professional field and be able to creatively apply them in your workplace. And this is accessible only to a comprehensively educated person, with a high level of general culture, who can find new, unconventional solutions to the problems facing him. The speed and unconventional thinking of specialists are determined not only by the volume of highly specialized knowledge, but also by their erudition and breadth of outlook.
Table of contents
From the authors 3
Chapter 1. Culturology in the system of humanities 5
1.1. The formation of cultural studies as a science 6
1.2. Interdisciplinary connections of cultural studies 8
1.3. Subject and tasks of cultural studies 11
1.4. The structure of cultural studies as a science 15
Chapter 2. The emergence and development of cultural thought 22
2.1. Pre-classical period of development of cultural studies 23
2.2. The classical period of development of cultural studies 27
2.3. Enlightenment and idealistic concepts of culture 35
Chapter 3. Non-classical period of development of cultural studies 45
3.1. Culturological concept of evolutionism. G. Spencer, E. Tylor 45
3.2. Theory of local civilizations. N.Ya. Danilevsky 48
3.3. Philosophy of life about culture. F. Nietzsche 56
Chapter 4. Culturological theories of modernity 63
4.1. Morphological concept of history by O. Spengler 63
4.2. Concept of Civilizations by A. Toynbee 67
4.3. The concept of cyclical development of culture P. Sorokin 73
4.4. Psychoanalytic concept of culture 3. Freud 81
4.5. The concept of the collective unconscious by K. Jung 84
4.6. Functional theory of culture by B. Malinovsky 87
4.7. Game concept of culture I. Huizinga 90
4.8. Passionary theory of culture by L. Gumilyov 94
Chapter 5. Culture as a subject of study 98
5.1. The concept of “culture” 98
5.2. Basic theories of culourogenesis 102
5.3. Culture and civilization 106
Chapter 6. Structure and functions of culture 114
6.1. Artifact, cultural form and cultural system 114
6.2. Material and spiritual forms of culture 116
6.3. World culture and national (ethnic) culture 122
6.4. Mass culture and elite culture 125
6.5. Counterculture and subcultures 131
6.6. Functions of culture 134
Chapter 7. Dynamics of Culture 145
7.1. Models (forms) of cultural dynamics 146
7.2. Types of cultural dynamics 157
7.3. Sources (mechanisms) of cultural dynamics 160
7.4. Factors of cultural dynamics 165
7.5. Modernization of traditional cultures 172
7.6. Globalization of culture of the modern world 175
Chapter 8. Genesis of culture 179
8.1. Culture and nature 180
8.2. Culture and language 185
8.3. Personal cultural identity 188
Chapter 9. Typology of cultures 199
9.1. Historical typology of cultures 200
9.2. Formational typology of cultures 201
9.3. Civilization typology of cultures 202
9.4. Linear typology of cultures by K. Jaspers 204
9.5. Modern concepts of cultural typology 206
Chapter 10. The culture of primitive society 211
10.1. Periodization and characteristic features of primitive culture 211
10.2. The formation of the culture of primitive society 214
10.3. Spiritual primitive culture 217
10.4. Artistic culture of primitive society 224
Chapter 11. Culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia 231
11.1. Culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia 232
11.2. Spiritual culture of Mesopotamia 238
11.3. Art of Mesopotamian civilizations 242
Chapter 12. Culture of the civilization of Ancient Egypt 248
12.1. The origins of the culture of Ancient Egypt 248
12.2. Culture of the Ancient Kingdom 250
12.3. Culture of the Middle Kingdom 254
12.4. New Kingdom Culture 256
12.5. Religion and Art of Ancient Egypt 260
Chapter 13. Unity and diversity of Indian culture 266
13.1. The culture of the Harappan civilization and the culture of the Aryans 267
13.2. Culture in the Mauryan era 274
13.3. Culture in the Gupta era 281
13.4. Culture of India during the Middle Ages and Modern times 286
Chapter 14. Traditional culture of China 294
14.1. The main stages of the development of the culture of Ancient China 295
14.2. Spiritual culture and religion of China 297
14.3. Art of Ancient China 303
14.4. Chinese culture of the Middle Ages 305
Chapter 15. Hebrew culture 317
15.1. Origins and beginning of Hebrew culture 317
15.2. History of the religion of the ancient Jews 319
15.3. Monuments of ancient Jewish culture 325
Chapter 16. Ancient culture of Ancient Greece 328
16.1. Periodization of the culture of Ancient Greece 328
16.2. Creto-Mycenaean culture 330
16.3. Culture of the Homeric period 333
16.4. Culture of the archaic period 335
16.5. Culture of the classical period 341
16.6. Hellenistic culture 350
Chapter 17. Ancient culture of Ancient Rome 356
17.1. Culture of the Republic Era 357
17.2. Culture of the Empire 363
17.3. Culture of the Late Empire 369
Chapter 18. Culture of Byzantine civilization 373
18.1. EVOLUTION OF Byzantine culture 374
18.2. Early period of Byzantine culture 375
18.3. "Dark Age" and "Macedonian Renaissance" 380
18.4. "Palaeologian Renaissance" 385
Chapter 19. Culture of civilizations of pre-Columbian America 391
19.1. Olmec culture 391
19.2. Culture of the Mayan civilization 393
19.3. Culture of the Aztec civilization 397
19.4. Culture of the Inca Civilization 400
Chapter 20. European culture of the Middle Ages 405
20.1. Features of the culture of the Middle Ages 406
20.2. Three types of culture of the Middle Ages 412
20.3. Artistic styles of the Middle Ages 422
Chapter 21. Arab-Muslim type of culture 429
21.1. Origins and foundations of Arab culture 430
21.2. Arab-Muslim culture of the Middle Ages 434
Chapter 22. Traditional culture of Japan 445
22.1. Spiritual and religious foundations of Japanese culture 445
22.2. Artistic culture of medieval Japan 449
Chapter 23. Culture of the Renaissance 457
23.1. Prerequisites and features of Renaissance culture 457
23.2. Italian Renaissance Culture: Intelligence, Harmony and Power 464
23.3. Northern Renaissance 478
Chapter 24. European culture of modern times 486
24.1. Characteristic features of the era 487
24.2. Culture and art of the 17th century. Classicism and Baroque 491
24.3. Culture and art of the 18th century. Rococo and sentimentalism 502
Chapter 25. Main directions of European artistic culture of the 19th century. 507
25.1. Socio-historical features of the era 508
25.2. Romanticism 510
25.3. Critical realism and the principle of the typical 513
25.4. Impressionism and post-impressionism 518
25.5. Symbolism and decadence: artistic consciousness and creative method 522
History of Russian culture 528
Chapter 26. Russian culture of the era of Kievan Rus 529
26.1. Origins and conditions for the emergence of Russian culture 529
26.2. Old Russian pagan culture 532
26.3. Culture of Kievan Rus, Ancient Novgorod and Pskov 536
26.4. Typological features of ancient Russian culture 550
Chapter 27. Medieval culture of Moscow Rus' 553
27.1. Russian culture of the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion 554
27.2 The beginning of the culture of Muscovite Rus' 558
27.3. Russian culture of the 16th century. 563
27.4. The secularization of Russian culture of the 17th century. 570
Chapter 28. Two faces of Russian culture of modern times 582
28.1. Culture of the era of Peter's reforms 583
28.2. Culture of Russia 30-50s of the 18th century. 590
28.3. Formation of a national Russian culture 596
Chapter 29. “Golden Age” of Russian culture 608
29.1. Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century: development of identity and self-awareness 609
29.2. Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century: citizenship, morality and democratic orientation 620
Chapter 30. Culture of the Silver Age: personality and its spiritual world 631
30.1. New artistic movements in Russian literature 632
30.2. Fine Art of the Silver Age 639
Chapter 31. World culture of modern times (instead of conclusion) 643
31.1. Main features and trends of modern world culture 644
31.2. Contemporary modernism 647
31.3. Modernism in the fine arts 654
31.4. Postmodernism and its features 663
Brief dictionary of special terms 669.
One of Russia's leading specialists in the field of cultural, historical, cultural, political and ethno-conflict studies. Director of the Center for Business Communications and Sociocultural Expertise Russian Academy national economy and public service under the President of the Russian Federation.
Expertise experience - more than 15 years.
Latest scientific publications:
- Astafieva O.N., Sadokhin A.P., Saiko E.A. Culturology // Educational and methodological complex. M.: Publishing house RAGS, 2009.
- Astafieva O.N., Sadokhin A.P., Saiko E.A. Administrative ethics // Educational and methodological complex. M.: Publishing house RAGS, 2009.
- Sadokhin A.P., Grushevitskaya T.G. History of world culture // Textbook. M.: UNITY-DANA, 2010.
- Sadokhin A.P., Tolstikova I.I.. Culturology // Textbook for university students studying social and humanitarian specialties. M.: UNITY-DANA, 2011.
- Astafieva O.N., Grushevitskaya T.G., Sadokhin A.P. Culturology. Theory of culture // Textbook for universities. Vulture UMO. M.: UNITY-DANA, 2012.
- Sadokhin A.P. World culture and art // Textbook for universities. Grif UMO, M.: UNITY-DANA, 2012.
- Sadokhin A.P. Culturology // Textbook. M.: KNORUS, 2012.
Scientific conferences in recent years:
- Second Russian Cultural Congress "Cultural diversity: from past to future." St. Petersburg, November 25-29, 2008
- International scientific conference "Orientalism / Occidentalism: languages of cultures and languages of description." Moscow, September 23-25, 2010
- Third Russian Cultural Congress "Creativity in the space of tradition and innovation." St. Petersburg, October 27-29, 2010
- International conference "Russia and the world: 2012-2020". Moscow, January 18-21, 2012
- International scientific conference "Intercultural interactions in the context of globalization: the experience of Russia and Korea." St. Petersburg, November 19-21, 2012
Specializes in conducting cultural and historical-cultural examinations in the following areas:
- establishing the cultural, artistic, scientific, historical value of objects of art, antiquities, weapons, objects of immovable heritage, etc.;
- identification of individual properties of objects of historical and cultural value (style, genre, time of creation, authenticity, etc.);
- establishing the presence of signs of erotica and pornography in printed publications, cinematographic products, video materials, images, etc.;
- establishing the presence or absence of signs of an author’s work (attribution of cultural and historical monuments for their creative nature and originality);
- establishing the similarity or identity of two opposed historical and cultural objects and works;
- identification ideological content, artistic qualities and other components in works of fine art, literature, journalism and scientific publications, used in the media and other types of communication;
- solving other expert problems.
Specializes in conducting political science and ethno-conflict examinations in cases related to extremist activities.
Laboratories
Other experts from the Laboratory of Cultural Expertise
Art expert
Researcher at the Research Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the Russian Academy of Arts. Author of scientific publications on issues of art history, history of world artistic culture, history of cinema, theater, and choreographic art. Specializes in conducting all types of art criticism examinations.
Transcript
1 A.P. Sadokhin ETHNOLOGY
2 A.P. Sadokhin ETHNOLOGY Recommended by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in the humanities and areas of training MOSCOW Gardariki 2008 UDC 39 (075.8) BBK63.5 SI Reviewers: Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor N. G. Skvortsov; Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor \V. F. Ageev\; doctor psychological sciences, Professor E.N. Bogdanov Sadokhin, A.P. S14 Ethnology: textbook/a. P. Sadokhin. 2nd ed., revised. and additional M.: Gardariki, p. ISBN (translated) Schools and directions, methodological approaches and theories of ethnological science are considered, the content of the main categories and concepts is revealed. The author pays special attention to the role of ethnology in modern socio-political processes. Theoretical provisions and descriptions are illustrated with specific examples from the lives of different peoples. For students, teachers of the humanities, specialists in the field of cultural studies, sociology, political science, cultural and social anthropology. UDC 39 (075.8) BBK 63.5 A fragment of the Chinese folk painting “Gardariki”, 2005, 2008 ISBN A.P. was used in the binding design. Sadokhin, 2005, 2008 INTRODUCTION 2
3 In an era of global changes in politics, economics, culture, in an era of simultaneous rapprochement and separation of cultures and peoples, ethnic problems have acquired particular significance. These changes, which transformed into short time entire social life, gave rise to complex problems, seriously influenced the nature of interethnic relations, revealing a huge interethnic conflict potential. In such conditions of interethnic tension, it is very important to understand what kind of society people live in and what their capabilities are in changing the existing situation. The solution to these problems should be sought only by relying on new knowledge, ideas, theories, and academic disciplines that can answer the pressing questions of our time, help to comprehend the social situation, and form a new worldview that is adequate to reality. It was for these purposes that new academic disciplines were included in the State educational standard: cultural studies, political science, history of civilizations, which violated the monopoly position of traditional social science courses philosophy, political economy, etc. Among the new training courses A never-before-taught ethnology course was introduced into the system of higher pedagogical education. This discipline is designed to give students systematic knowledge about the processes of anthropogenesis and ethnogenesis, about historical diversity cultures, about the role of the ethnic factor in the evolution of world culture, about the characteristics of ethnic self-awareness, about the essence of ethnic identity, about the forms and methods of interethnic communication, about the causes of ethnic conflicts and the principles of their regulation and resolution. The study of these problems is determined by purely practical requirements for the quality of training of highly professional specialists. The fact is that modern humanity represents huge variety various historically established communities. Among them, a special place is occupied by formations that in science are usually called ethnic: nations, nationalities, tribes, ethnic groups, etc. Today there are several thousand such communities in the world. Due to the heterogeneity of socio-economic, ethnic and demographic processes, they differ sharply in numbers, level of development and living conditions. In this regard, interethnic clashes, wars, tensions, etc. arise. Moreover, many of them are the result of mass social ignorance. That is why scientific and practical knowledge of ethnology has become socially necessary. In order for them to become widespread in society, conditions are required for their transmission through the education system, and appropriate teaching aids are needed. The purpose of this textbook is precisely to give students the necessary ethnological knowledge that can be useful in their professional activities and practical life. Based on this, priority attention in its content is given to those sections of ethnology that relate to the problems of the formation of ethnic groups and 3
4 races, ethnic stereotypes of consciousness and ethnic psychology, forms and methods of interaction between ethnic communities, the causes of interethnic conflicts and methods of managing them, explanations of the processes of people’s adaptation to a changing sociocultural environment. Understanding interethnic and ethnocultural processes is a rather difficult task due to the inconsistency and ambiguity of the latter. For our education system, this circumstance is aggravated by the fact that most of the main sections of ethnology in Russian science remain controversial to this day. Therefore, as it seems to the author, here we should follow the traditional and repeatedly justified path: to begin the study of ethnology with questions of the formation of ethnological science, characteristics of its subject and research methods, as well as a brief analytical review of the main scientific directions 1. These directions are outlined in chronological sequence, according to their appearance during historical development ethnology. Moreover, the main attention is paid only to those initial foundations and main ideas that are directly related to the study of ethnic societies and their cultures; Their instrumental working elements and the limits of application of the developed theories are especially emphasized. All subsequent topics in the textbook are devoted to theoretical issues: the basic theories of ethnicity and classification of ethnic groups, thanks to which the whole process sociocultural development acquires a systematic and orderly character; processes of anthropogenesis and ethnogenesis, explaining the fact of the anthropological diversity of humanity and the presence of each race with its own distinctive characteristics; mechanisms of formation of the psychology of an ethnic group and a person’s awareness of his belonging to his native ethnic group. The emergence of ethnology as an independent science began with the study by Europeans of the cultures of “alien” peoples. The study of ethnic groups through the diversity of their cultures still remains one of the main branches of ethnology. And here the most important questions seem to be the functional purpose of ethnic culture, its levels, and relationships with other types of cultures. At the same time, the problem of coexistence of cultures with different levels development. Qualitative differences between traditional and modernized cultures, their structural features, the significance of rites, customs and rituals in the ethnocultural process help to better understand the uniqueness of each of them. Finally, the existence and development of any ethnic group largely depends on its relationships with other ethnic groups. Knowledge of various types of interethnic and ethnocultural contacts is intended to explain the mechanism 1 This approach is also supported by the experience of constructing foreign textbooks on ethnology, in particular in Germany, where this science has been taught at universities for more than half a century. 4
5 development and functioning of modern ethnic processes, forms of translation of cultural experience and ways of assimilation by a person of a foreign ethnic socio-cultural environment. As representatives of various sciences note, the entire modern world is under the influence of opposing trends: integration and differentiation. Therefore, interethnic communications lead both to the progressive rapprochement of ethnic groups and to no less serious processes of alienation and hostility. The question of the nature and determinants of interethnic conflicts remains the most pressing and relevant in modern ethnology. To task this textbook an absolutely complete and systematic presentation of the entire content of ethnological science was not included. Taking into account the needs educational process, the author initially deliberately limited his work only educational goals and tasks, abandoning the analysis of numerous particular manifestations of ethnic processes, and theories and concepts that have not justified themselves. All attention was focused, first of all, on those issues and problems the knowledge of which is required by the State educational standard. In conclusion, I would like to express my gratitude to higher education teachers and scientific colleagues, whose comments and advice significantly helped in the work on this textbook. The author expresses special gratitude to the Konrad Adenauer Foundation for providing the opportunity for scientific work in the libraries of the universities of Munich, Cologne, Freiburg and the German educational literature on ethnology acquired by the Foundation for the author. 5
6 Chapter 1. ETHNOLOGY AS A SCIENCE, ITS SUBJECT, METHODS AND RELATIONSHIP WITH RELATED DISCIPLINES 1.1. The formation of ethnology as a science Subject of ethnology Methods of ethnology Relationship of ethnology with other sciences 1.1. The formation of ethnology as a science Prehistory of ethnology. History of any area scientific knowledge testifies more or less clearly that its emergence has always been dictated practical needs. The emergence of ethnology as an independent science in this regard is no exception. Numerous historical studies by ethnologists from different countries convince us that throughout the history of mankind (from the primitive state to the present day) people have and still have a need for knowledge about the culture, traditions and customs of not only “their” people, but also the inhabitants neighboring countries. Such knowledge made it easier to navigate the world around us, to feel more reliable and confident in it. We find ethnographic information about near and distant peoples in myths, fairy tales, legends, in inscriptions that have survived to this day, graphic images and others. written monuments Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia and other ancient states. By the era of antiquity, quite a lot of information of this kind had been accumulated; it was accurate and thorough. Therefore, already in Ancient Greece and Rome, attempts were made to bring them into the system. They became the basis for the first ethnographic descriptions. Their characteristic feature was ethnocentrism, i.e. division of peoples according to the level of their cultural development into civilized and wild, with their own culture serving as the standard. Demographic, environmental and social changes of the early Middle Ages led to a decline in interest in ethnographic knowledge in Western Europe. The leading centers of their accumulation and storage are Byzantium, China and the Arab East. The revival of interest in knowledge about other peoples and countries in Western Europe was due to catholic church and state colonial policy. The Crusades, travels of missionaries and merchants, and great geographical discoveries allowed Europeans to collect extensive information about the peoples of Africa, America, Southeast Asia, and later Oceania and Australia. The direct prehistory of ethnology as a special science about peoples begins with the Age of Enlightenment (XVIII century). At this time, the theory of geographical determinism prevailed, according to which people, peoples and cultures were considered as products of the environment. natural environment. The idea of the “noble wild” has also become widespread.
7 rya", living according to the laws of nature. Thanks to evolution, he turned into a modern civilized person, living according to the laws of society. Extensive ethnographic material thus became the basis for constructing a theory of the progressive development of individual peoples and their cultures. The emergence of an independent science of peoples occurred in the middle of the 19th century. and was associated with the urgent need for a theoretical explanation of differences in the cultural development of peoples, understanding the mechanisms of formation and characteristics of ethnic psychology, elucidating the causes of racial differences, establishing the relationship between ethnic characteristics and social structure, determining the reasons for the rise and decline of culture and the historical role of a particular people. In response to these problems, theories and concepts began to appear, scientific directions and schools began to emerge, which gradually transformed into a unified science of peoples, called ethnology. The term “ethnology” itself is taken from Greek language and consists of two words etnos (people) and logos (word, science). In ancient times, the ancient Greeks called other peoples (non-Greeks) ethnos, who differed from them in language, customs, beliefs, way of life, values, etc. In this meaning it entered Roman culture and the Latin language. In connection with its Latinization, the adjective “ethnic” (ethnicos) appears, which is used in biblical texts in the sense of “pagan, non-Christian.” Until the 19th century. the concept of “ethnology” was used only sporadically when describing various kinds ethnographic processes, but not as a designation of a special science. It was proposed to use it as the name of the emerging science of peoples and cultures by the French scientist Jean-Jacques Ampere, who in 1830 developed a general classification of “anthropological” (i.e., humanities) sciences, among which he singled out ethnology. This name quickly became widespread in major European countries, and from the middle of the 19th century. entered into the Russian language. The official fact of the establishment of ethnology as an independent science was the founding in 1839 of the Paris Society of Ethnology. However, this event was immediately marked by the beginning of heated scientific and theoretical disputes between various directions and schools about the subject, goals and place of this science, which to a certain extent have not ceased today. One of the most lengthy and controversial issues was the content and meaning of the very name of science. As a result of many years of discussions, a rather diverse and motley picture of the meanings and interpretations of the concept “ethnology” has emerged. Mid-19th century turned out to be very favorable for rapid development ethnology in leading Western European countries. This process was stimulated by global territorial expansion Europeans, during which they encountered peoples and cultures completely different from 7
8 their own. Colonial policy required a wide variety of knowledge about the conquered peoples. Bulk necessary information Only ethnology could provide, and therefore the new science enjoyed the support of the state. Initially it developed as a science about the “backward”, i.e. nations that have not created their own statehood. But in the first decades of the 20th century. ideas about “ethnic groups” appeared as unique communities of people independent of the level of socio-economic development. This methodological approach dominates ethnological science today. At the same time, in accordance with the political and economic interests in England, Germany, France, Austria, and the USA, the formation of ethnology in each of these countries had its own characteristics. Development of ethnology in Germany. The science of peoples has the deepest traditions in Germany, where back in 1789 the scientific direction Völkerkunde was formed, which aimed to study non-European peoples and cultures. In the 1830s. the term “ethnology” was introduced for the general description of descriptions of all other peoples made by German travelers and scientists. From about the middle of the 19th century. the concepts of “Völkerkunde” and “ethnology” began to be considered (and are currently considered) as synonyms. Both of them denoted the monographic and comparative science of human cultures. At the same time, another direction emerged in the German science of peoples, called “Völkskunde” (ethnic studies), which studied mainly German-speaking peoples and their cultures. This direction also persists today in German science. Development of ethnology in Great Britain. In English-speaking countries, the science of peoples developed as an integral part of anthropology. Scientists associate the emergence of anthropology as a biological science about human nature with the publication in 1596 of O. Gasmann’s book with the same title. In the 18th century thanks to colonization and increased attention to demographic and racial processes, it is experiencing rapid development. At the beginning of the 19th century. in leading European countries there are anthropological societies, whose purpose was to study the remains of primitive people. And already in the middle of the century, based on studies of the skulls and skeletons of Neanderthals, the task of reconstructing the history of mankind and culture was set. Thus, a new scientific direction appeared within anthropology, called social anthropology. It was introduced into scientific circulation by one of the founders of English ethnology, James Frazer. In 1906, he defined his line of ethnological research with this term, thus emphasizing the difference from the cultural anthropology of Edward Tylor. The concept of “social anthropology” quickly spread and became the English version of the term “ethnology”. Currently, representatives of English social anthropology focus their scientific interests on the study of various ethnic groups as bearers of diverse cultural traditions. 8
9 The formation of ethnology in the USA. In the USA, ethnology arose later than in Europe. Because of the country's ethnic identity and the acute problem of race relations, American anthropology initially focused on research in the field of physical anthropology, race and cultural differences. This direction of development was set by the founder of American ethnology, Lewis Henry Morgan, a multifaceted and talented scientist. His studies of kinship systems in primitive cultures, the classification of types of family and marriage relationships, and the periodization of human history for entire decades predetermined the research topics of American ethnologists. However, in the mid-1950s. Thanks to Franz Boas, the scientific guidelines of US ethnology are significantly narrowed, limited to the problems of the cultural characteristics of peoples. This direction, called “cultural anthropology” by Boas, later began to include any ethnocultural studies and thereby became an American synonym for the concept of “ethnology.” Development of ethnology in France. In France, in connection with the active policy of colonization, state leaders constantly felt the need for detailed and detailed information about the peculiarities of the lifestyle, culture and traditions of dependent peoples. Therefore, the science of peoples there was called ethnography (from the Greek etnos people and graphien description). And this name remained until the end of the 19th century, when the scientific inferiority of ethnographic materials was realized due to the lack of historical data and theoretical generalizations in them. The addition of ethnographic descriptions with historical and theoretical materials allowed ethnography at the beginning of the 20th century. transform into ethnology, which still retains this name. Development of ethnology in Russia. Interest in ethnic problems appeared in Russia in the second half of the 18th century, when for the first time in Russian social thought questions were raised about the place and role of one’s fatherland among other peoples, about historical roots of the Russian people, about the peculiarities of Russian culture, etc. But the theoretical understanding of these problems in Russian culture is connected with Slavophilism, one of the directions of Russian social thought of the 1990s. Based on the idea of the messianic role of Russia in the world, the Slavophiles considered it their duty to develop the national self-awareness of the Russian people and preserve their national identity. How independent science ethnology in Russia developed at the same time as in the West, i.e. in the middle of the 19th century. The establishment of the Russian Geographical Society in 1845 is considered to be the beginning of Russian ethnology. In the same year, the chairman of the ethnography department K.M. Baer gave a keynote speech “On ethnographic research in general, and in Russia in particular.” According to his ideas, the main work of the ethnography department should be focused on a comprehensive study of Russia: its geography, natural resources and peoples. State interests require- 9
10 also provide information about the peoples of Siberia, Far East, Central Asia, Caucasus. For this purpose, an ethnographic department was created at the Geographical Society, which was tasked with exploring the “mental abilities of the Russian people,” their ways of life, morals, religions, prejudices, languages, fairy tales, etc. At the same time, the program “On the ethnographic study of the Russian people” was adopted, in accordance with which all ethnographic research was carried out. Ideas by K.M. Baer was developed, specified and actively implemented by N.I., who replaced him as chairman of the department. Nadezhdin. He was the ideological leader of a group of young scientists who set as their goal the ethnographic study of the Russian people. At one of the meetings of the Geographical Society in 1846, Nadezhdin presented a program “On the ethnographic study of the Russian people,” which involved a description of 1) material life, 2) everyday life, 3) moral life, 4) language. Moral life included all the phenomena of spiritual culture and among them “folk characteristics”. This also included a description of mental and moral abilities, family relations and characteristics of raising children. Special place In the history of Russian science about peoples, the scientific activity of N.N. occupies a place. Miklouho-Maclay. He sought to prove the unity human race, physical and mental equivalence of all races and peoples, to substantiate the idea that all differences between peoples are caused by natural and social conditions. The study of the Papuans of New Guinea and other peoples of Oceania, their material and spiritual culture, psychology and social relations allowed the scientist to reasonably reject racist theories. And although his works do not actually explore theoretical problems ethnology, they nevertheless contain rich observations and materials for such generalizations. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. A significant contribution to the development of Russian ethnology was made by the works of the famous philosopher G.G. Shpeta. In his book “Introduction to Ethnic Psychology” Shpet proposes to study national psychology through comprehending the meaning of objective cultural phenomena in which the typical subjective feelings of the people are imprinted. In accordance with this, the key to understanding the psychology of a people is its culture, history, and specific social reality, which together determine the content of the collective spirit of the nation. “The spirit of peoples,” according to Shpet, symbolizes the meaning and idea of “the people,” which are revealed in typological images of its composition and changes over time. "Spirit" in this sense is a meeting characteristic features"behavior" of the people. Together with the constancy of “dispositions”, it represents the national character. This subjective character should be understood as the totality of the people’s reactions to the circumstances in which they themselves participate, to the relationships objectively given to them. 10
11 During the Soviet period, domestic ethnology paid special attention to interethnic relations. As a rule, they were studied on the basis of statistical data about everyday behavior and specific actions of people. Thus, the friendship of peoples was assessed by the number of representatives of different nationalities at large all-Union construction projects or by the number of interethnic marriages. In general, studies of ethnic problems of this period were of a politically ordered nature and did not reveal all the processes ethnic development. Such fundamental problems as ethnic identity, ethnic consciousness, interethnic conflicts, etc. remained outside the field of view of scientists. However, a galaxy of scientists of that time (V.G. Bogoraz, P.F. Preobrazhensky, SP. Tolstov, B.A. Kuftin, S.I. Rudenko, N.N. Cheboksarov, S.A. Tokarev, Yu.V. Bromley, etc. ) theories of economic and cultural types and historical and ethnographic areas were created, and comprehensive research was carried out in the field of regional ethnology. Finally, at the turn of the 20th century. A notable phenomenon in Russian ethnology was the concept of ethnogenesis by L.N. Gumilyov, explaining the mechanism of the emergence and development of ethnic groups. Currently, the main research center of domestic ethnology is the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Ethnology today. Of course, modern ethnological science has been significantly enriched compared to past times. Her professional interest now includes not only “backward” ethnic groups, but also the peoples of modern industrial societies. At the intersection of ethnology with other sciences, many related disciplines arose: ethnosociology, ethnopsychology, ethnolinguistics, ethnodemography, etc. In ethnology, the features of a new social science are emerging more and more clearly, synthesizing diverse knowledge about man and his culture. As before, ethnology maintains a connection with real social processes, which is direct evidence of the importance of this science in our days. Even a superficial analysis of the main historical events XX century allows us to conclude that the role of the ethnic factor in the cultural and historical process is increasing. Ethnic processes serve as the basis for national movements in politics. The recent century is rightfully considered the century of national ideologies, national movements, the century of nationalism. The constantly accelerating pace of cultural and historical development of peoples stimulates interethnic interactions and national liberation movements. The concrete results of these processes were embodied in the acquisition of state independence by Norway and Ireland, Poland, Finland, the Baltic republics, and in the emergence of national states in Central Europe and the Balkans after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Sultan Turkey. The collapse of the colonial system after the Second World War led to the formation of a whole
12th row independent states in Southeast Asia, Indochina, Africa. Finally, the centrifugal trends of the 1990s, which culminated in the creation of national states instead of former USSR, as well as tensions and conflicts on ethnic grounds and with ethnic-political overtones, which over the course of decades have either subsided or intensified in the most seemingly prosperous regions and countries of the world; contradictions between the Flemings and Walloons in Belgium, between French and English-speaking residents Canada, convincingly confirm that the ethnic factor is extremely relevant today. This surge in ethnicity requires ethnology to answer the question of its causes and to construct a theoretical model of ethnic processes. And if in the first half of the century research was mainly academic in nature and determined by the desire to preserve information about “primitive” cultures that were fading into the past, then from the second half the situation changes radically. The modern historical situation dictates to ethnology the need to study not only traditional, but also modernized, mostly multi-ethnic societies. Solving ethnic problems becomes the key to the survival of humanity. In addition, the recommendations and knowledge of ethnologists are effectively used in the most different areas public life in politics, economics, social field, they are necessary in mass communications, international trade, diplomacy, etc. Accordingly, ethnological science itself has become better funded, which contributes to the intensification of field, theoretical and methodological research. Subject of ethnology The uniqueness of each science, as is known, is determined by its own subject of study and methods of its research. From the beginning of the formation of ethnology as a science to the present day, the cross-cutting theme of its research is the genesis of ethnic cultures and interethnic relations. Initially, on the basis of extremely limited and scattered information about the early periods of human existence, scientists built (and continue to build, having, of course, more solid scientific “baggage”) generalizing ethnological theories. And although their authors claimed and continue to claim an accurate reconstruction of historical reality, the results of the construction should not be identified with “what actually happened.” Most often, these constructs can be regarded as conceptual models, which at best are simplified, idealized schemes that serve as a starting point for organizing empirical material. “Primitive” peoples as a subject of ethnology. A comparison of this kind of theoretical models allows us to conclude that historically 12
13 the first subject of ethnology as a science was peoples at a significantly lower level of cultural development than Europeans. Therefore, ethnology was originally a science engaged in the study of traditional and “primitive” societies and their cultures. This methodological approach in defining the subject of ethnology was due to the fact that by the end of the 19th century. As a result of modernization processes, almost all European peoples were able to create a qualitatively new type of civilization, significantly superior to all others created on the planet. As a result of rapid technological development and confidence in limitlessness human progress Europeans began to believe that historical place culturally backward peoples should not be next to them, but far behind. These peoples were in some way “living ancestors” for Europeans, subject to study and subjugation. To fix this difference, Europeans began to call backward peoples Latin word“primitive”, which literally translates as “first”. The new word became widespread in the rapidly developing ethnology, since it fit very well into the system of classification of cultures based on the criterion of the achieved level of technological development. Based on this classification, primitive peoples and their cultures became the main objects of the emerging ethnology, as evidenced most convincingly by the works of the most famous founders of ethnology of the 19th century. L.G. Morgan (“Ancient Society”) and E. Tylor (“Primitive Culture”). Early works The founders of German ethnology, T. Weitz and A. Bastian, are also devoted to descriptions of “primitive peoples” who had no past, to which “cultural peoples” who had their own history were contrasted. The latter naturally included the peoples of Europe, who made history by rapidly conquering nature, while primitive peoples were helpless in front of the world around them because of their laziness, inertia and unbridledness. Changing the subject of ethnology in the 20th century. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, ethnology began to be taught at universities. Thanks to this circumstance, a new generation of theoretical scientists came into it, which replaced the generation of founders and practitioners. With the change of generations of researchers in ethnology, ideas about the subject of the science itself change. First of all, the ideas about the division of peoples into primitive (primitive) and civilized were criticized. Many scientists began to adhere to the belief that the so-called primitive peoples, like the Europeans, have their own history and are not at an earlier stage of human development, being removed from primitiveness, like us. In defining them as primitive, the only correct thing is that in the course of their history they formed a different attitude towards the world around them. This point of view was expressed quite convincingly by the famous German ethnologist Richard Thurnwald. Analyzing the concept of “primitive 13
14 people,” he wrote: “One factor seems particularly important: the degree to which nature has been conquered by tools, devices, skills, and knowledge. “Primitive” is better to call those tribes that use only the simplest tools to obtain food and organize their lives and have scanty knowledge about the world around them.” Based on the criteria technical equipment and knowledge physical laws, then the “primitive peoples” defined by Thurnwald as “people who have conquered nature” are indeed more dependent on nature than modern industrial societies. However, for the latter it is also undoubtedly true that their independence from nature has today turned into dependence on technology, which has become “second nature” to modern man. Based on these considerations, supporters of this point of view proposed to preserve the term “primitive peoples” in ethnology, but to understand by it those societies and cultures that have preserved social stability thanks to a balanced, non-consumer attitude towards nature. Another part of the scientists opposed the preservation of the term “primitive peoples”, since it presupposes the use of the term “cultural peoples”, and such opposition gives the first concept a derogatory meaning. And indeed, there is not one human society, which would not have a culture, even if we talk about the people of the Stone Age who created the first stone tools. After all, culture is a generic quality of a person, his essential characteristic, reflecting unique ability people to transform the world around them. This distinguishes humans from other living organisms on our planet that adapt to environment. There is no human being in the world at all in his primordial state, as it seemed to scientists at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. Each person appears simultaneously as both a cultivated being and as a creator of culture, so talk about “uncultured” and “cultured” peoples is meaningless. We can only talk about different types of cultures, the study of which should become the main subject of ethnology. In this regard, instead of the term “primitive peoples,” scientists proposed other terms and concepts that, in their opinion, were more consistent with the new subject area of ethnology. IN conceptual apparatus ethnology was asked to introduce the names “archaic cultures”, “pre-industrial societies”, “traditional societies”, “non-literate cultures”, “tribal union”, etc. Each of them sought to express the corresponding characteristics of ethnic cultures, and therefore all of them have been preserved in modern ethnology, without replacing the concept of “primitive peoples”. The diversity of points of view and concepts is reflected in the understanding of the subject of ethnological science. During the discussions and debates, the following options emerged. 14
15 Descriptive and generalizing science that seeks to explore general laws social and cultural development of man and humanity. Comparative Science, exploring different types of crops and how they are transformed. A branch of sociology, the object of study of which is primitive and traditional social systems. The science of the dynamics of culture as an artificial, extra-natural human world. Science, which by comparative analysis designed to study the culture of primitive, traditional and modern societies. Historical events and processes of the 20th century. led scientists to the conviction that any people have the right to an independent life, to an original culture, to the right to be equal in the community of peoples. The prevailing belief among ethnologists is that there are no “backward” and “advanced” peoples; all peoples have equal rights. The cultures of peoples can only be assessed functionally, in relation to their community, i.e. from the standpoint of how effectively they ensure the life of a particular people. Expansion of the subject of ethnology in our days. The rapidly changing situation in the world in recent decades has once again forced scientists to address the issue of the subject of ethnology. Numerous diasporas of migrants and refugees in Europe and North America, formed as a result of various types of conflicts, have significantly changed the ethnic composition of many developed countries. On the other hand, integration processes in Western European countries also gave rise to a whole group of problems of an ethnic nature. Of these, the most relevant today are the combination of the types of behavior of different peoples, the interaction and coexistence of different types of cultures, the mutual adaptation of psychological characteristics in conditions of stable intercultural contacts, the development of ethnic consciousness in non-traditional conditions, the peculiarities of the economic behavior of representatives of any ethnic group in another economic culture. To date, ethnological science is a rather complex and branched system of knowledge, consisting of the following sections: ethnic anthropology (studies the problems of ethnogenesis and anthropophysical development of peoples); ethnic sociology ( social aspects development and functioning of ethnic groups, their identity, forms of self-organization, types of interactions of ethnic groups); ethnic psychology (formation of ethnic stereotypes, ethnic self-awareness and identification); 15
16 economic ethnology (economic and economic activities of ethnic groups); ethnodemography (demographic processes and population dynamics); ethnic geography(settlement of peoples, features of their place of development, ethnic territories and ethnic boundaries); ethnopedagogy (features of the educational process in various ethnic groups). The process of differentiation of ethnological science is still far from complete, and in the next two decades we should expect the emergence of new directions. Thus, the subject of ethnology is constantly expanding, which does not allow us to give clear definition this science. Therefore, both in domestic and foreign ethnology, there is a fairly large number of definitions based on various methodological approaches, which, according to their authors, emphasize the most essential features of ethnological science. The multiplicity of definitions of the subject of ethnology research is partly explained by different formulations of questions, partly by the presence various theories and concepts. Taken together, all these definitions of the subject of science, different ways of posing problems, their explanations and descriptions constitute ethnology as a science as a whole. In such a situation of dynamic changes in the subject field of ethnology, the author does not undertake to give another definition of this science. However, for a more rigorous and systematized presentation of the materials in this textbook and for a thorough study of ethnology by the student audience, it is necessary to introduce at least a working definition. Without in any way claiming to be a universal and the only correct approach, we believe that ethnology is a science that studies the processes of formation and development of ethnic groups, their identity, the forms of their cultural self-organization, patterns of collective behavior and interaction, the relationship between personality and social environment. Thus, the subject field of modern ethnology is very wide, and its various directions, to one degree or another, intersect with close, related sciences. This is especially true for ethnography, cultural studies, sociology, psychology, anthropology, political science. Methods of ethnology Each science involves studying its object using the entire volume of knowledge it has accumulated and appropriate methods that allow one to obtain more complete and accurate knowledge about the object being studied. Modern science has quite a large number of methods of cognition. In general, all of them can be divided into general scientific and special, used in various combinations and combinations depending on the specifics of what is being studied 16
17 objects. Of the general scientific methods, ethnology gives preference to the historical and sociological, and of the special methods of field research. The method of field research is one of the main ones in the study of ethnic groups and ethnic processes. It began to be widely practiced from the middle of the 19th century, when the governments of the colonial powers had an urgent need for detailed knowledge about dependent peoples, their methods economic activity, customs, beliefs, psychology, etc. The essence of the method lies in the researcher’s long stay in the place of residence of the ethnic group being studied, in getting accustomed to the ethnic environment being studied. The researcher, as a rule, participates in the life of the ethnic group being studied as its full member. Hence the value of the field research method lies in the fact that the ethnologist becomes a witness and participant in the life of an ethnic group. It is natural that the fruitfulness and effectiveness of this method is directly proportional to the amount of time the researcher spends in the ethnic group being studied. Along with its advantages, this method also has disadvantages, the main one of which is conducting field research at a time convenient and favorable for the researcher, while in the off-season, observations and research are stopped. Historical method, in turn, is based on methods of collecting information such as the study of archaeological materials and written sources. The study of archaeological materials allows us to restore and reconstruct the ethnic and cultural history of peoples. This method is the most reliable and reliable way obtaining primary information: thanks to modern techniques By studying and dating archaeological materials, it allows one to quite accurately determine the time of historical events or the age of cultural objects. The study of written sources is also very reliable way obtaining information, since various types of written sources have received a preliminary assessment of their credibility by their own compilers. Historical biographies of peoples, compiled by themselves or representatives of other peoples, are usually used as written sources. There are other types of written sources that are of interest to ethnologists: reports and descriptions of participants in geographical expeditions, reports of diplomats and missionaries, messages from sea captains, traders, travelers, etc. Currently, in the church, museum and historical archives of leading European countries, numerous yet unexplored written materials are waiting in the wings, which certainly contain a lot of useful and valuable information about the life and cultures of the peoples of different countries and historical eras. 17
18 Among other methods of ethnological research, comparative linguistics is of no small importance, the essence of which is to compare certain words and terms from different languages and establish the relationship between close languages and the degree of their relationship. It has long been no secret to linguists that languages develop at different rates. Moreover, in some of them, many new words appear or are borrowed in a short time under the influence of other languages, which, on the contrary, remain static and do not change for many centuries. If we proceed from the axiom that in any culture words and deeds are inextricably linked with each other, then systematic comparisons of words from several languages make it possible to trace the development of culture and cultural relationships between different peoples. The disappearance of certain words or their replacement with synonyms from other languages also serve as important indicators of the interaction of cultures. Of course, the method of comparative linguistics requires the scientist good knowledge relevant languages, and, above all, the laws of their word formation. The sociological method is a set of research methods techniques and procedures for collecting, processing and analyzing information and data of interest to ethnological science. It includes a group of private methods for obtaining ethnosociological information, among which the most common are surveys (questionnaires and interviews), sampling, and observation. The sociological method is used to collect information on certain issues or in connection with certain events in the life of ethnic groups (interethnic conflicts, changes in ethnic boundaries, problems of ethnic identity, interethnic contacts, etc.). With the help of a survey, the world is collecting most of ethnological information. Researchers consider this method to be an almost universal method of cognition, since it allows one to obtain information about the feelings, motives, attitudes, and motivations of people that guide them in their everyday behavior. In addition to studying subjective states, using the survey method you can also obtain information about objective phenomena in the life of ethnic groups that are not recorded in documentary sources. In ethnic sociology, there are two types of surveys: continuous and sample. In turn, within the framework of a continuous survey, a special type of census is distinguished, in which the entire population of a country, ethnic community or group is surveyed. For ethnologists, the census is of great importance, as it contains information on a wide range of issues, including ethnicity (nationality), language, socio-economic, socio-cultural and demographic indicators. Moreover, this information is already presented in a systematized, orderly form. 18
19 Important Feature censuses is that when they are carried out, people themselves determine their ethnicity by self-awareness, which makes it possible to more accurately identify not only the ethnic composition of the country, but also the hierarchy of many ethnic groups and the presence of ethnographic, ethnocultural and territorial groups in them. Moreover, the information collected is tied to a very specific period of time and concerns every resident of the country or member of an ethnic community. An equally important and reliable method is sampling. Its essence lies in making judgments about unknown phenomena or processes population according to his sample statistics. The popularity of this method is largely due to the fact that ethnologists often do not have the ability to conduct comprehensive comprehensive surveys of ethnic processes or ethnic groups in individual regions. Therefore, as a rule, research is carried out selectively on a limited range of problems or objects of study or on specific ethnic groups. Data obtained from a limited volume reflect the entire set of processes being studied and serve as representative indicators for it. The observation method is a purposeful, systematic, direct visual perception and registration of ethnic phenomena, processes that are significant from the point of view of the purposes of the study, as well as individual signs and properties of the ethnic groups and communities being studied. Its essence lies in observing the image. life, interactions, customs, mores and traditions of tribes, ethnic groups and communities. The observation method has narrow boundaries, since the observer, when selecting impressions, cannot completely abstract from their own assessment. For this reason, this method is most often used during initial acquaintance with the object of research, as well as when studying ethnic groups and national minorities. The methodological basis of modern ethnology is not limited to the noted methods of scientific knowledge. Modern processes mutual integration of various spheres of scientific knowledge increasingly lead to the use of scientific methods of various related disciplines in ethnology. The methods of ethnography, demography, semiotics, psychology, and applied sociology are especially useful and fruitful here. The connection between ethnology and other sciences. We have already said above that the main object of the study of ethnology is ethnic groups that realize their life activities in economic, social, cultural and other spheres, and Every aspect of human life is studied by the corresponding science. Ethnology directly interacts with these sciences, among which anthropology, sociology, cultural studies, ethnography, political science, and geography are closest to it in the subject of their research. 19
20 Ethnology and anthropology. Anthropology is especially close to ethnology, since both sciences have a common subject of research: the origin of races, their distribution across regions and continents, changes in the physical appearance of people as a result of the cultural and historical process, and the anthropological composition of ethnic groups. At the same time, each of the sciences retains its independence due to its own methodological foundations and research aspects. Thus, anthropology was and remains the science of the biological and physical nature of man. Ethnology is focused on the study of social changes and changes in ethnic communities. Currently, there is some uncertainty in the relationship between ethnology and anthropology caused by the development of such scientific fields as social anthropology and cultural anthropology. The emergence of these two directions was determined by different points of view on the subject of anthropology in British and American sciences. Without going into the analysis of a long discussion about the subject and specifics of each of the directions, we note that social and cultural anthropology should be considered as “two sides of the same coin”, i.e. as two scientific directions studying the same object in different aspects. Social anthropology studies primarily group relations and social processes. Its subject is the social organization of human life and his life world in traditional and modern societies. The specific objects of research are communities of people united by similar living conditions: a common place of residence, political organization, common culture and language. The subject area of cultural anthropology is limited to the relationship between man and culture, questions of the origin (genesis), structure (morphology) and development (dynamics and diversity) of culture within the framework of a specific historical social organization. At the same time, society is considered as a natural or artificial environment for the existence of man and culture. At the same time, in modern Western and domestic scientific literature there is a widespread point of view that ethnology, cultural anthropology and social anthropology are different names for the same science. However, a careful analysis of each of these three scientific directions reveals that this kind of identification is very conditional and not always legitimate. In fact, the term “ethnology” also exists in Western science and means approximately the same thing as in Russia. From the very beginning of its inception, cultural anthropology acted as a discipline that studies the processes of culture formation, in contrast to physical anthropology as a science about the variability of a person’s physical type. Its relationship with ethnology is that it uses its descriptive, field materials to prove and test its concepts.
21 tions. For its part, ethnology uses the data of cultural anthropology for its theoretical generalizations. The relationship between ethnology and social anthropology is of a slightly different nature. Since its inception, social anthropology has been aimed at studying the characteristics of the social organization of the peoples of the world. The term “social anthropology” itself was introduced into scientific circulation by the founder of English ethnography, George Frazer, who contrasted this direction of human research with physical anthropology. Social anthropology is closer to sociology than to ethnology, since it does not include ethnic communities in the subject of its research. Ethnology and sociology. Ethnic groups as an object of study of ethnology are the result of the development of not only natural, but also sociocultural processes. Therefore, ethnology includes sociological and cultural aspects of the study of ethnic processes and thereby intersects with sociology and cultural studies. It should be noted that sociology and ethnology have a common history and common roots. Initially, sociology developed as a science of forms life together and human activities, and therefore the subject of its study became the forms of human sociality: social groups and layers, social structure, social institutions etc. The central category of sociology, society, denotes the forms of connections between people, as a rule, living together and acting on a common territory. Thus, sociology focuses on the study of forms of human sociality or forms of social interaction. These elements of social relations are also of scientific interest for ethnology, since its subject field includes questions of stable forms and patterns of behavior of people in society. But ethnology studies them in other ways. Sociology strives to study large and complex communities, the entire society as a system, socio-structural connections, and the dynamics of sociocultural systems at the macro level. For ethnology, the greatest interest is in the social structures of ethnic communities, social dynamics ethnic cultures, social differentiation of ethnic groups, ethnic identity, ethnic characteristics of the psyche of different peoples, etc. In other words, ethnology studies social processes and phenomena in different ethnic environments and ethnic processes in social groups. In addition, the divergence between sociology and ethnology is found in methodology. Although both sciences are based on general methods research (observation, survey, document analysis, etc.), but they use them in different ways. A sociologist typically works with written sources and documents, and the ethnologist with oral and non-verbal ( colloquial speech, images, drawings, gestures, facial expressions, etc.). When studying documentary sources, the sociologist turns to standard, standardized documents, and this 21
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