Questions on the subject of psychology. Summary of theoretical issues

To begin with, let us define the range of development of this problem and briefly list the scientists.

Scientists who dealt with the problem of will: L.S. Vygotsky, V.I. Selivanov, E.P. Ilyin, V.A. Betz, S. Ya. Rubinstein, B. V. Zeigarnik, T. Ribot, etc.

Concept of will

Definition

Will is a certain ability of an individual, which consists of the conscious regulation of behavior and activity in order to complete assigned tasks.

Basic approaches to determining the nature of will

The development of ideas of will since ancient times is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. “Development of ideas about will”

1. Idealism. Will is free will, recognition of free will is a denial of the objective determinism of human behavior.
2. Materialism. Will is an illusion of a person who is not aware of the determinism of his own actions.

Idealist psychology

The volitional act is divorced from activity. Let us present several points of view within this direction.

1. Will comes down to intellect.
2. Will comes down to emotions.
3. Will as a specific experience that cannot be attributed to either intellect or emotions.

Behavioral psychology

Within this direction, behavior is reduced to the same patterns of execution, without taking into account the complexity of the nervous system of a particular organism. A diagram of this behavior is presented below.

Figure 2. “Behavior in line with behaviorism”

For a reflexologist, a volitional action is reduced to a simple sum of reflexes, for a representative of behavioral psychology - to a set of reactions: the conscious volitional process falls out of the volitional action.

In contrast to the prevailing interpretation of will in psychological literature as a phenomenon to be explained either physiologically or subjectively psychologically, Blondel put forward the position that will is a product of sociality. But his attempt to give a psychology of will, taking into account the role of social relations in its formation, proceeds from the general premises of Durkheim’s sociological school and reflects all its attitudes. The social in it is reduced to the ideological, supposedly independent of real, material social relations; at the same time, the social is contrasted with the natural, the social with the personal.

Theories of will in Russian psychology

Regulatory approach

1. The theory of will by L. S. Vygotsky. Within the framework of this theory, will refers to the HMF (higher mental functions). Their development is determined by the arbitrariness of human behavior with the help of one motive or another. A feature of voluntariness, according to L. S. Vygotsky, is the free choice of action.
2. Theory of will by V.I. Selivanov. Will represents a conscious level of regulation of one’s own activity, which manifests itself in overcoming various obstacles caused by both internal and external factors in order to complete assigned tasks. In addition, V.I. Selivanov believes that the will must necessarily be reflected in activity, in its execution. Otherwise, we cannot talk about volitional regulation in general.
3. Theory of will by E. P. Ilyin. Will, according to E.P. Ilyin, is a type of special voluntary control that can be realized only through volitional action, the main feature of which is volitional effort.

General conclusions on the regulatory approach to understanding will:

1. will is closely related to activity;
2. indirectness of volitional behavior;
3. will manifests itself in activity.

Motivational approach

Motivational-activity theory of V. A. Ivannikov. According to V. A. Ivannikov, will can be considered as “a person’s ability for conscious intentional activity or for self-determination through work on the internal plane, providing additional incentive (inhibition) to action based on an arbitrary form of motivation.” Volitional behavior itself is realized with a lack of general motivation for a specific action.

Aspect of Choice

1. The concept of will by L. S. Vygotsky. The scientist distinguishes two parts of volitional action:

• the closing part of the volitional process (a person making a certain decision);
• executive part (activity).

The theory of regulatory-volitional processes by L. M. Wecker. Will represents the highest specific regulation of one's own behavior.

The main psychological problems that interfere with the harmonious development of a person are external and internal. External problems can stem from relationships with the outside world. Internal ones are a consequence of the psychological ill-being of the person himself.

Both bring significant discomfort to life, a feeling of dissatisfaction with life, tension, depression and often require the help of a psychologist and psychotherapist. When working with a qualified specialist, a relationship between psychological difficulties and external ones is often discovered. Thus, clients of psychotherapists who are worried about relationships with other people almost always need to change their line of behavior and attitude towards the situation.

What is a psychological problem

Most of the causes of discomfort, failure, any kind of addiction, dissatisfaction and stress are in the psyche (in the heart), and external events in life only aggravate the internal causes. Any psychological problems cause a person obvious or latent suffering. For this reason, it is with great difficulty that a person manages to change himself and his position. However, even after changing something, it is not always possible to achieve satisfaction and spiritual harmony.

In this case, we can openly say that the problem is predominantly psychological, spiritual, and not external, social. In this case, a psychotherapist can help a person become a confident and harmonious person. It is enough to put in some effort, time and professional knowledge of a specialist, and this problem will quite possibly be solved.

The emergence of psychological difficulties

Usually psychological complexes arise when a person has an unconscious psychological fixation on some object or subject, as if connected (in the opinion of the person himself) with achieving the desired result. And everyone has only two types of desires:

• to get something (possession, development, realization, desire, etc.), in other words, “the desire for...”;
• to get rid of something (escape, destruction, liberation, etc.), in other words, “the desire from...”.

If this cannot be achieved, a problem arises. This question is the main problem of practical psychology.

Low self-esteem

The main psychological problem, according to most psychologists, is the low self-esteem of a huge number of people.

Low self-esteem can affect various aspects of a person's life. People with low self-esteem tend to say a lot of negative things about themselves. They may criticize themselves, their actions and abilities, or joke about themselves with sarcasm. People with low self-esteem tend to doubt themselves or blame themselves when they encounter any obstacles along the way. They may also not recognize their positive qualities. When someone with low self-esteem receives compliments, they may simply think that they are being flattered or that their positive qualities are being exaggerated.

These people don't value their abilities and focus on what they haven't done or the mistakes they've made. People with low self-esteem may expect that they will not succeed. They often feel depressed and anxious. Low self-esteem can affect your performance at work or school. People with low confidence achieve less than people with adequate self-esteem because they believe that they are less worthy and capable than others.

This category of people tends to avoid problems, fearing that they will not cope. People who do not value themselves may work very hard and force themselves to overwork because they believe that they need to hide imaginary shortcomings. They have a hard time believing any positive results they receive. Low self-esteem makes a person shy and very shy, not believing in his own abilities.

Inferiority complex

An inferiority complex is an extreme pathological degree of self-doubt and is a huge psychological problem for a person. In essence, it is a lack of self-worth, doubt and very low self-esteem, as well as a feeling of inability to live up to standards.

It is often subconscious and it is believed that people suffering from this complex try to compensate for this feeling, which is expressed in high achievements or extremely antisocial behavior. In modern literature, it is preferable to call this psychological phenomenon “lack of hidden self-esteem.” The complex develops through a combination of genetic characteristics of the individual and upbringing, as well as life experiences.

An inferiority complex can increase when feelings of inferiority are triggered by failure and stress. Individuals at risk for developing the complex typically exhibit signs of low self-esteem, have low socioeconomic status, and also have symptoms of depression.

Children raised in environments where they were constantly criticized or neglected by their parents may also develop an inferiority complex. There are many different warning signs for those who may be more prone to developing an inferiority complex. For example, someone who is attracted to attention and approval may be more receptive.

Psychoanalyst Adler's Study

According to classical Adlerian psychology, feelings of inferiority arise again when adults want to achieve some unrealistic goal or feel a constant need for improvement. Stress associated with feelings of inferiority causes a pessimistic attitude towards life and an inability to overcome difficulties. According to Adler, every person, to one degree or another, has a feeling of inferiority, but this is not a disease, but rather a stimulator of healthy, normal aspirations and development. It becomes a pathological condition only when the feeling of inferiority suppresses the personality, and does not stimulate him to useful activity. The complex makes the individual depressed and incapable of further personal development.

Psychological trauma

A very common psychological problem is the consequences of experienced stressful situations.

By their nature, these are various mental disorders after affective (very powerful and destructive) experiences. The incidents that caused such intense feelings can be very diverse: isolation, illness, death of a loved one, the birth of a child, divorce, stress, conflicts, war and hostilities, danger to existence, rape and more. These events have a powerful impact on the mental state, disrupting perception, thinking, emotions, behavior, making the personality not entirely adequate.

Another area that is studied by both practical and scientific (theoretical) psychology is various kinds of conflicts.

Open and unobvious conflicts with other people are harmful to a person’s mental activity and represent a serious problem of a socio-psychological nature. These conflicts can be classified:

Children's difficulties

Psychological problems in children arise at different periods of their lives. They are of different nature. These may be the following difficulties:

• children's aggression and impulsiveness;
• isolation;
• moodiness and tearfulness;
• timidity and shyness;
• low self-esteem;
• high level of anxiety;
• increased sensitivity;
• stubbornness;
• fears and all kinds of phobias;
• inattention;
• difficulty remembering information;
• various problems of psychological development;
• poor performance at school;
• difficulties with adaptation to a school or kindergarten;
• problems communicating with peers and adults;

If any kind of psychological difficulties arise, it is necessary to seek advice from a child psychologist, since the child’s psyche is a very fragile structure.

Maslow's pyramid of needs

From the perspective of the pyramid of needs of the great American psychologist Abraham Maslow (a pyramid that shows basic human needs), it is obvious that the issue of safety and food is not relevant for people at the present time. Of course, there are exceptions, but the vast majority of people can feed themselves. Products have become accessible, their variety is great, and safety in society is maintained at a decent level. According to Maslow's theory, if it is possible to satisfy basal needs, then a desire arises to satisfy higher needs, such as community or to feel part of a social group, self-realization, or the desire to realize oneself as a specialist, as an individual. It is at the stage of satisfying higher needs that the main socio-psychological problems of modern society arise.

The problem of choice in the modern world of consumption

To generalize, we can say that a person, having satisfied his own, tries to direct his forces to satisfy higher psychological and social desires. At this moment we are faced with modern problems. At the moment there is a huge selection of different goods and services. The selection criterion can be color, appearance of packaging, reviews, price, and not just quality. All products a priori perform their functions, but their differences are made on minor characteristics.

In the future, it is these insignificant properties that are imposed on a person as selection criteria, and this makes people feel doubts when the purchase has already been made. Most people do not have the opportunity to purchase all types of one product, and often they remain dissatisfied due to doubts about the correctness of their choice.

Accelerated pace of life

People began to cover long distances in a short time, which means that they are more likely to engage in any type of activity. Scientific development has made it possible to save time on some things, but at the same time it has also given the opportunity to spend the saved time on others. In the modern world, dependence on computer games and social networks is growing. And in this way, people only increase the stress on the psyche instead of resting; the brain is increasingly overloaded. This is confirmed by many psychological studies. Psychological problems caused by the fast pace of life in society are a real scourge of our time, psychologists say.

We should not ignore the painful signals of our psyche and engage in the prevention of psychological disorders. If there is no way out of a problematic situation, then it would be optimal to simply switch to something distracting and more useful. Sometimes an excellent solution to psychological problems is to visit a psychologist.

In the 20th century Several psychological theories and concepts took shape that analyzed from different sides the essence of the human psyche and the patterns of its development and functioning: psychoanalysis or Freudianism, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, humanistic psychology, transpersonal psychology, etc.

Behaviorism: The American psychologist Watson proclaimed in 1913 that psychology would earn the right to be called a science when it applied objective experimental methods of study. It is possible to objectively study only human behavior that arises in a given situation. Each situation corresponds to a certain behavior that should be objectively recorded. “Psychology is the science of behavior,” and all concepts related to consciousness should be expelled from scientific psychology. “The expression “A child is afraid of dogs” does not mean anything scientifically; objective descriptions are needed: “a child’s tears and trembling intensify when a dog approaches him.” New forms of behavior appear as a result of the formation of conditioned reflexes (conditioning) (Watson). “All behavior is determined by its consequences” (Skinner). Human actions are formed under the influence of the social environment; a person is completely dependent on it. A person is also inclined to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation may be for himself (Bandura).

The important merits of behaviorism are: the introduction of objective methods of registration and analysis of externally observable reactions, human actions, processes, events; discovery of patterns of learning, formation of skills, behavioral reactions.

The main disadvantage of behaviorism is the underestimation of the complexity of human mental activity, the rapprochement of the psyche of animals and humans, ignoring the processes of consciousness, creativity, and self-determination of the individual. Behaviorism (or behavioral psychology) considers a person as a kind of biorobot, whose behavior can and should be controlled using psychological laws.

Freudianism views a person as a contradictory biosocial sexual being, within whom there is a constant struggle between a person’s unconscious sexual desires, his consciousness and his conscience, as a result of which a person often does not know what he will do next and why he will do so. Behavior, mental states, and human health significantly depend on unconscious mental processes, in particular on unconscious sexual aspirations and unconscious complexes. 3. Freud introduced a number of important topics into psychology: unconscious* motivation, protective mechanisms of the psyche, the role of sexuality in it, the influence of childhood mental trauma on behavior in adulthood, etc. However, his closest students came to the conclusion that it is not sexual desires that advantage, and the feeling of inferiority and the need to compensate for this defect (A. Adler), or the collective unconscious (archetypes), which has absorbed universal human experience (K. Jung), determine the mental development of the individual.

The psychoanalytic direction has paid increased attention to the study of unconscious mental processes. Unconscious processes can be divided into 2 large classes: 1 - unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions (unconscious automatic actions and automated skills, phenomena of an unconscious attitude); 2 - unconscious motivators of conscious actions (this is what Freud intensively studied - impulses from the unconscious area of ​​the psyche (drives, repressed desires, experiences) have a strong influence on a person’s actions and states, although the person does not suspect this and often does not know why he does this or that different action. Unconscious ideas hardly pass into consciousness, practically remaining unconscious due to the work of two mechanisms - the mechanisms of repression and resistance. Consciousness provides resistance to them, that is, a person does not let the whole truth about himself into consciousness. Therefore, unconscious ideas, having " a large energy charge, break into a person’s conscious life, taking on a distorted or symbolic form (three forms of manifestation of the unconscious - dreams, erroneous actions - slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting things, neurotic symptoms).

Cognitive psychology considers a person, first of all, as an intelligent cognitive being, capable of independently cognizing the world around him and himself, capable of finding solutions to any complex problems, discovering his mistakes and correcting them, capable of self-learning and self-government. Representatives of cognitive psychology U. Neisser, A. Paivio and others assign a decisive role to the behavior of the subject to knowledge (from the Latin cognito - knowledge). For them, the central question becomes about the organization of knowledge in the subject’s memory, about the relationship between verbal (verbal) and figurative components in the processes of memorization and thinking.

Humanistic (existential) psychology considers a person as an initially good being, who potentially has the highest human qualities and highest human needs (needs for self-development and self-improvement, the need to understand the meaning of life and actualize one’s purpose in the world, the need for beauty, knowledge, justice and etc.), and only unfavorable living conditions can temporarily block the manifestation of higher human qualities in real human behavior. The most prominent representatives of humanistic psychology G. Allport, G. A. Murray, G. Murphy, K. Rogers, A. Maslow consider the healthy creative personality of a person to be the subject of psychological research.

The goal of such a personality is not the need for homeostasis, as psychoanalysis believes, but self-realization, self-actualization, growth of the constructive principle of the human “I”. A person is open to the world, endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Love, creativity, growth, higher values, meaning - these and similar concepts characterize the basic needs of a person. As V. Frankl, the author of the concept of logotherapy, notes, in the absence or loss of interest in life, a person experiences boredom, indulges in vice, and is struck by severe failures.

Transpersonal psychology views a person as a spiritual cosmic being, inextricably linked with the entire Universe, space, humanity, with the ability to access the global information space field, as a result of which a person can receive information about any event that was, is and will be in the universe. Through the unconscious psyche, a person is connected with the unconscious psyche of other people, with the “collective unconscious of humanity,” with cosmic information, with the “world mind.” At the unconscious level, there is a constant information-energy interaction between a person and the Universe, with the global information field, with the “collective unconscious of humanity,” but most often a person does not consciously know anything about this. At the conscious Level, human information interaction with the world information field becomes possible either spontaneously or on the basis of special psychological methods: meditation, rebirthing, etc.

The human psyche and personality are so multifaceted and complex that at the present stage of development, psychology has not yet achieved complete knowledge of the secrets of the human soul. Each of the existing psychological theories and concepts reveals only one of the facets of the human psyche, reveals certain real patterns, but not the whole truth about the essence of the human psyche. Therefore, it is unacceptable to absolutize any one psychological theory and reject all other psychological concepts. In order to understand the human psyche as fully and comprehensively, comprehensively, it is necessary to know and take into account all existing psychological theories and approaches, it is necessary to consider the human psyche from different sides, identifying and studying its various facets (it is quite possible that not all facets of the human psyche are known to modern science ). Most modern psychologists agree that when analyzing the psyche and structure of a person’s personality, it is necessary to take into account the biological nature (body, innate instincts) and the social nature of a person (social relationships, internalized social norms), the conscious and unconscious spheres of the psyche, the unity of the cognitive-intellectual, emotional-motivational, behavioral-volitional spheres, the essence of personality, its center, “self”.

module 1//Psychology - the science of the psyche, mental phenomena and processes

Topic 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods. Main branches of psychology

Psychology(from the Greek “psyche” - soul and “logos” - science) - a science that studies the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche. Psyche- the ability of the brain to display the objective world, build its subjective picture and, on its basis, regulate human behavior and activity. The psyche reveals itself in various mental phenomena.

Firstly, this mental processes, with their help a person understands the world. Therefore they are often called educational processes (sensation, perception, attention, memory, thinking, imagination, speech). Also distinguished emotional-volitional processes (will, emotions, feelings).

Secondly, this mental properties(stubbornness, efficiency, selfishness, etc.) and mental states(excitement, interest, melancholy, etc.). They regulate a person’s communication with other people, guide his actions, etc. Mental processes, properties, states of a person, his communication and activity, form a single whole, which is called vital activity.

Psychology, like any other science, explores a clearly defined range of issues. The main ones are:

How a person navigates the world around him (study of perception);

How does the acquired experience influence it (study of the process of acquiring knowledge and skills);

How he remembers and reproduces what he remembers (memory research);

How to solve life problems (study of thinking and intellectual abilities);

How one experiences one’s own relationship to certain objects; to the process of satisfying current needs (study of feelings and emotions);

How to manage one’s own psyche and behavior (study of self-regulation processes);

Why directs activities towards certain objects (study of motivation), etc.

From the history of development subject of psychology

For a long time, psychology was not an independent science, but developed in line with other sciences. The first scientific ideas about the psyche arose in the Ancient world (Egypt, China, India, Greece, Rome). They were reflected in the works of philosophers, doctors, and teachers. We can distinguish a number of stages in the development of the scientific understanding of the psyche and the subject of psychology as a science.

At the first stage (6th – 5th centuries BC – 17th century AD), phenomena studied by psychology were designated by the general term “ soul" and were the subject of one of the branches of philosophy called “psychology.” Modern researchers debate the origin of this term. There are two main versions. First, it was invented in the 16th century. either F. Melanchthon, or O. Kassman, or R. Goklenius (the latter’s book, published in 1590, was called “Psychology”). Secondly, this term was introduced into use in the 17th century by the German philosopher H. Wolf, giving it the epithet “rational”.

The second stage in the development of scientific psychology begins in the 17th century. The progress of natural science, reflected in the works of philosophers R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, determines a change in the subject of psychology: it becomes consciousness, cognizable by man through introspection (introspection). This stage continues until the second half of the 19th century.

At the third stage (late 19th – early 20th centuries), consciousness, as a subject of research, as well as introspection, as its method, were sharply criticized by representatives of behaviorism (from the English “behavior” - behavior), who proposed to consider behavior as the subject of psychology .

Among modern psychologists there is no common understanding of the subject of psychology. Its most universal definition, which does not contradict the views of most researchers, is the following. Item psychological science make up data mental life, mechanisms And patterns psyche (show the example of the emotion “anger”).

Problems of psychology. Modern psychology solves two groups of problems. First - tasks theoretical. Their solution involves deepening, expanding, integrating (unifying) and systematizing (bringing into a system) existing knowledge about the psyche. Second - tasks practical. This is a solution to everyday psychological problems in various areas of human activity (education, medicine, sports, business, etc.).

Psychological knowledge is necessary for a person, firstly, to successfully adapt to changes in nature and the social environment; secondly, for a deeper understanding of oneself and others, establishing effective relationships with them, thirdly, for self-improvement, optimal use of personal potential, increasing the efficiency of professional activities, establishing successful interaction with complex modern technology, etc.

Methods of psychological research

A method is a way of cognition and research of a certain range of phenomena. The following methods are used in psychological research.

Observation. Observation is the purposeful perception of certain mental phenomena without interfering with their course.

Kinds observations:

Type of observation
Standardized	Before starting the observation procedure, determine What observe, How observe how record results observations like evaluate them understand, and on this basis do correct conclusions.
Free	Opposite of standardized observation, has no pre-established framework
External	A method of collecting psychological information about a person through direct external observation of him
Internal(introspection)	Study of mental phenomena that arise in the minds of the research psychologist himself or those who conduct research on his instructions
Included	The researcher is one of the participants in the process that is observed
Not included	Does not provide for personal participation of the observer in the process being studied
Frontal	Observing the group as a whole
Individual	Monitoring individual group members

Methods registration observation data: protocol, entries in observation diary.

Conditions observations:

1. accuracy of recording external manifestations (actions, movements, speech, facial expressions);

2. correct interpretation of the phenomena that are observed;

3. systematic observation.

Survey. This method is based on the assumption that the necessary information about a person’s psychological characteristics can be obtained by analyzing written or oral responses to a series of specially prepared, standard questions.

Questionnaire (written survey) - the subject not only answers questions, but also provides certain information about himself (age, gender, profession, level of education, place of work, marital status, etc.).

Questionnaire– a list of written questions that the test taker must answer. Questions can be “closed” or “open”.

Closed the questions provide standard answers, from which the subject must choose one (yes, no, don’t know, agree, disagree, difficult to say). Example: Do you often feel anxious? (Yes, no, sometimes, I don’t know).

On open questions are answered in free form. Example: Talk about situations in which you feel anxious. There are also questionnaires mixed type (some questions are “closed”, some are “open”). Example.

A written survey allows you to reach a relatively large number of subjects.

Oral survey has two forms. First - conversation. The conversation can take place in a free form. Only its topic and the main questions that the subject must answer are preliminarily determined. During the conversation, the topic may change and new questions may arise.

Conditions successful conversation:

1. Establish emotional contact with the subject, maintain a friendly atmosphere of conversation.

2. Select, and, if necessary, create informal conditions for her.

3. You need to start the conversation with a topic that interests the subject, and then gradually move on to the one that interests the researcher.

4. Give preference to indirect questions.

Conversation examples.

The second form of oral questioning is interview. It differs from the first one in that the content of the questions and their sequence are strictly regulated.

After completing the oral survey, the researcher must write down its results.

Testing. A test (from the English test - “test”) is a set of standardized tasks, the result of which allows one to determine certain psychological characteristics of the subject (level of intelligence, type of temperament, character traits). The test result is in most cases quantitative indicators that are compared with previously established standards.

Types of tests:

1. Intelligence tests (diagnosis of cognitive processes, mental abilities).

2. Personality questionnaires (research of personality traits).

3. Projective techniques, which are based on the hypothesis that any behavioral manifestation of a person is an imprint (projection) of his personality. This is a set of procedures that use ambiguous, indefinite stimuli that the subject must construct, develop, supplement, and interpret. Examples of tests.

The purpose of testing is a primary, preliminary diagnosis. The researcher must be specially trained and master the procedures of mathematical processing and psychological interpretation of data.

Analysis of results (products) of activities. One of its options is content analysis (from the English content - “content”). During this procedure, written texts of the subjects (poems, school essays on a free topic, entries in a personal diary, letters, etc.) are subjected to semantic analysis according to a pre-compiled scheme.

The task of content analysis is to highlight key words, phrases, topics in the text, the use of which indicates certain personality traits, and make an appropriate psychological diagnosis. Thus, constant reference to the topic of death in poetic work may indicate the author’s secret desire to commit suicide. Expert assessment method. Experts can be competent persons who: a) are specialists in any field of activity (teachers, class teachers); b) know the subjects (schoolchildren) well. Experts quantitatively assess the severity of a particular quality (special abilities: musical, linguistic, mathematical), and the researcher summarizes their assessments and gives them a psychological interpretation.

Example: assessment of musical abilities (hearing, memory, sense of rhythm) using a 10-point system. It is advisable that at least three experts take part in the assessment procedure.

Experiment. This method involves the purposeful creation of situations in which certain psychological properties of subjects are detected and can be assessed.

Kinds experiment:

1. Natural experiment- organized and carried out in the living conditions familiar to the subject. In this case, the experimenter minimally interferes with the course of events, tries to observe and record them in a “natural form”.

Example: a study of the dependence of memorization productivity on the setting for long-term retention of material in memory.

In one group, students are introduced to material they should study, and the teacher says that a quiz on this material will take place the next day. In the other group, under the same conditions of presenting educational material, students are told that the survey will be carried out in a week. In reality, students were asked after two weeks in both groups. During this experiment, the advantages of setting the long-term retention of material in memory were revealed.

2. Laboratory experiment. It involves the creation of artificial, “non-life” conditions in which it is possible to study a certain mental property or process as best as possible. Laboratory experiments take place in specially equipped rooms. This makes it possible to ensure maximum control over its progress and results. Example: an experiment to study “sensory hunger” (long-term, more or less complete isolation of a person from the information provided by the processes of perception and sensation). The subject, who is in a special apparatus isolated from information, is immersed in water.

Gradually, a person begins to feel sensory and emotional hunger. At the same time, his imagination begins to work actively, vivid images appear, then lethargy, depression, apathy appear, which for a short time are replaced by euphoria, irritability. Subsequently, persistent disturbances in attention, memory, and thinking are observed, and hallucinations appear. A similar experiment is used in training specialists in “extreme” professions.

The listed methods of psychological research should be used in combination, so that the data obtained using some methods is supplemented and verified using others.

In psychology, as in medicine, the law applies: “Do no harm!” Therefore, when conducting psychological research (for example, for a graduate work), it is necessary to comply with a number of ethical standards.

1. Methods and techniques for obtaining data, the data themselves, recommendations that are developed on their basis, etc., should not cause psychological or physical harm to the subjects.

2. Subjects should, as far as possible, be aware of the purpose and objectives of the study in which they are participating.

3. The names and surnames of the subjects should not be disclosed to third parties. In the text of the final work they should be given only in encrypted form.

4. It is not advisable to share research materials with anyone. An exception may be professional psychologists working in educational institutions or companies on the basis of which the work was written.

Main branches of psychology

The structure of modern psychological science consists of the following disciplines: general Psychology is a fundamental discipline that studies the essence and general patterns of the emergence, functioning and development of the psyche. It is the basis for the development of a number of applied (special) disciplines, which include:

Discipline	What does he study?
Age-related psychology	Development of the psyche throughout a person’s life;
Pedagogical psychology	Psychological foundations of training, education and pedagogical activity
Social Psychology	Relationships that arise during communication and interaction of people in different groups (family, school class, work team, etc.)
Psychologypersonalities	Psychological characteristics of personality
Psychogenetics	Interaction of hereditary and environmental factors in the formation of the human psyche
Differential psychology	Individual differences in the psyche
Psychodiagnostics	Develops theory, principles, tools for measuring and assessing mental phenomena);
Special psychology	The psyche of people with various deviations in the development of the psyche, which are caused by congenital or acquired defects of the nervous system. It includes the psychology of the blind ( typhlopsychology), deaf ( psychology of the deaf), mentally retarded ( oligophrenopsychology) and is closely related to defectology
Zoopsychology	Animal psyche
Musicalpsychology	Mental phenomena that are generated by music, as well as personality traits and professional activities of musicians
Psychologycreativity	Psychological aspects of creativity

Nowadays the following are also successfully developing: psychology business, psychology sports, military, legal, medical psychology and other areas of psychological science related to various types of human activity.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods

Summary

Methodological foundations of human studies. General principles of knowledge of the world. B. G. Ananyev’s approach to the study of man as a biosocial being. The concepts of “individual”, “subject of activity”, “personality”. Primary and secondary properties of a person as an individual. General personality characteristics. Distinctive features of a person as a subject of activity. The concepts of “consciousness” and “activity”.

Sciences about man and humanity. Studies of man as a biological species, works of K. Linnaeus. General idea of ​​anthropology. Psychological aspects of the study of man as a biological species: comparative psychology, zoopsychology, general psychology. General problems of studying the transition of man from an animal to the social world. Sciences that study human sociogenesis. Sciences that study the interaction of man with nature. General problems of studying man as an individual and his ontogenesis.

Psychology as a science. Psychology as a humanities science. Everyday and scientific psychological knowledge. The meaning of the term "psychology". Psychology as a spider about the psyche and mental phenomena. Subject of psychology. Classification of mental phenomena: mental processes, mental states, mental properties. Mental processes: cognitive, emotional, volitional. Mental states as a characteristic of the general state of the psyche. Main characteristics of mental states: duration, direction, stability, intensity. Mental properties of the individual: orientation, temperament, abilities, character.

Basic methods of psychological research. General understanding of scientific research methods. The main groups of psychological methods: objective and subjective. Basic subjective methods of psychology: observation, participant observation, self-observation, survey (written, oral, free). Subjective methods for quantitative assessment of mental phenomena. Basic principles of psychological tests. History of test creation. Projective tests and experiment (laboratory, natural). General understanding of modeling methods.

1.1. Methodological foundations of human studies

How to understand another person's behavior? Why do people have different abilities? What is the “soul” and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased.

A rational approach to understanding the world is based on the fact that the reality around us exists independently of our consciousness, can be studied experimentally, and the observed phenomena are completely understandable from a scientific point of view. To implement this approach, it is necessary to have a general understanding of the subject of research. In various areas of science, scientists are not

Names

Ananyev Boris Gerasimovich(1907-1972) - an outstanding Russian psychologist. He began his scientific activity as a graduate student at the Brain Institute during the lifetime of V. M. Bekhterev. In 1968-1972 was the dean of the Faculty of Psychology at Leningrad State University. He is the founder of the Leningrad psychological school. Author of fundamental works in the field of sensory perception, communication psychology, educational psychology. He proposed a system of human knowledge, in which data from various human sciences were integrated.

made one attempt to formulate a holistic idea of ​​​​a person. Of course, this idea also exists in psychology.

One of the most popular approaches to the study of man in Russian psychology was proposed by B. G. Ananyev. Assessing the significance of Ananyev’s work for Russian science, it is first of all necessary to emphasize that he developed a fundamentally new methodological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible not only to identify new sections of psychology that previously did not exist as independent ones, but also to take a fresh look at the person himself. Speaking about the main features of the development of scientific knowledge about man, Ananyev noted that the problem of man is becoming a common problem for all science as a whole. At the same time, the scientific knowledge of man is characterized by both the ever-increasing differentiation and specialization of individual disciplines, and the tendency to combine various sciences and methods of human research. Modern science is more and more interested in problems related to human health, his creativity, learning and, of course, his thoughts and experiences, and the study of man and human activity is carried out comprehensively, taking into account all aspects of these problems.

Ananyev identified four basic concepts in the system of human knowledge: individual, subject of activity, personality And individuality.

The concept of “individual” has several interpretations. First of all, an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of a speciesHomo sapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized. But sometimes this concept is used to designate a person as an individual representative of the human community, as a social being who uses tools. However, in this case, the biological essence of man is not denied.

A person as an individual has certain properties (Fig. 1.1). Ananyev identified the primary and secondary properties of an individual. He considered primary properties inherent in all people, such as age-related characteristics (compliance with a certain age) and sexual dimorphism (belonging to a certain gender), as well as individual-typical characteristics, including constitutional characteristics (features of body composition), neurodynamic

14 Part I. Introduction to General Psychology

Rice. 1.1. The structure of the concept “individual” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 1 5

properties of the brain, features of the functional geometry of the cerebral hemispheres. The set of primary properties of an individual determines his secondary properties: the dynamics of psychophysiological functions and the structure of organic needs. In turn, the integration of all these properties determines the characteristics of a person’s temperament and inclinations.

Another concept that characterizes a person as an object of the real world is “personality”. This concept, like the concept of “individual,” has various interpretations. In particular, personality is understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual, formed in joint activity and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of “personality characterizes a person as a social being”(Fig. 1.2). Within the framework of this concept, such psychological properties of a person as motivation, temperament, abilities and character are considered.

Rice. 1.2. The structure of the concept - “personality” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

The next concept that Ananyev singled out when studying man was “subject of activity.” This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of “individual” and “personality”. The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole. If a person did not have the ability to act as a subject of activity, then he could hardly be considered as a social being, since his evolution and social development are impossible without activity.

Before characterizing a person as a subject of activity, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the concept of “subject” as a philosophical category. Most often, this concept is used in conjunction with the concept of “object”. The object and the subject are always in a certain relationship. An object is an object or phenomenon of the real world that exists independently of our consciousness, acting as a goal towards which the activity of a person - the subject of influence - is directed. A person is always surrounded by certain objects or encounters phenomena of the real world. Depending on what or who its activity is directed at, one or another object can act as an object. The object can be human activity itself.

16

Rice. 1.3. The structure of the concept of “subject of activity” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

The main feature of man as a subject, which distinguishes him from other living beings, is consciousness (Fig. 1.3). Consciousness is the highest form of mental development, inherent only to humans. It determines the possibility of cognition of objective reality, the formation of purposeful behavior and, as a consequence, the transformation of the surrounding world. In turn, the ability of conscious activity to transform the surrounding world is another feature of a person as a subject. Thus, a subject is an individual as a bearer of consciousness with the ability to act. So, a person can be considered, firstly, as a representative

living nature, a biological object, secondly, as a subject of conscious activity and, thirdly, as a social being. That is, a person is a biosocial being endowed with consciousness and the ability to act. The combination of these three levels into one whole forms an integral characteristic of a person - his individuality

Individuality is a set of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person from the point of view of his uniqueness, originality and uniqueness. A prerequisite for the formation of human individuality are anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed by the process of education, which has a socially determined character. The variety of upbringing conditions and innate characteristics gives rise to a wide variety of manifestations of individuality.

Thus, we can conclude that a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. The structural organization of a person is multi-level in nature and reflects his natural and social essence (Fig. 1.4). Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities.

1.2. Sciences about man and humanity

Modern science, firstly, studies man as a representative of a biological species; secondly, he is considered as a member of society; thirdly, the objective activity of a person is studied; fourthly, the patterns of development of a particular person are studied.

Chapter 1 . Subject of psychology, her tasks and methods 1 7

Rice. 1.4. The structure of the concept of “individuality” (according to B. G. Ananyev)

The beginning of the targeted study of man as a biological species can be considered the works of Carl Linnaeus, who identified him as an independent species of Homo sapiens in the order of primates. Thus, the place of man in living nature was determined for the first time. This does not mean that the person was not previously of interest to researchers. Scientific knowledge of man originates in natural philosophy, natural science and medicine. However, these studies were narrow-profile, insufficiently systematized, and most importantly, contradictory in nature, and in them man was most often contrasted with living nature. K. Linnaeus proposed to consider man as an element of living nature. And this was a kind of turning point in the study of man.

Anthropology is a special science about man as a special biological species. The structure of modern anthropology includes three main sections: human morphology(study of individual variability of physical type, age stages - from the early stages of embryonic development to old age inclusive, sexual dimorphism, changes in human physical development under the influence of various living conditions and activities), the doctrine of anthropogenesis(on the changing nature of man's closest ancestor and man himself during the Quaternary period), consisting of primate science, evolutionary human anatomy and paleoanthropology (the study of human fossil forms) and racial studies.

In addition to anthropology, there are other related sciences that study humans as a biological species. For example, the physical type of Man as his general somatic organization is studied by such natural sciences as human anatomy and physiology, biophysics and biochemistry, psychophysiology, and neuropsychology. Medicine, which includes numerous sections, occupies a special place in this series.

The doctrine of anthropogenesis - the origin and development of man - is also associated with the sciences that study biological evolution on Earth, since human nature cannot be understood outside the general and consistently developing process of evolution of the animal world. This group of sciences may include paleontology, embryology, as well as comparative physiology and comparative biochemistry.

18 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

It must be emphasized that private disciplines played an important role in the development of the doctrine of anthropogenesis. These include, first of all, the physiology of higher nervous activity. Thanks to AND. P. Pavlov, who showed great interest in some genetic problems of higher nervous activity, the most developed department of comparative physiology was the physiology of higher nervous activity of anthropoids.

Comparative psychology, which combines animal psychology and general human psychology, plays a huge role in understanding the development of man as a biological species. Experimental studies of primates in zoopsychology began with the scientific works of such scientists as V. Koehler and N. N. Ladygina-Kots. Thanks to the successes of animal psychology, many mechanisms of human behavior and patterns of mental development have become clear.

There are sciences that are directly related to the doctrine of anthropogenesis, but play a significant role in its development. These include genetics and archaeology. Special place is occupied by paleolinguistics, which studies the origin of language, its sound means and control mechanisms. The origin of language is one of the central moments of sociogenesis, and the origin of speech is the central moment of anthropogenesis, since articulate speech is one;

of the main differences between humans and animals.

In connection with the fact that we touched upon the problems of sociogenesis, we should note the social sciences, which are most closely related to the problem of anthropogenesis. These include paleosociology, which studies the formation of human society, and the history of primitive culture.

Thus, man, as a representative of a biological species, is the object of study of many sciences, including psychology. In Fig. 1.5 presents B. G. Ananyev’s classification of the main problems and sciences about Homo sapiens . Anthropology occupies a central place among the sciences that study the origin and development of man as an independent biological species. The main conclusion that allows us to draw the current state of anthropology in relation to human development can be formulated as follows: at some stage of biological development, man was separated from the animal world (the borderline stage of “anthropogenesis-sociogenesis”) and the action of natural selection ceased in human evolution , based on the biological expediency and survival of the individuals and species most adapted to the natural environment. With the transition of man from the animal world to the social world, with his transformation into a biosocial being, the laws of natural selection were replaced by qualitatively different laws of development.

The question of why and how man’s transition from the animal to the social world occurred is central to the sciences studying anthropogenesis, and to date there is no clear answer to it. There are several points of view on this problem. One of them is based on the following assumption: as a result of mutation, the human brain turned into a superbrain, which allowed man to stand out from the animal world and create a society. This point of view is shared by P. Chauchard. According to this point of view, in historical times the organic development of the brain is impossible due to its mutational origin.

There is another point of view, which is based on the assumption that the organic development of the brain and the development of man as a species led to quality

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 19

Rice. 1.5. Sciences that study man as a biological object

natural structural changes in the brain, after which development began to be carried out according to other laws that differed from the laws of natural selection. But just because the body and brain remain essentially the same doesn't mean no development occurs. Research by I. A. Stankevich indicates that structural changes occur in the human brain, progressive development of various parts of the hemisphere, separation of new convolutions, and formation of new sulci are observed. Therefore, the question of whether a person will change can be answered in the affirmative. However, these evolutionary changes are mainly

20 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

will relate to the social conditions of human life and his personal development, and biological changes of the type Homosapiens will be of secondary importance*.

Thus, man as a social being, as a member of society, is no less interesting for science, since the modern development of man as a species Homosapiens is no longer carried out according to the laws of biological survival, but according to the laws of social development.

The problem of sociogenesis cannot be considered outside the social sciences. The list of these sciences is very long. They can be divided into several groups depending on the phenomena they study or are associated with. For example, sciences related to art, technological progress, and education.

In turn, according to the degree of generalization of the approach to the study of human society, these sciences can be divided into two groups: sciences that consider the development of society as a whole, in the interaction of all its elements, and sciences that study individual aspects of the development of human society. From the point of view of this classification of sciences, humanity is a holistic entity, developing according to its own laws, and at the same time a multitude of individual people. Therefore, all social sciences can be classified either as sciences about human society, or as sciences about man as an element of society. It should be borne in mind that in this classification there is not a sufficiently clear line between different sciences, since many social sciences can be associated both with the study of society as a whole and with the study of an individual person.

Ananiev believes that the system of sciences about humanity (human society) as an integral phenomenon should include sciences about the productive forces of society, sciences about the settlement and composition of humanity, sciences about production and social relations, about culture, art and science itself as a system of knowledge, science about the forms of society at various stages of its development.

It is necessary to highlight the sciences that study the interaction of man with nature and humanity with the natural environment. An interesting point of view was held on this issue by V.I. Vernadsky, the creator of the biogeochemical doctrine, in which he identified two opposing biogeochemical functions that interact and are associated with the history of free oxygen - the O 2 molecule. These are the functions of oxidation and reduction. On the one hand, they are associated with ensuring respiration and reproduction, and on the other, with the destruction of dead organisms. As Vernadsky believes, man and humanity are inextricably linked with the biosphere - a certain part of the planet on which they live, since they are geologically naturally connected with the material and energy structure of the Earth.

Man is inseparable from nature, but unlike animals, he has activity aimed at transforming the natural environment in order to ensure optimal conditions of life and activity. In this case we are talking about the emergence of the noosphere.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 21

The concept of “noosphere” was introduced by Le Roy together with Teilhard de Chardin in 1927. They were based on the biogeochemical theory outlined by Vernadsky in 1922-1923. at the Sorbonne. According to Vernadsky's definition, the noosphere, or “thinking layer,” is a new geological phenomenon on our planet. In it, for the first time, man appears as the largest geological force capable of transforming the planet.

There are sciences whose subject of study is a specific person. This category may include the sciences of ontogenesis - the process of development of the individual organism. Within the framework of this direction, gender, age, constitutional and neurodynamic characteristics of a person are studied. In addition, there are sciences about personality and its life path, within the framework of which the motives of a person’s activities, his worldview and value orientations, and relationships with the outside world are studied.

It should be borne in mind that all sciences or scientific directions that study man are closely interconnected and together give a holistic picture of man and human society.

However, no matter which direction is considered, various branches of psychology are represented in it to one degree or another. This is not accidental, since the phenomena that psychology studies largely determine the activities of man as a biosocial being.

Thus, a person is a multifaceted phenomenon. His research must be holistic. Therefore, it is no coincidence that one of the main methodological concepts used to study humans is the concept of a systems approach. It reflects the systematic nature of the world order. In accordance with this concept, any system exists because there is a system-forming factor. In the system of sciences that study man, such a factor is the man himself, and it is necessary to study it in all its diversity of manifestations and connections with the outside world, since only in this case can one obtain a complete understanding of man and the patterns of his social and biological development. In Fig. Figure 1.6 shows a diagram of the structural organization of a person, as well as his internal and external relationships.

1.3. Psychology as a science

When dividing sciences into groups based on the subject of study, natural sciences, humanities and technical sciences are distinguished. The first study nature, the second - society, culture and history, the third are associated with the study and creation of means of production and tools. Man is a social being, and all his mental phenomena are largely socially conditioned, which is why psychology is usually classified as a humanitarian discipline.

The concept of “psychology” has both scientific and everyday meaning. In the first case, it is used to designate the corresponding scientific discipline, in the second - to describe the behavior or mental characteristics of individuals and groups of people. Therefore, to one degree or another, every person becomes acquainted with “psychology” long before its systematic study.

Already in early childhood, the child says “I want”, “I think”, “I feel”. These words indicate that the little man, without realizing what he is doing, is exploring his inner world. Throughout life, every person, consciously or unconsciously, studies himself and his capabilities. It should be noted that the level of knowledge of one’s inner world largely determines how much a person can understand other people, how successfully he can build relationships with them.

Man is a social being, and he cannot live outside of society, without contact with others. In the practice of live communication, each person comprehends many psychological laws. Thus, each of us, since childhood, has been able to “read” the emotional state of another person by external manifestations - facial expressions, gestures, intonation, behavioral characteristics. Thus, every person is a kind of psychologist, since it is impossible to live in society without certain ideas about the human psyche.

However, everyday psychological knowledge is very approximate, vague and differs in many ways from scientific knowledge. What is this difference (Fig. 1.7)?

Firstly, everyday psychological knowledge is specific, tied to specific situations, people, and tasks. Scientific psychology strives for generalization, for which appropriate concepts are used.

Secondly, everyday psychological knowledge is intuitive. This is due to the way they were obtained - random experience and its subjective analysis on an unconscious level. In contrast, scientific knowledge is based on experiment, and the acquired knowledge is completely rational and conscious.

Third, there are differences in the way knowledge is transferred. As a rule, knowledge of everyday psychology is transferred with great difficulty, and often this transfer is simply impossible. As Yu. B. Gippenreiter writes, “the eternal problem of “fathers and sons” is precisely that children cannot and do not even want to adopt the experience of their fathers.” At the same time, in science, knowledge is accumulated and transferred much more easily.

Chapter 1 . Subject of psychology, her tasks and methods 23

Rice. 1.7. The main differences between everyday and scientific psychological knowledge

Fourthly, scientific psychology has extensive, varied and sometimes unique factual material that is not available in its entirety to any representative of everyday psychology.

So what is psychology as a science?

The word “psychology” translated from ancient Greek literally means “the science of the soul” (psyche"soul", logos -"concept", "teaching"). The term “psychology” first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that studied the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, that is, those that every person easily detects in his own consciousness as a result of introspection. Later, in the XVII -XI X centuries. the area studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious, but also unconscious phenomena. Thus, Psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. What is the subject of studying psychology in our time?

24 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

In order to answer this question, it is necessary to construct a classification of mental phenomena. It should be noted that there are different points of view on the structure of mental phenomena. For example, certain mental phenomena, depending on the author of the position, can be classified into different structural groups. Moreover, very often in scientific literature one can encounter a confusion of concepts. Thus, some authors do not separate the characteristics of mental processes and mental properties of the individual. We will divide mental phenomena into three main classes: mental processes, mental states And mental properties of personality(Fig. 1.8).

Mental processes act as primary regulators of human behavior. Mental processes have a definite beginning, course and end, that is, they have certain dynamic characteristics, which, first of all, include parameters that determine the duration and stability of the mental process. Based on mental processes, certain states are formed, knowledge, skills and abilities are formed. In turn, mental processes can be divided into three groups: cognitive, emotional and volitional.

TO cognitive mental processes include mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. These include sensation, perception, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech and attention. Thanks to these processes, a person receives information about the world around him and about himself. However, information or knowledge itself does not play any role for a person if it is not significant for him. You've probably noticed that some events remain in your memory for a long time, while others you forget the next day. Other information may go completely unnoticed by you. This is due to the fact that any information may or may not have an emotional connotation, i.e. it may be significant or not significant. Therefore, along with cognitive mental processes, they distinguish as independent ones emotional mental processes. Within this group of mental processes, mental phenomena such as affects, emotions, feelings, moods and emotional stress are considered.

We have the right to believe that if a certain event or phenomenon evokes positive emotions in a person, then this has a beneficial effect on his activity or condition, and, conversely, negative emotions complicate the activity and worsen the person’s condition. Nevertheless, there are exceptions. For example, an event that causes negative emotions increases a person’s activity and stimulates him to overcome the obstacles that have arisen. Such a reaction indicates that for the formation of human behavior, not only emotional, but also volitional mental processes, which are most clearly manifested in situations related to decision-making, overcoming difficulties, managing one’s behavior, etc.

Sometimes another group of mental processes is identified as an independent group - unconscious processes. It includes those processes that occur or are carried out outside the control of consciousness.

Mental processes are closely interconnected and act as primary factors in the formation of human mental states. Psi-

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 25

chemical conditions characterize the state of the psyche as a whole. They, like mental processes, have their own dynamics, which are characterized by duration, direction, stability and intensity. At the same time, mental states influence the course and outcome of mental processes and can promote or inhibit activity. Mental states include such phenomena as elation, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency. It should be noted that mental states can be extremely complex phenomena that have objective and subjective conditioning, but their characteristic common feature is dynamism. The exception is mental states caused by dominant personality characteristics, including pathocharacterological features. Such states can be very stable mental phenomena that characterize a person’s personality.

The next class of mental phenomena - the mental properties of a person - is characterized by greater stability and greater constancy. Under mental properties personality, it is customary to understand the most essential characteristics of a person, providing a certain quantitative and qualitative level of human activity and behavior. Mental properties include orientation, temperament, abilities and character. The level of development of these properties, as well as the peculiarities of the development of mental processes and the prevailing (most characteristic of a person) mental states determine the uniqueness of a person, his individuality.

26 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

The phenomena studied by psychology are associated not only with a specific person, but also with groups. Mental phenomena associated with the life of groups of collectives are studied in detail within the framework of social psychology. We will consider only a brief description of such mental phenomena.

All group mental phenomena can also be divided into mental processes, mental states and mental properties. In contrast to individual mental phenomena, mental phenomena in groups and collectives have a clearer division into internal and external.

Collective mental processes that act as the primary factor in regulating the existence of a collective or group include communication, interpersonal perception, interpersonal relationships, the formation of group norms, intergroup relationships, etc. Mental states of a group include conflict, cohesion, psychological climate, openness or closedness of the group , panic, etc. The most significant mental properties of a group include organization, leadership style, and efficiency

Thus, the subject of psychology is the psyche and mental phenomena of both one specific person and mental phenomena observed in groups and collectives. In turn, the task of psychology is the study of mental phenomena. Describing the task of psychology, S. L. Rubinstein writes: “Psychological cognition is an indirect cognition of the mental through the disclosure of its essential, objective connections”*.

1.4. Basic methods

psychological research

Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Scientific research methods are the techniques and means by which information necessary for making practical recommendations and constructing scientific theories is obtained. The development of any science depends on how perfect the methods it uses are, how reliable And are valid. All this is true in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the entire development of psychological science, its successes directly depended on the degree of perfection of the research methods used. Psychology became an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, so it very often relies on the methods of other, “older” sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses methods of modern sciences such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only its own methods. Psychology also has such methods. All of them can be divided into two main groups: subjective And objective(Fig. 1.9).

* Rubinshtein S. L.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 27

Need to know

Validity and reliability of the psychodiagnostic test

To characterize the ability of a test to measure the actual level of a mental property or quality, the concept of “validity” is used. The validity of a test shows the extent to which it measures the quality (property, ability, characteristic, etc.) that it is intended to assess. Invalid, i.e., tests that do not have validity, are not suitable for practical use. Validity and reliability are related concepts. Their relationship can be illustrated by the following example. Let's say there are two shooters A and B. Shooter A knocks out 90 points out of 100, and the shooter IN - only 70. Accordingly, the reliability of the shooter A is 0.90, and arrow B is 0.70. However, shooter A always shoots at other people's targets, so his results are not counted in competitions. The second shooter always selects the correct targets. Therefore, the validity of arrow A is zero, and arrow B is 0.70, i.e., numerically equal to reliability. If Shooter A starts choosing targets correctly, his validity will also be equal to his reliability. If he sometimes confuses the mi-

sheni, then some of the results will not be counted and the validity of shooter A will be lower than reliability. In our example, the analogue of reliability is the shooter’s accuracy, and the analogue of validity is also shooting accuracy, but not at any target, but at a strictly defined, “own” target. There are cases in history when tests recognized as invalid for measuring some properties turned out to be valid for others. This means that reliability is a necessary condition for validity. An unreliable test cannot be valid, and, conversely, a valid test is always reliable. The reliability of a test cannot be less than its validity; in turn, Validity cannot exceed reliability. In modern psychometrics, there are three main types of validity: 1) content (logical); 2) empirical and 3) conceptual. By: Melnikov V. M., Yampolsky L. T. Introduction to experimental personality psychology: Textbook. aid for listeners. IPK, lecturer ped. disciplines of universities and peds. in- comrade . - M.: Education, 1985.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and at first glance the simplest. It is based on systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out under normal living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Observation is a method that all people use. However, scientific observation and the observation that most people use in everyday life have a number of significant differences. Scientific observation is characterized by systematicity and is carried out on the basis of a specific plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Consequently, scientific observation requires special training, during which special knowledge is acquired and contributes to the objectivity of the psychological interpretation of quality.

28 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

Rice. 1.9. Basic methods of psychological research

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 29

Observation can be carried out in a variety of ways. For example, the method is widely used participant observation. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct participant in the events. However, if, under the influence of the personal participation of the researcher, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, which allows a more objective judgment of the events taking place. Participant observation in its content is very close to another method - self-observation.

Self-observation, i.e. observation of one’s experiences, is one of the specific methods used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method, in addition to its advantages, has a number of disadvantages. Firstly, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They either change under the influence of observation or stop altogether. Secondly, during self-observation it is very difficult to avoid subjectivity, since our perception of what is happening is subjective. Thirdly, during self-observation it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences.

Nevertheless, the method of introspection is very important for a psychologist. When confronted in practice with the behavior of other people, the psychologist seeks to understand its psychological content. In most cases, he turns to his experience, including the analysis of his experiences. Therefore, in order to work successfully, a psychologist must learn to objectively assess his condition and his experiences.

Self-observation is often used in experimental settings. In this case, it acquires the most accurate character and is usually called experimental introspection. Its characteristic feature is that the interview of a person is carried out under precisely taken into account experimental conditions, at those moments that most interest the researcher. In this case, the method of self-observation is very often used in conjunction with the method survey.

A survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of questioning: oral, written and free.

Oral survey, as a rule, it is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as special training for the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the answers very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

Written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to predict the reaction of the subjects to its questions and change its content during the study.

Free poll - a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance. When questioning this

30 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

Need to know

Moral principles of the activity of a psychologist

Conducting psychological research always involves involving subjects. Therefore, the question arises about the ethics of the relationship between the psychologist and the subjects. On what principles should they be built? The American Psychological Association (APA) and similar organizations in Canada and Great Britain have developed basic guidelines for the treatment of human and animal subjects (American Psychological Association, 1990). Thus, in the United States, federal legislation requires any organization conducting research with federal funds to have an internal review board. This board must supervise the research conducted and ensure that the handling of subjects follows instructions based on certain ethical principles. The first principle of ethical treatment of human subjects is minimizing risk. In the United States, relevant federal guidelines state that, in most cases, the perceived risk of conducting research should not exceed the risk associated with normal daily life. Obviously, no physical harm or injury should be caused to a person, but it is not always possible to clearly decide what level of psychological stress is ethically justifiable in a given research project. Of course, in everyday life people often behave impolitely, lie and cause trouble to others. Under what conditions would it be ethically justifiable for a researcher to do the same thing to a subject for the purpose of carrying out a research project? These are precisely the issues that the supervisory board must consider on a case-by-case basis. The second principle for the ethical treatment of human subjects requires their informed consent. Subjects must participate in the study voluntarily and must have the right to withdraw from the study at any time they wish and without penalty. They are also required to be warned in advance of any features of the study that might likely influence their willingness to cooperate. Like the minimum risk principle, the requirement of informed consent is not always easy to implement. In particular, this requirement sometimes conflicts with another generally accepted requirement for conducting research: that the subject should not know which hypotheses are being tested in the study. If the plan is to compare some subjects' learning of familiar words and others' learning of unfamiliar words, then no ethical problems will arise if you simply tell the subjects in advance that they will be learning lists of words: they do not need to know how the words differ

type, you can change the tactics and content of the study quite flexibly, which allows you to obtain a variety of information about the subject. At the same time, a standard survey requires less time and, most importantly, the information obtained about a particular subject can be compared with information about another person, since in this case the list of questions does not change.

Having examined the survey method, we came close to the problem of the accuracy of measuring the information received, as well as quantitative and qualitative characteristics in psychology. On the one hand, this problem is closely related to the problem of objectivity of the study. Psychologists have long asked themselves the question: “How can one prove that an observed phenomenon is not accidental or that it objectively exists?” In the process of the formation and development of psychology, a methodology was determined to confirm the objectivity of the experimental results. For example, such confirmation could be the replication of results in studies with other subjects under similar conditions. And the greater the number of matches, the higher the probability of the existence of the detected phenomenon. On the other hand, this problem is related to the problem of comparing

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 31

Need to know

in various subjects. There will be no serious ethical problems even if subjects are suddenly tested on words they were not expecting to be tested. But what if a researcher wanted to compare the word learning of neutral subjects with the word learning of angry or confused subjects? Clearly, this study would not yield valid conclusions if subjects had to be told in advance that they would be intentionally angered (by being treated harshly) or intentionally confused (by making them believe that they had accidentally broken some device). In this regard, the instructions state that such studies can be carried out, but subjects should be brought out of ignorance as soon as possible after their participation. It should explain to them why they had to be kept in the dark or deceived, and, in addition, their residual anger or confusion should be removed so that their dignity is not harmed and their appreciation of the research being conducted is enhanced. The Institutional Review Board must be satisfied that the procedure for removing subjects from the study complies with these requirements. The third ethical principle of research is the right of subjects to confidentiality. Information about a person obtained during the research process should be considered confidential and other persons should not have access to it without his consent. Typically, this is done by separating the names of subjects and other identifying information from the data obtained. In this case, data identification is carried out using an alphabetic or numeric code. Thus, only the experimenter has access to the subject's results. Approximately 7-8% of all psychological experiments use animals (mostly rodents and birds), and very few of them subject the animals to painful or harmful procedures. However, recent years have seen increased interest in the issue and controversy over the use, housing and handling of animals in scientific research; Both federal and APA guidelines require that all procedures that are painful or harmful to the animal must be fully justified by the knowledge that results from such research. There are also special rules governing the living conditions of laboratory animals and procedures for caring for them. In addition to specific instructions, there is a general ethical principle that states that participants in psychological experiments should be considered full partners of the researcher. By; Atkinson R. L., Atnmanson R. S., Smith E. E. et al. Introduction to psychology: Textbook for universities / Transl. from English under. ed. V. P. Zinchenko. - M.: Trivola, 1999.

visibility of results. How to compare the severity of a certain psychological characteristic in different people?

Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena began to be made starting from the second half of the 19th century, when the need arose to make psychology a more accurate and useful science. But even earlier, in 1835, the book “Social Physics” by the creator of modern statistics A. Quetelet (1796-1874) was published. In this book, Quetelet, relying on the theory of probability, showed that its formulas make it possible to detect the subordination of human behavior to certain patterns. Analyzing statistical material, he obtained constant values ​​that provide a quantitative description of such human acts as marriage, suicide, etc. These acts were previously considered arbitrary. And although the concept formulated by Quetelet was inextricably linked with the metaphysical approach to social phenomena, it introduced a number of new points. For example, Quetelet expressed the idea that if the average number is constant, then behind it there must be a reality comparable to the physical one, making it possible to predict various phenomena

32 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

Bekhterev Vladimir Mikhailovich (1857-1927)- Russian

physiologist, neurologist, psychiatrist, psychologist. Based on the reflex concept of mental activity put forward by I.M. Sechenov, he developed a natural science theory of behavior, which was initially called objective psychology (1904), then psychoreflexology (1910), and later reflexology (1917). Bekhterev made a significant contribution to the development of experimental psychology. He was the creator of the first experimental psychological laboratory in Russia, which was opened in 1885 at the clinic of Kazan University. Later, in 1908, Bekhterev founded the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg, which currently bears his name.

(including psychological) based on statistical laws. To understand these laws, it is hopeless to study each person individually. The object of studying behavior should be large masses of people, and the main method should be variation statistics.

Already the first serious attempts to solve the problem of quantitative measurements in psychology made it possible to discover and formulate several laws connecting the strength of a person’s sensations with stimuli expressed in physical units that affect the body. These include the Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, and Stevens laws, which are mathematical formulas that help determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the relative and absolute thresholds of sensations. Subsequently, mathematics was widely included in psychological research, which to a certain extent increased the objectivity of research and contributed to the transformation of psychology into one of the most practical sciences. The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology determined the need to develop methods that make it possible to repeatedly carry out the same type of research, i.e., it required solving the problem of standardization of procedures and techniques.

The main meaning of standardization is that in order to ensure the lowest probability of error when comparing the results of psychological examinations of two people or several groups, it is necessary, first of all, to ensure the use of the same methods, stably, i.e., regardless of external conditions measuring the same psychological characteristics.

These psychological methods include tests. This method is used most often. Its popularity is due to the possibility of obtaining an accurate and high-quality characterization of a psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compare research results, which is primarily necessary for solving practical problems. Tests differ from other methods in that they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as a psychological interpretation of the results obtained.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 33

It is customary to distinguish several variants of tests: questionnaire tests, task tests, projective tests.

Test questionnaire as a method it is based on the analysis of test subjects' answers to questions that allow one to obtain reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is made on the basis of the number of answers that coincide in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about a person’s psychological characteristics based on an analysis of the success of performing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks completed is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.

One of the very first attempts to develop tests was made by F. Galton (1822-1911). At the International Exhibition in London in 1884, Galton organized an anthropometric laboratory (later transferred to the South Kensington Museum in London). Over nine thousand subjects passed through it, in whom, along with height, weight, etc., various types of sensitivity, reaction time and other sensorimotor qualities were measured. The tests and statistical methods proposed by Galton were later widely used to solve practical problems of life. This was the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called “psychotechnics”.

This term entered the lexicon of scientists after the publication of an article by D. Cattell (1860-1944) « MentalTestsandMeasurements »("Mental Tests and Measurements") in 1890 in the magazine Mind with Galton's afterword. “Psychology,” Cattell writes in this article, “cannot become as solid and precise as the physical sciences unless it is based on experiment and measurement. A step in this direction can be taken by applying a series of mental tests to a large number of people. The results may have significant scientific value in revealing the constancy of mental processes, their interdependence and changes in different circumstances."

In 1905, the French psychologist A. Binet created one of the first psychological tests - a test for assessing intelligence. At the beginning of the 20th century. The French government commissioned Binet to compile a scale of intellectual abilities for schoolchildren in order to use it to correctly distribute schoolchildren according to levels of education. Subsequently, various scientists create entire series of tests. Their focus on quickly solving practical problems led to the rapid and widespread dissemination of psychological tests. For example, G. Münsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: initially they were tested on a group of workers who achieved the best results, and then newly hired workers were subjected to them. Obviously, the premise of this procedure was the idea of ​​interdependence between the mental structures necessary for the successful performance of an activity and those structures thanks to which the subject copes with tests.

34 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

During the First World War, the use of psychological tests became widespread. At this time, the United States was actively preparing to enter the war. However, they did not have the same military potential as other warring parties. Therefore, even before entering the war (1917), the military authorities turned to the country's largest psychologists E. Thorndike (1874-1949), R. Yerkes (1876-1956) and G. Whipple (1878-1976) with a proposal to lead the solution to the problem of using psychology in military affairs. The American Psychological Association and universities quickly began working in this direction. Under Yerkes' leadership, the first group tests were created to mass assess the suitability (mainly on intelligence) of conscripts for service in various branches of the military: the Army Alpha test for literate people and the Army Beta test for illiterate people. The first test was similar to A. Binet's verbal tests for children. The second test consisted of nonverbal tasks. 1,700,000 soldiers and about 40,000 officers were examined. The distribution of indicators was divided into seven parts. In accordance with this, according to the degree of suitability, the subjects were divided into seven groups. The first two groups included persons with the highest abilities to perform the duties of officers and who were subject to assignment to the appropriate military educational institutions. The three subsequent groups had average statistical indicators of the abilities of the population under study.

At the same time, the development of tests as a psychological method was carried out in Russia. The development of this direction in Russian psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazursky (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) and P. F. Lesgaft ( 1837-1909).

A particularly notable contribution to the development of test methods was made by G. I. Rossolimo, who was known not only as a neurologist, but also as a psychologist. To diagnose individual mental properties, he developed a method for their quantitative assessment, which gives a holistic picture of the personality. The technique made it possible to evaluate 11 mental processes, which in turn were divided into five groups: attention, receptivity, will, memorization, associative processes (imagination and thinking). For each of these processes, tasks were proposed, depending on the completion of which the “strength” of each process was assessed on a special scale. The sum of positive responses was marked with a dot on the graph. Connecting these dots gave a “psychological profile” of a person. The tasks varied according to the categories of subjects (for children, for intelligent adults, for non-intelligent adults). In addition, Rossolimo proposed a formula for converting graphic data into arithmetic data.

Today, tests are the most widely used method of psychological research. However, it is necessary to note the fact that the tests occupy an intermediate position between subjective and objective methods. This is due to the wide variety of test methods. There are tests based on the subjects' self-report, for example, questionnaire tests. When executing data tests the test taker can consciously or unconsciously influence the test result, especially if he knows how his answers will be interpreted. But there are also more objective tests. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to include projective tests. This category of tests does not use self-reports from subjects. They assume a free interpretation of the research.

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, her tasks and methods 35

the teacher of the tasks performed by the test subject. For example, based on the most preferred choice of color cards for a subject, a psychologist determines his emotional state. In other cases, the subject is presented with pictures depicting an uncertain situation, after which the psychologist offers to describe the events reflected in the picture, and based on the analysis of the subject’s interpretation of the depicted situation, a conclusion is drawn about the characteristics of his psyche. However, tests of the projective type place increased demands on the level of professional training and practical experience of the psychologist, and also require a sufficiently high level of intellectual development in the test subject.

Objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. They differ from each other in the conditions of the experiment.

A laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are. One of the first to use the method of natural experiment was the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky. The data obtained in a natural experiment best corresponds to the typical life behavior of people. However, it should be borne in mind that the results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the experimenter’s lack of ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. From this point of view, the laboratory experiment wins in accuracy, but at the same time is inferior in the degree of correspondence to the life situation.

Another group of methods of psychological science consists of methods modeling. They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc. In mathematical modeling, a mathematical expression or formula is used, which reflects the relationship of variables and the relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomena being studied. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device that, in its action, resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve psychological problems. Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

36 Part I. Introduction to general psychology

The development of computers and software for them gave impetus to the modeling of mental phenomena based on the laws of computer operation, since it turned out that the mental operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning when solving problems are close to the operations and logic on the basis of which computer programs work. This led to attempts to imagine and describe human behavior by analogy with the operation of a computer.In connection with these studies, the names of American scientists D. Miller, Y. Galanter, K. Pribram, as well as the Russian psychologist L. M. Wekker became widely known.

In addition to these methods, there are other methods for studying mental phenomena. For example, conversation - survey option. The conversation method differs from a survey in greater freedom of procedure. As a rule, the conversation is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the questions varies depending on the situation and characteristics of the subject. Another method is

method of studying documents, or analysis of human activity. It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out through the complex application of various methods.

Control questions

1. Tell us about the main structural elements of B. G. Ananyev’s approach to the study of man: the individual, the subject of activity, personality, individuality.

2. Characterize the primary and secondary properties of a person as an individual.

3. Explain why the concept of “personality” refers only to humans and cannot apply to representatives of the animal world.

4. Describe the basic properties of a person as a subject of activity.

5. Explain the essence of the concept of “individuality”.

6. Tell us about modern sciences that study humans biologically! view.

7. What do you know about research into the problems of anthropogenesis and human sociogenesis?

8. Tell us about the relationship between man and nature. What are the main ideas embedded in the biogeochemical theory of V.I. Vernadsky?

9. Define psychology as a science.

10 What are the differences between scientific and everyday psychology?

11. What is the subject of psychology? Give a classification of mental phenomena.

12. What mental processes do you know?

13. What is the main difference between mental states and mental processes?

14. Name the main personality traits.

15. What methods of psychological research do you know?

16. What is a test? What tests are there?

Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods37

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10. Lewis D. Socialism and personality / Trans. from English - M.: Publishing house. foreign lit., 1963.

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General fundamentals of psychology. - 2nd ed. - M.: Vlados 1998.

13. Psychology / Ed. prof. K. N. Kornilova, prof. A. A. Smirnova, prof. B. M. Teplova. - Ed. 3rd, revised and additional - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1948.

14. Psychology: Dictionary / Under the general editorship. A. V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. - M.:

Politizdat, 1990.

15. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.

16. Semenov Yu. I. How did humanity arise? - M.: Nauka, 1966.

17. Smirnov A. A. Selected psychological works: In 2 volumes - M., 1987.

18. Fresse P., Piaget J. Experimental psychology / Sat. articles. Per. from French:

Vol. 6. - M.: Progress, 1978.

19. Shoshar P. Biological factors of progress. The human brain is the organ of progress. // What future awaits humanity / Under general. ed. Corresponding member USSR Academy of Sciences A. M. Rumyantsev. - Prague: Peace and Socialism, 1964.