Modern approaches to writing expositions.
Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations.
Understanding and remembering text based on
recreating imagination
Presentation is one of the traditional types of written work in school - in last years is experiencing a real boom. It has become the most common form of final examination. Suffice it to say that in all three versions of the final assessment in the 9th grade, the presentation is the first part exam paper.
Most often, ninth-graders complain about their memory and inability to write quickly. Here is a typical answer: “The text is very large, but it is read only twice, I don’t have time to write anything down.” And only in one of the 120 works was there a completely “adult” approach to the matter: “To write an exposition, you need to understand the text, remember it and be able to highlight microthemes. This is the main difficulty."
The ability to write a summary, according to ninth-graders, can be useful “when passing the Unified State Exam”, “when taking notes at lectures at the institute”, “for journalists or reporters, if you need to quickly record what a “star” is saying, and the recorder breaks down”, “in the police when you need to write a protocol." Many people generally deny the need for such a skill. However, there are also quite mature judgments: presentation is a memory training, and every person needs a good memory.
The established practice of writing an exposition - a deliberately slow reading of the source text, often more reminiscent of a dictation, and permission to take notes during the second hearing - led to the fact that the main task for our students was the desire to write down as quickly and as much as possible. If students were deprived of this opportunity, less than 30% would cope with the presentation. Here is one of the typical answers: “I’m unlikely to write it, I’ve never tried this.” In fact, literal recording of a text is no better than ordinary cramming. Memorizing without understanding, which is typical for children of preschool and primary school age, practically returns ninth-graders to childhood.
First of all, the text you listen to needs to be understood, and only a few graduates have this skill. According to the results of a survey of 200 schools in 76 regions of the country, in which about 170 thousand schoolchildren in the first and tenth grades participated, more than 50% of tenth graders found it difficult to extract meaning from an elementary text, only 30% expressed their opinion in connection with what they read, 90% of high school students no full understanding of the meaning literary text.
Unfortunately, the teacher himself often underestimates the role of understanding when teaching presentation. Meanwhile it’s correct organized work in preparation for presentation - this is primarily the work of understanding and memorizing the text. If a student misses some essential thoughts of the source text, distorts the main idea, or does not feel the author’s attitude, this means that the text is not understood or is not fully understood.
EXAMPLE 1. Original text “A discovery that was two hundred years late»
Here's a cautionary tale.
About a hundred years ago, in a city in Russia there lived a mathematician. All his life he patiently struggled to solve a difficult problem. mathematical problem. Neither strangers nor acquaintances could understand what the eccentric was tormenting over.
Some felt sorry for him, others laughed at him. He didn't pay attention to anyone or anything around him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. Only his island was surrounded not by a sea of water, but by a sea of misunderstanding.
All mathematical rules, except for the most important ones, which he managed to learn when he briefly studied at school, he rediscovered them.
And he built what he wanted to build from them the way Robinson built his boat. I suffered in the same way, made the same mistakes, did unnecessary work and started to redo everything all over again,
because no one could help or advise him.
Many years later. He finished his work and showed it to a math teacher he knew. The teacher spent a long time figuring it out, and when he figured it out, he transferred his work to the university. A few days later, the scientists invited the eccentric to their place. They looked at him with admiration and pity. There was something to admire and something to regret. The eccentric made a great mathematical discovery! The chairman of the meeting told him so. But, alas, two hundred years before him, this discovery had already been made by another mathematician - Isaac Newton.
At first the old man did not believe what he was told. They explained to him that Newton wrote his books on mathematics in Latin. And in his old age he sat down to Latin textbooks. Learned Latin. I read Newton’s book and found out that everything he was told at a meeting at the university was true. He really made a discovery. But this discovery has long been known to the world. Life was lived in vain.
This sad story was told by the writer N. Garin-Mikhailovsky. He called the story about the eccentric “Genius” and made a note to the story that this story was not made up, but happened in reality.
Who knows what discoveries this unknown genius could have given people if he had learned about Newton’s discovery earlier and directed his talent to discover what is not yet known to people!
(325 words) (S. Lvov)
Text of the presentation
There was once a mathematician who spent his whole life solving one problem. But no one wanted to help him, everyone just laughed at him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. He himself discovered all the mathematical rules that are taught at school.
Many years later, the eccentric showed the solution to the problem to which he had devoted his entire life to a teacher he knew. The teacher could not figure out the problem for a long time and showed it to the scientists. The old man was invited to a meeting at the university. Everyone began to admire him because he, it turns out, did outstanding discovery.
One writer who told a story about an eccentric mathematician correctly titled his story “Genius.”
The work requires no comments. And this is not a matter of violations of logic or poverty of language. The problem is much more serious: the text is simply not understood, its main idea is not understood (“Mankind would have recognized the mathematician who made the great discovery as a genius if Newton had not made this discovery two hundred years before him.”) Key words and phrases were left unattended ( did not study at school for long, unnecessary work, rediscovered, looked with admiration and pity, the sad story has long been known to the world). Even such strong signals as a telling headline and sentences that directly reveal author's position(they are highlighted in the text) passed by the author of the presentation.
I must admit that I failed in the task of formulating the main idea of the text. more than a half class. Here are statements that indicate a complete misunderstanding of the text.
This man spent his whole life achieving everything on his own, and through his own labor he received an education. He was a genius and managed to discover Newton's own laws.
The point of this text is to show that there are people who evoke our sympathy and pity.
In life, geniuses are strange people, and it is difficult for them to communicate with people, to be in society, so no one recognizes our hero. But I believe that his suffering was not in vain, since this discovery was the goal of his life and he achieved everything that was planned.
I think that the main problem of this text is the reluctance of people to help each other, the reluctance to accept help, and in general the problem of relationships between people. If the mathematician had listened to others, he would not have lived his life in vain. He could have directed his mind to something more useful.
And only in some works did reading comprehension appear.
1. “The main idea of the text can be formulated using the well-known expressions “reinventing the wheel” and “discovering America.” Indeed, why invent something that others did before you a long time ago?
Unfortunately, such cases are not uncommon today. Therefore, before you start inventing anything, you must first study your chosen field of science well. Understand what and to what extent others have done before you.”
2. “Sergei Lvov told us a sad story, or rather, retold it to us. I feel sorry for this eccentric, this “unknown genius,” who spent all his strength on the discovery made by Newton two hundred years before him.
In order not to discover what has already been discovered, you need to read a lot, study a lot, communicate with other scientists, and not surround yourself with a “sea of misunderstanding.” This is precisely the main (it must be said, rather trivial) idea of this text.
The hero of V. Shukshin’s story “Stubborn” found himself in a similar situation, who took up the invention perpetual motion machine. Of course, nothing came of this, because the creation of a perpetuum mobile, as is known, contradicts the laws of physics. Monya (that’s the name of Shukshin’s hero) did not believe this and “devoted himself completely to the great inventive task.” At the end of the story, the engineer directly addresses the “stubborn” Monet: “You have to study, my friend, then everything will be clear.” Despite all its banality, the advice is actually correct. If this “genius” mathematician had received a good mathematical education (most likely he simply did not have such an opportunity), he would have directed his talent to discovering something that is not yet known to people.”
Is it possible to put presentation at the service of understanding the text? What are modern approaches to writing an exposition? What can be done to transform the presentation of the “boring” genre, as it is most often perceived by students, into an effective means of their development?
Exposition as a genre
But first, let’s find out the features of presentation as a genre.
Presentation - a type of educational work based on the reproduction of the content of someone else’s text, the creation of a secondary text. The words presentation and retelling are often used as synonyms, but the term retelling more often refers to the oral form of text reproduction.
The specificity of the presentation follows from its nature as a secondary text.
Let us turn to the class with the question: “What should not be confused with presentation?” The answer: “Of course, with an essay” will not follow immediately. We asked this “childish” question for a reason. It is necessary to explain to students once and for all that these genres have different tasks and different specifics. Unlike an essay, which is completely “led” by the author, nothing that is not in the source text should not be in the presentation. The appearance in “your” text of background knowledge, facts and details that are not contained in the text is by no means encouraged. On the contrary, any “creativity”, fantasy of this kind is regarded as factual error and leads to lower scores.
Thus, in the presentation about Pushkin and Pushchin (text No. 1 from the famous collection), the student should not mention that the meeting took place on January 11, 1825 in Mikhailovskoye, and in the presentation about the Battle of Borodino (text No. 47) in the phrase “Kutuzov first intends was “to start a new battle in the morning and stand to the end” there is no need to indicate the authorship of the quote. As a rule, errors of this kind are more typical of strong, erudite students. Information about the specifics of presentation as a genre should be addressed to them first.
Types of presentations
Traditionally distinguished the following types presentation.
By form of speech: oral, written.
By volume: detailed, condensed.
In relation to the content of the source text: complete, selective, presentation with an additional task (add the beginning/end, make inserts, retell the text from the 1st to 3rd line, answer the question, etc.).
According to the perception of the source text: presentation of a read, visually perceived text, presentation of a heard, aurally perceived text, presentation of a text perceived both aurally and visually.
Purpose: training, control.
The features of all these types of presentations are well known to the teacher. Let us only note that in the 9th grade you should not concentrate both your own efforts and the efforts of the students on any one type. In the practice of preparing for an exam, there must be different texts, different presentations and, of course, different types of work, otherwise boredom and monotony - the main enemy of any activity - cannot be avoided. But, since there is very little time for presentation in the graduate class (you also need to go through the program), it is best to select small texts for training and train one specific skill.
Requirements for texts
The texts of the presentations do not satisfy not only us teachers, but also the children: they seem monotonous, “pretentious”, incomprehensible, too long (“try to retell the text in 400-500 words yourself, and most of the collections contain such!”). A game called “If I were a text writer, I would suggest texts about...” turned out to be very effective: students named a variety of topics - about school, about problems that concern teenagers, about interesting people, about great discoveries, about technology, sports, music, relationships between people and even the future of humanity. “Anyone except the boring ones!”
Why do children name these particular topics? What is leading in their choice? Without realizing it themselves, they act according to one criterion - emotional, choosing texts that primarily evoke positive emotions.
The selection of non-boring texts - informative, fascinating, problematic, smart, and sometimes humorous - excites and maintains cognitive interest, creates a favorable lesson environment. psychological climate. Popular science and some journalistic texts are best suited for this purpose, less often - and only with a specific educational task - fiction.
The question of whether it is possible to offer texts from classical works for presentation is controversial. Many methodologists believe that by conveying the content of an artistically impeccable fragment close to the text, students learn those figures of speech that belong to Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy... During the presentation, the mechanism of imitation is activated, which has a beneficial effect on the child’s speech. But what does it mean to “retell in detail” Lermontov or Gogol (for example, the texts “About Pechorin”, “About Gogol’s Thick and Thin” or “About Sobakevich”)? If the passage is not very long, which cannot be said about exam texts, you can, with incredible effort, remember it almost word for word. However, in this case, there is no need to talk about any kind of understanding and development of speech. The situation with a detailed presentation of the classics was parodied by the students themselves in the genre “ bad advice": "... you must replace all the author's words with your own and at the same time preserve his style" (school No. 57, Moscow, 7th grade, teacher - SV. Volkov).
How to present?
The question at first glance may seem rather strange: the methodology for conducting the presentation is known to any teacher.
But it’s worth abandoning some of the usual schemes and templates.
Let's talk about the presentation methodology proposed in our textbooks.
The teacher reads the text for the first time. Students, listening, try to understand and remember the text. After the first reading, they retell the text in order to understand what they did not remember. This work usually takes 5-7 minutes.
The teacher reads the text a second time. Students pay attention to those passages that they missed during the first reading. Then they retell the text again, make the necessary notes on the draft, draw up a plan, formulate the main idea, etc. And only after that they write an exposition.
Unlike the traditional method, during retelling, children note not what they already remember well, but what they missed while listening to the text. The new technique takes into account the psychological mechanisms operating in the process of text perception - the mechanisms of memorization and understanding. While reciting the text to himself, the student, albeit not immediately, realizes that he did not remember some parts of the text because he did not understand them. At the initial stage of learning, the text can be retold by one of the students. Control over memorization and understanding in this case is carried out externally - from other students: they note factual errors, omissions, logical inconsistencies, etc. As a result of such joint activity with the class, gradually even the most weak students learn to retell.
The role of such a mental process as the recreating imagination deserves a separate discussion.
Understanding and remembering text based on reconstructive imagination
As you know, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreative. Unlike creative imagination, aimed at creating new images, recreating is aimed at creating images that correspond to the verbal description. It is the re-creating imagination that permeates everything educational process, without it it is impossible to imagine full-fledged training.
Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. “Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which has only one goal - to find out “what is being said here and what will happen next,” writes famous psychologist, - does not require active imagination. But such reading, when you mentally “see and hear” everything that is being discussed, when you are mentally transported to the situation being depicted and “live” in it - such reading is impossible without the very active work imagination."
What has been said can be fully attributed to writing the presentation.
The teacher’s task is to make sure that when perceiving a literary text, the student mentally “sees and hears” what he is listening (reading). Achieving this, of course, is not easy. Recreating imagination different people and children in particular are not developed in to the same degree. Only a very few (according to our experiments, less than 10%) are able to see with their “mind's eye” the images created by writers.
EXAMPLE 2
Original text
In autumn, the whole house is covered with leaves, and in two small rooms it becomes light, like in a flying garden.
The stoves are crackling, there is a smell of apples and cleanly washed floors. Tits sit on branches, pour glass balls in their throats, ring, crackle and look at the windowsill, where there is a slice of black bread.
I rarely spend the night in the house. I spend most nights at the lakes, and when I stay at home I sleep in an old gazebo at the bottom of the garden. It is overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings the sun hits it through the purple, lilac, green and lemon foliage, and it always seems to me that I wake up inside a lit tree.
It’s especially good in the gazebo on quiet autumn nights, when the slow, sheer rain is making a low noise in the garden.
The cool air barely moves the candle tongue. Angular shadows from grape leaves lie on the ceiling of the gazebo. A moth, looking like a lump of gray raw silk, lands on an open book and leaves shiny dust on the page.
It smells like rain - a gentle and at the same time pungent smell of moisture, damp garden paths.
(154 words) (K. Paustovsky)
We specifically took descriptive text for analysis. If the text has a dynamic plot and is full of dialogues, then when reading it, the imagination, as a rule, turns on involuntarily. With a descriptive text, the situation is different: its full understanding and memorization is impossible without the activity of the imagination, the inclusion of which requires certain volitional efforts.
The text by K. Paustovsky, proposed for presentation, cannot be understood and retold if the reader does not see the pictures created by the author, does not hear the described sounds, and does not smell the smells. Many students, after listening to the text for the first time, said that they did not remember anything. After they were asked to retell only what remained in their memory, some were able to recreate only individual elements of the depicted picture, while others imagined a picture that was far from the author’s. And most importantly, such children inevitably experienced failures in understanding.
Here are two examples of detailed presentations of this text. (As per work conditions, students were not allowed to write anything down during the hearing.)
First presentation
In autumn, the whole house is littered with leaves, and in two small rooms it is as bright as day. The house, like a leafless garden, smells of apples, lilacs, and washed floors. Tits are sitting on a branch outside the window, they are sorting glass balls on the windowsill and looking at the bread.
When I stay at home, I spend the night mostly in a gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings I turn on the purple and lilac lights on the Christmas tree.
It’s especially good in the gazebo when it’s raining in autumn outside. It smells like rain and damp garden paths.”
Second presentation
In autumn, in a house covered with leaves, it is as light as in a leafless garden. You can hear the crackling sound of hot stoves, and the smell of apples and washed floors. Outside the window, tits sit on tree branches, sorting glass balls in their throats, ringing, crackling and looking at a slice of black bread lying on the windowsill.
I rarely spend the night in the house; I usually go to the lakes. But when I stay at home, I like to sleep in an old gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. The sun shines through the branches of the grapes in purple, green, lemon colors, and then I feel like I’m inside a lit Christmas tree. Angular shadows from wild grape leaves fall on the walls and ceiling of the gazebo.
It is especially wonderful in the gazebo when the quiet autumn rain rustles in the garden. A fresh breeze sways the tongue of the candle. A butterfly flies quietly, and, landing on an open book, this gray lump of raw neck leaves silver sparkles on the pages of the book.
At night I feel the quiet music of the rain, the gentle and pungent smell of moisture, wet garden paths.”
(142 words)
It is not difficult to guess which of the two presentations the author managed to use his imagination while listening to the text. And the point here is not in the completeness of the transfer of content and not in the richness and expressiveness of speech, but in the fact that the second student was able to recreate in visual, concrete sensory images the pictures described in the text; hear the sound of rain, sounds made by tits; smell apples, cleanly washed floors...
The first presentation, with the exception of the initial and last phrases, is a rather incoherent description. It captures individual details of the overall picture. It is unclear from the text where and when the action takes place. It seems that we are talking about autumn, but suddenly lilacs and a New Year tree appear; tits are either sitting outside the window, or on the windowsill, and at the same time sorting through glass balls - the author does not perceive metaphors and comparisons. Thus, we are talking about a misunderstanding of the text. And this case is far from the only one: out of 28 students who wrote an exposition on this text, failures in understanding were noted in twelve.
Psychologists do not yet fully understand the processes that arise during the work of the imagination. Often we cannot often control whether it works when perceiving text or not. One of the means of checking the inclusion of imagination is precisely retelling (exposition). If the imagination was active while reading (listening) to the text, then the retelling will be complete and accurate. If the imagination is not activated, students make a large number of inaccuracies, omitting the essential, distorting images, paying attention to minor details. (Of course, this does not apply to all texts, but only to those that allow the inclusion of a reconstructive imagination).
“Lazy” imagination makes it difficult to understand the text and often makes learning itself painful, since the child has to resort to mechanical memorization of the text, to elementary cramming.
Meanwhile, the recreating imagination, in the figurative expression of an outstanding artist and scientist, “this subjective field of vision, a mental screen,” “can be developed to an amazing degree.” It is only necessary for the teacher himself to realize the need to work in this direction.
This type of task is called "Turn on your imagination." It is formulated quite simply; “Imagine that everything you read about you see on your “mental screen.” Turn it on every time you encounter text.” In the future, you can briefly remind about the need to activate your imagination: “Turn on your “mental screen”, “Try to see in your mind...”, “Let your imagination work,” etc.
The effectiveness of this technique has been confirmed by numerous experiments. The hard numbers speak for themselves: for those students who managed to use their imagination, text memorization improves four to five times.
The development of reconstructive imagination is important not only in itself, but also in connection with attention, memory, emotions, self-control, and most importantly, understanding. Without seeing the picture mentally created by the writer, the student in many cases cannot not only remember, but also understand the text.
Questions and tasks for self-control
What are the features of exposition as a genre? Which of them will you take into account in your work?
How do your students feel about presentation? Take the questionnaire suggested in the lecture in class or create one yourself. Tell us about the results of the survey. Do they coincide with the data we received?
What are the requirements for selecting texts for presentation? Find in collections of expositions or select two texts yourself that meet the specified requirements.
What is the role of comprehension and memory processes in teaching exposition?
5. If the techniques for developing the re-creative imagination described in the lecture caught your attention, try applying them in your class and share your observations and conclusions. This can be done in the form of a page from pedagogical diary or in any other free form.
Detailed and concise presentation
Analysis of microthemes. Text compression methods. Technology of writing an essay based on the text of the presentation
Features of detailed and concise presentation
Whatever shape final certification whatever the ninth-grader chooses, he will have to write a statement: a detailed or condensed statement with elements of an essay ( traditional form), detailed (version 2007), condensed (version 2008).
Analysis of the questionnaires shows that ninth-graders understand the difference between detailed and concise presentation quite well. Two-thirds of them believe that retelling close to the text is easier, since “you can rely on memory and the ability to write quickly.” Although in the questionnaires there are also arguments, mostly naive, in favor of a concise presentation: “it’s easier to write, because you’ll do it less mistakes“,” “there are fewer descriptions and all sorts of different details,” “teachers prefer brevity.”
“Compress” a text means “to shorten it, but at the same time preserve the main idea in each paragraph”; “remove everything unnecessary and leave only the main thing, and this is the most difficult thing”; "refuse to give details."
If we compare these statements with what methodologists write about detailed and concise presentation, it turns out that there are not so many differences.
The task of a detailed presentation is to reproduce the source text as completely as possible, preserving its compositional and linguistic features. The task of a concise presentation is to briefly, in a generalized form, convey the content of the text, select essential information, exclude details, find speech means generalizations. In a concise presentation, it is not necessary to preserve the stylistic features of the author's text, but the author's main thoughts, the logical sequence of events, the characters of the characters and the setting must be conveyed without distortion.
An interesting technique that helps students understand the features of detailed and concise presentation is offered by a Pskov methodologist. He compares the original text with a large matryoshka doll, a detailed presentation with a smaller doll, and a condensed presentation with the rest of the dolls. “These last three nesting dolls are a condensed summary of the text. In one case, for example, we were given three minutes for presentation (or 30 lines in a newspaper), in another - two minutes (20 lines), in a third - a minute (or 10 lines). This is how we ended up with texts and condensed presentations of varying degrees of compression, and we all created them based on the original one. Therefore, in some important ways they are similar to each other and, of course, to the first, original text.”1
If this explanation is accompanied by an appropriate picture or diagram, students will see that the text can be compressed varying degrees, but in the secondary text the main and essential parts of the original text must be preserved.
Obviously, not every text is suitable for a condensed presentation, but only one that has something to compress. The volume of text for a condensed presentation should be larger than for a detailed one. (For some reason this criterion is not taken into account by the compilers latest version examination work, offering texts containing only 220-250 words for concise presentation. The reaction of students to the task is typical: “There’s nothing to squeeze here!”; “How to reduce a text of two hundred words to ninety? Leave every second word?".)
Concise presentation is considered the most difficult type of presentation because many students do not know how to highlight the main and other important thoughts, and do not know how to distract from unimportant information.
According to psychologists, brief retelling- a technique inorganic for children's nature. Children gravitate towards unnecessary details. And unless they are specifically taught, the task of retelling the text briefly is absolutely impossible for many. This is confirmed by experimental data: only 14% of students in grades 8-9 can make such a retelling2. Often the words short and short when applied to retelling are synonyms for schoolchildren: when retelling, the text may become shorter, but at the same time the main thing often disappears and essential information is missed.
The role of this type of presentation can hardly be overestimated. It is in a brief retelling that the degree of understanding of the text is revealed; it is a litmus test for understanding. If the text is not understood or partially understood, a brief retelling will reveal all the defects in perception.
How to teach schoolchildren to write a concise summary? What techniques can you use? What material is best to do this on? Here are the questions teachers usually ask.
Methods and techniques for text compression
A concise presentation requires special logical work. There are two main ways of compressing text3: 1) excluding details; 2) generalization. When excluding, you must first highlight the main thing and then remove the details (details). When summarizing the material, we first isolate individual essential facts (we omit the unimportant ones), combine them into one whole, select the appropriate language means and make up new text. Which compression method to use in each specific case will depend on the communicative task and the characteristics of the text.
Students are not equally proficient in the above methods of text compression. Some have difficulty identifying the main thing and finding the essential, getting bogged down in countless details; others, on the contrary, compress the text so much that there is nothing living left in it and it becomes more like a plan or diagram. In both cases we are dealing with the difficulties of the abstraction process. However, like any other ability of human thinking, the ability to abstract can be trained.
Here are the types of tasks aimed at text compression.
Reduce the text by one third (half, three quarters...).
Shorten the text by conveying its content in one or two sentences.
Remove unnecessary text from your point of view.
Compose a “telegram” based on the text, that is, highlight and very briefly (after all, every word in a telegram is precious) formulate the main thing in the text.
EXAMPLE 1
Exercise 1. Listen to the text, write a concise summary, cutting the text in half.
Original text
In addition to the legends about Hercules, the ancient Greeks also told about two twin brothers - Hercules and Iphicles. Despite the fact that the brothers were very similar from childhood, they grew up differently.
It's still very early and the boys want to sleep. Iphicles pulls the blanket over his head to watch interesting dreams longer, and Hercules runs to wash himself in a cold stream.
The brothers are walking along the road and see: on the way there is a large puddle. Hercules steps back, runs up and jumps over the obstacle, and Iphicles, grumbling displeasedly, looks for a workaround.
The brothers see a beautiful apple on a high tree branch. “Too high,” Iphicles grumbles. “I don’t really want this apple.” Hercules jumps - and the fruit is in his hands.
When your legs are tired and your lips are dry from thirst, and it’s still a long way to rest, Iphicles usually says: “Let’s rest here, under the bush.” “We’d better run,” Hercules suggests. “That way we’ll get through the road sooner.”
Hercules, who at first was an ordinary boy, later becomes a hero, the conqueror of monsters. And all this is only because since childhood he has been accustomed to winning daily victories over difficulties, over himself.
Hidden in this ancient legend deepest meaning: will is the ability to control oneself, it is the ability to overcome obstacles.
(From the magazine) (176 words)
Concise text
The ancient Greeks have a legend about Hercules and Iphicles. Although they were twins, the brothers grew up differently.
Early in the morning, when Iphicles is still sleeping, Hercules runs to wash himself to a cold stream.
Seeing a puddle on the way, Hercules jumps over it, and Iphicles goes around the obstacle.
An apple hangs high on a tree. Iphicles is too lazy to go after it, but Hercules easily gets the fruit.
When there is no more strength to walk, Iphicles suggests taking a break, and Hercules suggests running forward.
Although Hercules, like Iphicles, was at first an ordinary boy, he became a hero because from childhood he learned to overcome difficulties and cultivated will.
This simple example can be used to show students specific techniques for compressing text:
1) exclusion of details, minor facts (pulling a blanket over his head to watch interesting dreams longer);
2) exclusion of direct speech or translation of direct speech into indirect speech (4th and 5th paragraphs, someone else’s speech is conveyed using simple sentences with an addition indicating the topic of the speech).
When teaching concise presentation, a certain sequence of actions is followed, which can be written in the form of the following instructions.
Instructions “How to write a concise summary”
Highlight essential (i.e. important, necessary) thoughts in the text.
Find the main idea among them.
Break the text into parts, grouping it around significant ideas.
Give each part a title and make an outline.
Think about what can be excluded in each part, what details to refuse.
What facts (examples, cases) can be combined and generalized in adjacent parts of the text?
Consider means of communication between parts.
Translate the selected information into “your” language.
Write this abbreviated, “squeezed out” text on your draft.
Practice writing statements with elements of an essay
Before moving on to a specific analysis of texts, let us make one general remark. In our opinion, presentation “in its pure form” does not have the developmental effect that presentation with elements of an essay and the preceding work on understanding the text provide. Starting from about the 8th grade, students no longer find it interesting to write “just an exposition.” Here is a complicated presentation additional tasks aimed at highlighting main idea, working with the title, creative processing of the text, etc., students write with much greater interest, since it allows, firstly, to understand the text more deeply, and secondly, to incorporate the knowledge obtained from the text into an already existing system knowledge, demonstrate your erudition, and show creativity. With this approach, the presentation in the 9th grade can be considered as a certain stage of preparation for the Unified State Exam (writing part C) in the 11th grade. By retelling the text (first of all, briefly), the student is already doing serious work to comprehend its content; a correctly “squeezed out” text is the basis for writing an essay.
Here are several types of tasks, based on which you can create tasks for a variety of texts. Each group of tasks aims to train a specific technique for working with text.
I. Tasks aimed at the ability to predict the content of a text.
1. Read the title and try to guess what (who) the text will be about.
After listening to the text, check your guesses.
Examples of titles: “A discovery that was two hundred years late”, “Sad collection”, “Fifteen Louis Fifteenths” - titles of texts by S. Lvov; “The Man from the Moon” (about Miklouho-Maclay), “Raphael of Violin Mastery” (about Stradivarius).
2. Listen to or read the beginning of the text (first sentence, first paragraph) on which you will write a summary, and try to guess what it’s about we'll talk further (what events will follow, what thoughts will be expressed...).
The heroes of Lewis Carroll's fairy tale "Alice in Wonderland" the Hatter and the March Hare, as you know, were constantly busy drinking tea. When the dishes became dirty, they did not wash them, but simply moved to another place.
“And what will happen when you reach the end? - Alice dared to ask.
Isn't it time we changed the subject? - suggested the March Hare...
(Continuation of the text: “This dialogue is given in one of his books by the founder of cybernetics, the American scientist Norbert Wiener, speaking about the use of nature by man, the limitations of its resources...” The text is taken from the “Encyclopedia for Children” (volume “Biology”) and is dedicated to environmental problems.)
Exercise. Read the beginning of two texts that talk about the same thing, but in different ways. Find questions hidden in the text. Express your assumptions about the further content of each text. (Between reading the first and second text, time is given to complete the task.)
Leaning over geographical atlas, German geophysicist Alfred Wegener made an outstanding discovery at the turn of the 20th century: the eastern shores of South America and western shores Africa can be combined as accurately as the corresponding parts of a children's cut-out puzzle picture.
In 1913, geophysicist Wegener published the book “The Origin of Continents and Oceans.” In it, he outlined his famous hypothesis, which was called the theory of movement, or the theory of continental drift.
(What kind of hypothesis is this? What facts support it?)
3. Exposition with continuation: “Read a text that does not have an ending. Come up with your own continuation of the story, and then compare it with the author’s”4. (Options. Continue the story so that it becomes clear why the author gave the story such a title. Try to complete the text by proposing a possible scenario for the unfolding of events.)
II. Tasks aimed at the ability to highlight the main thing in a text (concept*).
Find sentences that contain the main idea of the text, or formulate it yourself.
Find the main event.
Rank events in order of importance.
4. Put the most important information first, at the beginning of the presentation. Convey the content of the remaining parts of the text concisely (or selectively).
III. Tasks aimed at interpreting the text.
1.Explain how you understand the statement that...
3. Express your opinion in connection with what you read (write about your understanding of the event).
4. Relate the text you read with others or select one that is similar in meaning.
5.Give a reasoned answer to the question asked by the author.
IV. Tasks aimed at creative processing of text.
Make inserts in the text: enter a description of your favorite game (favorite season...), a discussion about the actions of the hero, a story about... .
Complete the text with similar examples.
Find general and specific elements in the text. First tell about the particular, and then retell the fragment that represents the general reasoning.
Find the parts in the text that are the cause and the parts that are the effect.
Put the information that is most interesting to you first and retell it in detail. Retell the remaining parts of the text concisely6.
Whichever creative task whatever we have suggested for presentation, it is important that the student reflects on the text, asks himself questions, makes assumptions and tests them during the reading process, and after reading is able to express the main idea, draw up a plan, and answer questions.
However, the “dialogue with the text” does not end there. The next important stage is thinking about the text (reflection, reflection). At this stage, the student asks himself questions like these:
What new did I learn from the text?
What facts were unexpected for me?
What do I think about this?
How does this relate to what I already know?
What thoughts do these facts lead me to think about?
Have I encountered anything similar before - in life, in literature, in cinema?
What facts, examples, cases can I use in my essay?
A chain of such questions is essentially an algorithm internal work student with text. Of course, this is not the essay itself, but the stage of thinking, comprehending the text and taking inventory of one’s knowledge and ideas is very important on the path to creating the text of the future essay.
Such tasks pursue the following goals:
firstly, to update previous knowledge: after all, what we learn is determined by what we already know;
secondly, to give learning an active character: knowledge cannot be “invested”, it can only be appropriated;
EXAMPLE 2 Source text
Exercise. Read an excerpt from the book Magellan by Austrian writer Stefan Zweig. This is the beginning artistic biography great navigator. Title the text and retell it in detail. »
In the beginning there were spices. Since the Romans, in their travels and wars, first learned the charm of hot and intoxicating oriental seasonings, the West can no longer and does not want to do without Indian spices, without spices, despite the fact that they were expensive and were constantly rising in price.
At the beginning of the second millennium, the same pepper that now stands on the kitchen shelf
any housewife, was counted by grains and was valued at its weight in gold. Its value was so constant that many cities and states paid with it instead of precious metals. Ginger, cinnamon, and cinchona peel were weighed on jewelry and apothecary scales, while tightly closing the windows so that the draft would not blow away the precious speck of dust. No matter how absurd, in modern opinion, such a price is, it becomes understandable when you remember the difficulties of their delivery and the risk associated with it.
What kind of dangers did ships, caravans and convoys with spices have to overcome on the way before they got from the green bush of the Malay Archipelago to their last pier - the counter of a European trader! How many hands has a product passed through until it reaches the final buyer across seas and deserts! Modern researchers have calculated that Indian spices must have passed through no less than twelve rapacious hands before ending up on the European table.
Long, incredibly long haul! Is there another, shorter and easy way achieve your cherished goal? Seafarers began to look for the answer to this question together with monarchs and merchants. The courage that prompted Columbus and Magellan to move west, and Vasco da Gama to the south, was born, first of all, from a focused desire to find new way to the East.
No matter how strange it may seem at first glance, it was spices that became the completely earthly, material reason for all those great discoveries that were made in the heroic 16th century. Monarchs and merchants would never have equipped a fleet for the brave conquistadors if these expeditions to unknown countries did not at the same time promise a thousandfold reimbursement of the funds spent.
In the beginning there were spices.
(According to S. Zweig) (306 words)
Creative task. Write how you feel about the author’s idea that “it was spices that became the completely earthly, material cause” of great geographical discoveries.
The text evoked a variety of reactions from ninth-graders: from “interesting, fascinating, beautiful, I’ve never read anything like it!” to “strange, incomprehensible, somehow abnormal.”
Here are some statements from students who worked using the method proposed above: I learned a lot of interesting facts. For example, the fact that pepper was worth its weight in gold and that when it was weighed, the doors and windows in the house were closed; It turns out that spices traveled a long way before reaching Europe; What seemed most unexpected was that the author considers spices to be the main, “material” reason for all great geographical discoveries. One can hardly agree with this. I read about the expeditions of Columbus and Magellan, but nothing was said about it. They were looking for something completely different. What does spice have to do with it? The text is, of course, interesting, but Zweig’s idea is somehow strange, I would say paradoxical. Although, maybe there is something in this; It makes you look at known facts from an unusual side, it suggests different thoughts; It is probably no coincidence that the text begins and ends with the same phrase; I would like to read something else about the great navigators, perhaps Zweig himself, if the book is not very long. I'll look on the Internet. (The students gave answers to questions in writing, hence the book turns and expressions.)
Whatever assessment the students gave to the text, the main thing is that it made them think, actively discuss what they read, confront different opinions, take nothing for granted, and finally made them want to learn more about the subject of discussion, turn to other books, sources of information. But these are precisely the goals we are achieving.
PRIMEZ » Source text*
Sad collection
Have you heard the name Galvani? Yes, yes, the same Italian scientist who did experiments with a frog's leg and electric shock.
Now they seem to us like hoary old science, but they were once an important page in the study of electricity.
When Galvani told his fellow scientists about his experiments, he was laughed at.
In 1873, the French Academy of Sciences by a majority vote refused to accept Darwin as a member of the Academy, and five years later they ridiculed Edison's invention.
When the physicist de Moncel, at Edison’s request, showed at a meeting of the Academy how the apparatus he had invented for recording and reproducing sounds works, one of the academicians jumped up and shouted at him:
Scoundrel! You dare to come here to fool us with the tricks of a pathetic ventriloquist! Will any of us really agree to believe that a pathetic piece of metal can repeat the noble sound of the human voice?
And the majority of those present supported his angry speech.
Jenner, the scientist who proposed vaccination against smallpox, was ridiculed and reviled. And the doctor who offered pain relief during operations.
The inventor of the steamboat was persecuted. They made fun of the inventor of the steam locomotive. The inventor of the car was teased.
These are just a few excerpts from a very long and very sad collection. A person who made a discovery or invented something new often saw against him not just one opponent, but many. And his opponents usually told him this:
You are wrong, because there are more of us.
Sometimes they said it politely. Sometimes sharply. Sometimes angry. But always with the confidence that if there are more of them, those who say that this cannot be, than those who believe that this is possible, then they are right, and the one who persists is a stubborn person, opposing himself to the majority. It cannot be that the whole company is out of step, and he alone is in step!
Do you think that all these sad stories date back to distant times, when electricity lived only in Leyden jars, steam locomotives and cars were just learning to run, and no one thought about radio?
Of course, it would be more pleasant for us, people of the 21st century, to think that all this is in the past. But that's not true.
(S. Lvov) (310 words)
After reading the text, a conversation is held:
How many different facts of persecution of inventors are mentioned in the text? (Eight. Words and phrases containing these facts are highlighted in bold in the text.)
What is the meaning of the title?
Imagine that the content of the text needs to be presented in the form of a note of 90-100 words. Write a concise summary.
Creative task. Do you know others similar examples? If known, write about it. If not, explain in writing the meaning of the title of the text and formulate the main idea.
Concise text
Galvani, who is known to us for his experiments with electric current and the frog's leg, was once ridiculed by the French Academy of Sciences. Later, fellow scientists did not accept Darwin as a member of the Academy and ridiculed Edison’s invention.
Then Jenner, who proposed vaccination against smallpox, and the inventors of the steamboat, steam locomotive, and automobile were also misunderstood... They were ridiculed, poisoned, and reviled.
Extracts from this sad collection can be made endlessly. Unfortunately, the situation when the majority believes that it is right, and one person is wrong, often happens today.
Here are the essays of two students who chose the first topic.
1. The text by Sergei Lvov is devoted to the problem of non-recognition of scientists and their inventions. Not only in former times, but even today, many discoveries do not meet with understanding, and those who invented them are ridiculed and persecuted.
Imagine this picture: what would have happened if Newton had not been recognized with his discovery of gravity? It’s absolutely true that humanity would be many centuries behind, there wouldn’t be many other inventions, and man wouldn’t fly to the stars.
For some reason, scientists are often recognized as geniuses only after their death. For example, Giordano Bruno, who claimed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, was recognized as a heretic and by order catholic church burned at the stake. And now we bow to the power of his mind and talk about him as a fighter for the truth in science.
There have always been many such stories, and, unfortunately, they will never end, since there will always be people who do not want “the whole company to keep pace, and he alone to keep pace.”
Evaluating the presentation
Evaluation criteria. Types of errors. Analysis of students' written work
1. Evaluation of detailed presentation
Checking presentations - despite the familiarity of this work - causes serious difficulties for many wordsmiths. The greatest difficulties are associated with assessing the content of the work. And although the criteria for assessing the presentation have been developed in great detail, this does not eliminate the problem of subjectivity when checking students’ written work: the same presentation (and not just an essay!), checked different teachers, is assessed by them differently - from 5 to 3.
The current practice of assessing presentations is complicated by the fact that the teacher evaluates ordinary presentations according to one system - traditional1, and examinations (new forms of certification) - according to another, to which he is not psychologically accustomed2.
If you compare the old criteria with the new ones, it turns out that at their core they remain the same. The content of a detailed presentation is assessed from the point of view of: 1) the accuracy of the transmission of the source text and the presence of factual errors (from 3 to O points); 2) semantic integrity, speech coherence and consistency of presentation (1-0 points); 3) accuracy and clarity of speech (2-0 points).
Let's look at specific examples of how the proposed criteria work.
EXAMPLE 1 (examination version 2008 - second model certification work).
Original text
IN New Year's Eve the old Wolf felt his loneliness especially acutely. Getting stuck in the snow, making his way through the tenacious fir trees, he wandered through the forest and thought about life.
Yes, he was never lucky. The best pieces were snatched from under his nose by others. The she-wolf also left him because he did not bring many hares.
And how many troubles there were in his life because of these hares! In the wolf world, hares decide everything. Those who have a lot of hares stand on their hind legs, but those who have few...
The thorny trees continued to scratch the Wolf. “You can’t escape these trees, even if you run from the forest!” - thought the Wolf. “When will all this end?”
And suddenly... The wolf even sat down on his tail and rubbed his eyes: is it really true? A real, lively hare sits under the tree. He sits with his head raised and looks up somewhere, and his eyes burn as if they are showing him who knows what.
“I wonder: what did he see there? - thought the Wolf. “Let me take a look.” And he looked up at the tree.
He had seen so many Christmas trees in his lifetime, but he had never seen one like this. She's all sparkling
shimmered with snowflakes, shimmered with moonlight, and it seemed as if it had been specially removed for the holiday, although there was not a single one on it. Christmas decorations. The wolf was so shocked by this beauty that he froze with his mouth open.
There can be such beauty in the world! You look at her and you feel something turning inside of you. And the world seems to be becoming cleaner and kinder3.
So the Hare and the Wolf sat side by side under the New Year tree, looked at this beauty, and something turned over inside them.
And for the first time the Hare thought that there was something in the world stronger than wolves, and the Wolf thought that, to be honest, happiness does not lie in hares...
(According to F. Krivin) (276 words)
The text for the detailed presentation is taken from F. Krivin’s collection “Scholarly Tales” (section “Naive Tales”) and, in addition to the author’s title “Wolf on the Christmas Tree,” has a subtitle “New Year’s Tale.” Since the presentation was complicated by the task of titling the text, it is natural that all these pre-text elements were not communicated to the students.
An analysis of the presentations shows that the majority of students did not understand the author’s intention and “did not notice” the allegorical form and stylistic features of the work. Many perceived the text as “too simple” and sighed with relief after the first reading: “Lucky! It was quite easy!”, “There’s nothing to understand here!”
Meanwhile, the text is not as simple as it seems at first glance. And the point is not only in its punctuation design, which is quite complex for ninth-graders (methods of conveying improperly direct speech are not included in the basic school curriculum), but also in those genre and linguistic features, thanks to which the fairy tale becomes “learned”, “naive”, “New Year’s” " It was they who, in most cases, were beyond the perception of ninth-graders.
Here are some student works.
The beauty of New Year's Eve
On New Year's Eve, the old Wolf felt lonely. He wandered through the forest and thought about life. He's never had any luck. The she-wolf left him because he did not bring many hares. In the wolf world, hares decide everything.
The thorny branches scratched the Wolf. “You can’t escape these trees,” thought the Wolf.
Suddenly the Wolf even sat down on his tail and rubbed his eyes. A real hare is sitting under the tree. He looks up. “I wonder: what did he see there?” - thought the Wolf. He looked up at the tree.
The tree sparkled with snowflakes and shimmered with moonlight. The wolf was so shocked that he froze with his mouth open.
So the Hare and the Wolf sat next to each other. For the first time, the hare thought that there was something stronger in the world than wolves. The wolf thought that happiness does not lie in hares.
(121 words)
The work conveys only factual information from the text. The content of the fairy tale as a whole is presented without distortion, but the general tone of the narrative - tinged with humor, the author's mockingly kind attitude towards the characters, the “naivety” of the story told - is not understood by the student. Since criterion I1 does not indicate the completeness of the transmission of the content of the text, then according to this criterion the student should have received 2 points. However, even without any special calculations, it is clear that the text of the presentation is extremely simplified (a little more than 40% of the content of the original text has been preserved) and there is nothing to give two points here for. The presentation itself is written in a “telegraphic style”, simple uncomplicated sentences predominate in it (13 out of 17), and complicated sentences - sentences with homogeneous members. Obviously, criterion I1 should be supplemented with an indication not only of the accuracy of the transfer of content, but also of completeness.
The question of how many points should be given according to criterion I2 is controversial. There are no obvious logical errors in the work, the paragraphs (taking into account the general “telegraphic” style) are arranged correctly. However, the presentation does not have semantic integrity, so it is impossible to give the highest score.
Only the last criterion does not cause discrepancies. “The work is distinguished by the poverty of its vocabulary and the monotony of the grammatical structure of speech.” And then strictly according to the document: “The speech features of the source text are not conveyed in the work” - About points.
As we see, the proposed criteria for assessing presentation do not always “work”. If you follow them formally, the work can be rated 3 or 4 points (out of 6). However, it is clear to the naked eye that the work is weak and that instead of a detailed one, the student wrote a concise summary, which means he failed the task.
To avoid the “scissors” effect, the inconsistency of the developed criteria with the traditional practice of analyzing and evaluating presentation that has developed over the years, I think the following approach can help: after reading the work, you first need to evaluate it as a whole, albeit in the most imprecise terms: “good / bad, strong / weak ”, then apply the criteria, and at the end re-check the initial submission and - if necessary - adjust the scores.
Second presentation
Forest on New Year's Eve
On New Year's Eve, the old Wolf felt his loneliness especially acutely. Getting stuck in the snow, making his way through the fir trees, he wandered through the forest and thought about life.
Yes, he was never lucky, the best pieces went to others, and the she-wolf left him because he brought few hares.
And how much trouble these hares caused him! In the wolf world, hares decide everything. Those who have a lot of them stand in front of them on their hind legs, and those who have few...
The thorny trees kept scratching and scratching the Wolf. “You can’t get away from them, even if you run from the forest!” - thought the Wolf. “When will all this end?”
And suddenly the Wolf even sat down on his tail and rubbed his eyes: a real, living hare was sitting under the tree. He sits with his head raised and looks as if he knows what they are showing him.
“I wonder: what did he see there? - thought the Wolf. “Let me take a look.” And he raised his head and looked at the tree.
No matter how many Christmas trees he had seen in his life, but this one!.. It all sparkled and shimmered in the moonlight, and it seemed as if it had been specially removed for the holiday, although there was not a single toy on it. The wolf was so shocked that he sat with his mouth open for a long time.
How beautiful it was in the New Year's forest! There is such unearthly beauty in the world that you look at it and everything inside you immediately turns upside down. And the world seems to be becoming cleaner and kinder, and people and animals are becoming better.
So the Wolf and the Hare sat side by side under the tree, and something was turning over inside them. And the Hare thought that there was something stronger in the world than wolves, and the Wolf thought that happiness does not lie in hares.
(264 words)
At first glance, it seems that this work can be given an immediate five. The presentation is very detailed and retains the stylistic features of the text. There are no logical errors, and the paragraphs are also fine. The richness of the vocabulary, the variety of syntactic structures used - all this can and should be assessed by an expert.
What is alarming, however, is the discrepancy between the title and the main idea of the text. And this alone may indicate a possible misunderstanding, or rather, misunderstanding of the text.
On the second reading, attention is drawn to the penultimate paragraph: “How beautiful it was in the New Year’s forest! There is such unearthly beauty in the world that you look at it and everything inside you immediately turns upside down. And the world seems to be becoming cleaner and kinder, and people and animals -
better". The fact is that there are no highlighted sentences and parts of sentences in F. Krivin’s text. The first is a figment of the imagination of the author of the presentation, the rest are clearly borrowed from the reading text (see task 3 in the test). According to the laws of the genre, the presentation should not contain anything that is not in the source text. The appearance in “your” text of background knowledge, thoughts, facts and details that are not contained in the text is regarded as a factual error.
The noted shortcomings do not make it possible to give the work an initial high score, although overall it makes a good impression.
2. Evaluating condensed presentation
When checking a compressed presentation, one more criterion is added to the criteria proposed above - the quality of text compression. In the total score, the weight of this criterion is small: if the examinee knows text compression techniques, he receives 1 point, if he does not, 0 points.
Let us recall the two main methods (techniques) of text compression: 1) exclusion of details, 2) generalization. When eliminating, the student must first highlight the main thing and then remove the details. When generalizing, he combines several essential facts into a single whole, using linguistic means of generalization. It is not necessary to preserve the stylistic features of the author's text in a condensed presentation.
EXAMPLE 2 (option of trial certification work 2008)
Original text
Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, I crawled out of the tent one day and looked around. But then I had to sit down and crawl back to get my binoculars: a large flock of pelicans was swimming about a hundred meters from the island. It is not often that you have the opportunity to observe these rare birds in nature.
For the first time I see such a huge flock of pelicans, there are at least a hundred birds in it. Taking a closer look, I understand that a flock of Dalmatian Pelicans and Roseate Pelicans is feeding on the water. The Dalmatian pelican is slightly larger than the pink pelican, its “mane” is clearly visible - elongated and curled feathers on the head, and the plumage does not have the pink tint characteristic of its fellow. Cormorants swim around the pelicans, and seagulls fly screaming in the air. Cormorants rush after the fish, quickly diving, and pelicans grab it, plunging only their head, neck and front part of the body into the water. All you can hear is the splashing of water and the cries of seagulls.
But now the hunt is over, the birds head to the sandy shore, heavily slapping their webbed feet, and climb out onto land. On the ground they move awkwardly, waddling. And suddenly one pelican rises into the air. Alarmed by something, he pushes off from the water with both paws at the same time and, heavily flapping his wings, flies away from the island. The birds sitting on the shore immediately follow his example. After a few seconds, all the birds were in the air. They randomly circle over the lake, then line up in one wavy line and, having made two large circles with the whole flock, fly away to the east, towards the sun.
I had a chance to see all this quite a long time ago. Nowadays, there are significantly fewer pelicans, their numbers continue to fall catastrophically, it is not for nothing that they are listed in the Red Book. The reason is the mowing and burning of reed beds, the disturbance that humans cause during bird nesting.
How can we help pelicans? His intolerant attitude towards poaching, his understanding of his responsibility for the existence of rare birds on the planet. And also - human delicacy: you just need to take care of the pelicans’ nesting sites and not disturb the birds, especially during the most difficult time for them - when laying eggs, incubating and hatching chicks.
(By) (311 words)
Statement one We must help our feathered friends!
Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, I crawled out of the tent, but immediately returned on all fours for binoculars. A large flock of pelicans swam near the island. These birds are rarely seen in nature.
For the first time I see such a large flock of pelicans, in which at least a hundred birds have gathered. Taking a closer look, I noticed that there was a flock of Dalmatian and pink pelicans. Unlike their cousins, Dalmatian Pelicans have a “mane” of long, curling feathers and no pink tint to their plumage. Cormorants swam and seagulls flew next to the pelicans. When catching fish, cormorants dived completely, while pelicans submerged only their heads, necks and front parts of their bodies into the water. Occasionally the splashing of waves and the cries of seagulls could be heard.
The hunt has come to an end. Birds began to come to land. One pelican, frightened by something, pushed off the water with both paws and soared into the sky. The rest of the birds followed his example. A flock of birds lined up in one wavy line and, having made two large circles, flew east, towards the sun.
The events I described took place quite a long time ago. Currently, the number of pelicans is sharply declining. It’s not for nothing that these birds are listed in the Red Book. The population decline is due to the mowing and burning of reed beds.
We can help our feathered friends if we take care of them.
Even with the naked eye it is clear that the student did not cope with his task - to write a concise presentation: instead of a concise one, he ended up with a detailed presentation. This is evidenced, in particular, by the number of words in the presentation - 199 words, or 64% of the content of the source text. This is precisely the parameter that characterizes a detailed presentation.
How to evaluate such work? If you follow the developed criterion base, it turns out that you can give a lot of points for it. “The examinee conveyed the main content of the text he listened to, reflecting... all the micro-topics important for his perception” (3 points); “used one or more text compression techniques” - the presentation, albeit clumsily, actually used one such technique - in the last paragraph (1 more point); there are no logical errors and no violations in the work paragraph division text" (2 points). So, if you formally follow the criteria, then you can give the maximum number of points for the content - 6. (Marked (underlined) speech, mainly stylistic, errors are taken into account on another scale - “for literacy.”)
Another thing is that such a presentation cannot be considered concise. The student did not demonstrate the ability to highlight the main thing in the text, select essential information, or find linguistic means of generalization. Namely, it is from these positions that a condensed presentation should be assessed first of all. So the criteria are criteria, and most teachers would not give more than a C for this work.
Second presentation
Pelicans are rare birds
"Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, I took my binoculars.
For the first time I saw a huge flock of Dalmatian and pink pelicans. They fed in the water and fished. The curly ones are slightly larger than the pink ones. They have a clearly visible “mane” - curled feathers on the head, and there is no pink tint in the plumage. Pelicans, plunging their heads, necks and front parts of their bodies into the water, caught fish.
Birds move awkwardly on the ground. One pelican took off into the air, and the rest also took off. Lined up in a wavy line, the birds flew away to the east.
The number of pelicans is rapidly falling. They are listed in the Red Book. The reason for the decline in the number of pelicans is the mowing and burning of reed beds, which serve as their nests.
How to help pelicans? Understand the responsibility for the existence of rare birds, protect the nesting places of pelicans and not disturb them while laying eggs and hatching chicks.
(124 words)
What is the main disadvantage of this work? In the absence of semantic integrity and verbal coherence of the narrative. The student obviously believes that he must write a short summary (and thereby makes a common mistake, perceiving the words brief and short as synonyms), but he does not know what to abbreviate and does not know how to compress the text. Where it is necessary to convey essential information, he excludes it (in this sense, the 1st paragraph is typical: it is unclear for what purpose the camera was taken and what actually happened), and where it is necessary to exclude details, for example, a description of two types of pelicans in 2nd paragraph, he carefully preserves these details. (In the text of the presentation, details that should be excluded are highlighted in light italics.)
Let us note another typical mistake - the lack logical connection between two parts of the text, which is carried out using a sentence. The events I described took place quite a long time ago. Without it, the text is deprived of integrity, the narrative about a long-standing meeting with pelicans (the first three paragraphs) and the discussion about their preservation in our days (the 4th and 5th paragraphs) are torn apart, it seems that we have two different texts. Restoring the missing semantic link makes the text more understandable. The logic of the development of thought here is as follows: once upon a time you could see a flock of pelicans consisting of a hundred birds, but now there are significantly fewer of them and they need protection.
In general, the presentation is weak, however, it has one small plus: the not very clear phrase Reason for mowing and burning reed beds is supplemented by a subordinate clause that serve as nests for them. This information is not clearly expressed in the source text (the so-called semantic well), but the student brings this information to the surface, which indicates his understanding of this sentence.
Exposition three
Rare birds
Waking up at dawn, I left the tent and looked around. But then I had to crawl back to get the binoculars. A flock of pelicans swam a hundred meters from the shore. [Missing paragraph] This is the first time I have seen such a large flock. Looking closely, I realize that it is a flock of Dalmatian and Pink Pelicans feeding.
[No paragraph needed.] Cormorants swim around the pelicans. They rush after the fish, and the pelicans quickly dive and grab it. [Factual error.]
Now the hunt is over. The birds head towards the shore, paws plopping heavily. One pelican rises into the air. The birds sitting on the shore follow his example. Soon the whole flock was in the air and flew east, towards the sun.
These days their [speech error] numbers are falling. Therefore, they are listed in the Red Book. The reason is pumping out Lexical error] and burning of reed beds, in disturbance caused by humans during nesting birds. [Missing paragraph] How can we help birds?
[Paragraph not needed.] The main thing is to protect their nesting sites and not disturb them while the chicks are incubating and hatching.
Using the example of this work, we can clearly show ninth-graders such a common logical error as a violation of the paragraph division of the text. One gets the impression that, having written the presentation, the student at the end arranged the paragraphs simply at random; he has no idea about the logic of the presentation.
You can prevent this logical error by introducing students to the rules of paragraph construction:
In one paragraph, as a rule, only one micro-topic is presented.
The arrangement of sentences within a paragraph follows a pattern: beginning, development of thought, ending.
The most important sentence of a paragraph (the sentence that expresses its topic or main idea) is usually placed at the beginning or end of the paragraph.
The development of thought in a paragraph is carried out in one of the following ways: detailing, giving examples, comparison or contrast, analogy, explanation, justification of the thesis, etc.5]
We invite students to independently compile a table for the text about pelicans that reflects the content of microtopics (similar to the one given in the instructions for experts). In educational presentation, such work is absolutely necessary, although it cannot be called easy. To isolate micro-themes means to reduce part of the text to one or two sentences, when “each part of the text appears as some kind of “meaning point”, “ semantic point", in which the entire content of the part seems to be compressed"6.
Here is an example of such work done by one of the students.
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Paragraph no. |
Micro theme |
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One morning I saw a large flock of pelicans |
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The flock consisted of Dalmatian and pink pelicans that were hunting for fish |
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After the hunt, the pelicans came to land. Suddenly one pelican took off, the rest flew away after it |
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All this was a long time ago. There are fewer and fewer pelicans these days due to human intervention in their lives. |
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Pelicans can be helped, but for this it is necessary for people to realize their responsibility for the preservation of these rare birds on earth |
So, the most typical content errors when writing a concise presentation are the omission of one or more microtopics, the lack of text compression techniques, and logical errors.
When analyzing and evaluating presentations, the main attention was paid to the content side. As observations and experience (including our own) show, it is this part of the work that causes the greatest difficulties and doubts for teachers. When checking ordinary statements, statements not intended for the prying eye, written not for an expert, we, often without realizing it ourselves, first of all begin to count speech, grammatical, spelling and other errors - those that are easier to count and count. Content errors are more complicated. However, they are the litmus test for understanding the text - a skill that, unfortunately, only a few students possess.
would lose almost everyone scientific discoveries and works of art. Children would not hear fairy tales and would not be able to play many games. How could they learn school curriculum without imagination? It’s easier to say - deprive a person of imagination and progress will stop! This means that imagination and fantasy are the highest and most necessary ability of a person. At the same time, it is this ability that needs special care in terms of development. And it develops especially intensively between the ages of 5 and 15 years. And if the imagination is not specifically developed during this period, then a rapid decrease in the activity of this function occurs subsequently. Along with a decrease in the ability to fantasize, a person’s personality becomes impoverished, the possibilities of creative thinking decrease, and interest in art and science fades.
The ability to create something new and unusual is laid down in childhood, through the development of such higher mental functions like thinking and imagination. It is their development that needs to be given the least attention in raising a child between the ages of five and twelve. Scientists call this period the most favorable for the development of imaginative thinking and imagination.
What is imagination? Imagination is the ability, inherent only in humans, to create new images by processing previous experience. Imagination is often called fantasy. With the help of imagination, we form an image of something that has never existed or does not exist in this moment object, situation, conditions.
When solving any mental problem, we use some information. However, there are situations when the available information is not enough to make a clear decision. These are the so-called tasks to a large extent uncertainty. Thinking in this case is almost powerless without the active work of the imagination. Imagination provides cognition when the uncertainty of the situation is very great. This is the general meaning of the imagination function in both children and adults. Now it becomes clear why the imagination function is so intense in children from preschool to adolescence. Their own experience and the ability to objectively assess the world around them are insufficient: imagination and fantasy replace their lack of knowledge and experience and help them feel relatively confident in a complex and changing world.
Imagination is the most important aspect of our life. If a person did not have imagination, then we would lose almost all scientific discoveries and works of art. Children would not have heard fairy tales and would not have been able to learn the school curriculum.
Answer
Imagination, its types and forms of manifestation
Imagination, or fantasy, like thinking, belongs to the number of higher cognitive and problem situation processes in which specific human character activities. Without imagining finished result labor, you cannot get to work. In representing the expected result with the help of imagination - the fundamental difference between human labor and the instinctive behavior of animals. Any labor process necessarily includes imagination. It acts as a necessary side of artistic, design, scientific, literary, musical, and in general any creative activity.
Imagination is a necessary element of human creative activity, expressed in the construction of an image of the products of labor, and also ensures the creation of a program of behavior in cases where the problem situation is characterized by uncertainty. At the same time, imagination can act as a means of creating images that do not program active activity, but replace it.
First and most important purpose imagination as a mental process is that it allows present the result of work before it begins, represent not only the final product of labor (for example, a table in its completed form as a finished product), but also its intermediate products(V in this case those parts that must be produced sequentially to create a table).
Consequently, imagination orients a person in the process of activity - it creates a mental model of the final or intermediate products of labor, which contributes to their objective embodiment.
Imagination is closely related to thinking. Like thinking, it allows you to foresee the future. Just like thinking, imagination arises in a problem situation, that is, in cases where it is necessary to find new solutions; just like thinking, it is motivated by the needs of the individual. The real process of satisfying needs may be preceded by an illusory, imaginary satisfaction of needs, that is, a living, vivid representation of the situation in which these needs can be satisfied. But the anticipatory reflection of reality, carried out in fantasy processes, occurs in concrete form, in the form of bright submissions Thus, in the problem situation in which the activity begins, there are two systems of consciousness anticipating the results of this activity: an organized system of images(representations) and organized system of concepts. The possibility of choosing an image is the basis of imagination, the possibility of a new combination of concepts is the basis of thinking. Often such work takes place on “two floors” at once, since the systems of images and concepts are closely related.
When the problem situation is characterized by significant uncertainty, the initial data are difficult to accurately analyze. In this case, the mechanisms of imagination come into action.
There is reason to conclude that imagination works at that stage of cognition when the uncertainty of the situation is very great. The more familiar, precise and definite a situation is, the less scope it gives for imagination. It is quite obvious that for that area of phenomena where the basic laws have been clarified, there is no need to use the imagination. However, if you have very approximate information about the situation, on the contrary, it is difficult to get an answer with the help of thinking; here fantasy comes into play.
The value of imagination is that it allows you to make decisions and find a way out of a problem situation, even in the absence of the necessary completeness of knowledge that is necessary for thinking. Fantasy allows you to “jump” over some stages of thinking and still imagine final result. But this is also the weakness of this solution to the problem. The solutions outlined by imagination are often insufficiently precise and lax. However The need to exist and act in an environment with incomplete information led to the emergence of the human imagination. Since there will always be unexplored areas in the world around us, this apparatus of imagination will always be useful.
Imagination in some circumstances can act as replacement of activities, her surrogate. In this case, a person temporarily retreats into the realm of fantastic ideas, far from reality, in order to hide there from problems that seem insoluble to him, from the need to act, from difficult living conditions, from the consequences of his mistakes, etc. Here fantasy creates images that do not come true , outlines behavioral programs that are not implemented and often cannot be implemented. This form imagination is called passive imagination.
A person can cause passive imagination deliberately: this kind images of fantasy, deliberately evoked, but not associated with the will aimed at bringing them into reality, are called dreams. All people tend to dream about something joyful, pleasant, and tempting. But if dreams predominate in a person’s imaginative processes,
then this is a defect in the development of personality, it indicates its passivity. If a person is passive, if he does not fight for a better future, but real life his life is difficult and joyless, he often creates for himself an illusory, fictitious life, where his needs are fully satisfied, where he succeeds in everything, where he occupies a position that he cannot hope for at the present time and in the future. real life.
Passive imagination can also occur unintentionally. This occurs mainly when the activity of consciousness weakens.
If passive imagination can be divided into deliberate And unintentional, That active imagination May be creative And recreating.
Imagination, which is based on the creation of images that correspond to the description, is called recreating.(while reading).
creative imagination, unlike the re-creator, involves the independent creation of new images that are implemented in original and valuable products of activity. The creative imagination that arises in work remains an integral part of technical, artistic and any other creativity, taking the form of an active and purposeful operation of visual ideas in search of ways to satisfy needs.
The value of the human personality largely depends on what types of imagination predominate in its structure. If a teenager and young man have a creative imagination, realized in specific activity, prevails over passive, empty daydreaming, this indicates a high level of personal development.
Having established the function that imagination performs in human activity, it is necessary to further consider the processes by which the construction of fantasy images is carried out,
How do fantasy images arise that orient a person in his practical and creative activities, and what is their structure? Imagination processes have analytical-synthetic nature, as well as the processes of perception, memory, and thinking. Already in perception and memory, analysis makes it possible to isolate and preserve some general, essential features of an object and discard unimportant ones. This analysis ends with synthesis—the creation of a kind of standard, with the help of which the identification of those objects is carried out that, with all changes, do not go beyond a certain measure of similarity. Analysis and synthesis in the imagination have a different direction and reveal other tendencies during the active process of operating with images.
The main tendency of memory is the renewal of images as close as possible to the standard, that is, ultimately approaching an exact copy of a situation that once took place in behavior, or an object that was perceived, understood, realized. The main tendency of imagination is the transformation of ideas(images), providing and ultimately creating a situation model. Both tendencies are relative: we recognize our friend many years later, although his features, clothes, even his voice have noticeably changed, and in the same way, in any new image created by fantasy, the features of the famous appear.
Characterizing the imagination from the side of its mechanisms, it is necessary to emphasize that its essence is the process of transforming ideas, creating new images based on existing ones. Imagination, fantasy is a reflection of reality in new, unexpected, unusual combinations and connections. Even if you come up with something completely extraordinary, then upon careful examination it will turn out that all the elements from which the fiction was formed are taken from life, drawn from past experience, and are the results of an intentional or unintentional analysis of countless facts.
Possible path creating a fantasy image - sharpening, underlining any signs. With the help of this technique, friendly cartoons and evil caricatures are created. In the event that the ideas from which the fantasy image is constructed merge, the differences are smoothed out, and similarities come to the fore, this contributes to the implementation schematization. Good example schematization - the artist’s creation of an ornament, the elements of which are taken from the plant world. Finally, the synthesis of representation in the imagination can be achieved using typing, widely used in fiction, sculpture, painting, which are characterized by highlighting the essential, repeated in homogeneous facts and embodying them in a specific image.
The course of the creative process involves the emergence of many associations (however, their actualization differs from what is observed in memory processes).
Specific feature creative imagination lies in the fact that it deviates from the usual course of associations, subordinating it to those emotions, thoughts, aspirations that currently prevail in the artist’s psyche. And although the mechanism of associations remains the same (associations by similarity, contiguity or contrast), the selection of representations. determined precisely by these determining trends.
Features of presentation as a genre.
Presentation is a type of educational work that is based on reproducing the content of someone else’s text and creating a secondary text.
Unlike an essay, which is completely “led” by the author, nothing that is not in the source text should not be in the presentation. The appearance in “your” text of background knowledge, facts and details that are not contained in the text is by no means encouraged. On the contrary, any creativity or fantasy of this kind is regarded as a factual error and leads to a decrease in points.
Types of presentations.
IN methodological literature and in the practice of school teaching, various types of presentations are known. Presentations can be classified on three grounds: 1) according to the purpose of this type of exercise; 2) by the nature of the text material; 3) by the method of transmitting the content of the text.
According to the purpose of the event presentations may be tests and training. Control presentations are carried out in all classes during control or inspection lessons, no more than once every quarter; educational presentations are conducted three to six times per quarter.
By the nature of the text material presentations can be distinguished: a) narrative in nature, b) with elements of description, c) presentation-description, d) with elements of reasoning, e) type of reasoning, f) type of characteristic, etc.
According to the method of content transmission presentations can be complete or detailed; close to the text; compressed, selective; with elements of an essay.
Any of these types of presentation can be complicated by a grammatical-stylistic or grammatical-spelling task, which serves as a means of developing coherent speech.
Carrying out presentations in a certain system implies a gradual increase in difficulties and an increased role for student independence, as well as a variety of types of presentations.
At narrative the form of presentation, its emotionality, the proposed text will be fully and completely assimilated by students, since it will evoke in them vivid and adequate images and ideas. It is known that the thinking of schoolchildren develops from visual-figurative, concrete to abstract, abstract, generalized, and the importance of images in its development is enormous.
Others are texts descriptive character. Description – a sequential listing of signs, features, phenomena. In texts of a descriptive nature, there is no plot that would emotionally capture the student; at the same time, it requires the establishment of internal dependence and interconnection of phenomena about which nothing is said in the text itself. The student’s thought receives greater freedom and independence, therefore, working on texts of a descriptive nature is a new level of difficulty compared to working on texts of a narrative nature.
Presentation of texts is more difficult for schoolchildren type of reasoning. When reasoning, it is necessary to express your opinion and justify it; In the process of reasoning, active analytical-synthetic work of thought is carried out, generalizations occur, and conclusions are drawn. To present the type of reasoning, texts are used, the analysis of which requires children’s own judgments. Reasonably selected texts, as well as the nature of the questions asked by the teacher that provoke discussion, contribute to the acquisition of reasoning skills by students.
Speaking about the varying degrees of complexity of text material for presentation, it is necessary to keep in mind the comprehensive and deep familiarization of students with the content and composition of various types of narration, description and reasoning, which is also associated with an analysis of the linguistic side of the text, and therefore, presupposes the presence of appropriate language training of students and their knowledge from the field of literature.
When analyzing the nature of textual material for presentation, it should be taken into account that, along with ready-made texts, films, filmstrips, radio broadcasts, texts of different nature recorded on disk, etc. can serve as material for any type of presentation.
Working on a presentation is impossible without memorizing the text. What's the best way to do this? Psychologists, as is known, distinguish two types of memory: operational and long-term. RAM does not store information for long, including speech - about 10-15 seconds. Then the information received in the form of words is replaced by new information.
Long-term memory stores information much longer due to its concentration in images, patterns, and semantic clusters.
As exam practice shows, both types of memory help schoolchildren memorize a text if individual expressions and phrases are transferred to a sheet of paper shortly after listening to the text. Notes and recordings activate RAM, prolonging its validity, but most of the text is difficult to remember without highlighting micro-topics, without understanding the structure of the text, drawing up a plan, i.e. those forms of work with which you can use the reserves of long-term memory.
How to get started correctly?
During the exam, the source text is read by the teacher twice with an interval of 5-7 minutes. Quite slowly each time. Work on the presentation begins already at the first acquaintance with the text. At this stage, the students’ task is, firstly, to understand the structure of the text, highlight the most important semantic parts (micro-topics) and, secondly, to compile working materials: make the necessary notes, write down proper names, dates, examples of direct speech.
When reading again, these materials, of course, need to be supplemented, checked, corrected if necessary, and new statements and judgments from the text read must be included.
A plan that sets an integral program of further actions will help you remember and reproduce what you have heard; it is advisable not to postpone this important stage of work, but you should not rush.
How to make a plan?
Working on an outline is of great importance in teaching presentation. By dividing the text into logically complete parts, highlighting the main idea in them and formulating a specific point in the plan, students develop generalizing thinking and at the same time improve their speech.
The degree of difficulty in working on the plan gradually increases: from a plan in the form of interrogative sentences, students, under the guidance of a teacher, move on to a plan in the form of narrative and nominative sentences.
More difficult is a complex plan, which requires not a simple title of the parts, but the isolation of the main idea and the evidence supporting it, a plan with an introduction and conclusion, a plan in the form of quotes.
The gradual increase in difficulties and the strengthening of students’ independence in the system of presentation is carried out when revealing the content of the text. If in texts of a narrative nature at the initial stage of education schoolchildren should mainly find answers to the questions posed by the teacher, then at a higher level the nature of the disclosure of content also changes. Students are tasked not only with finding answers in a given text, but also with selecting material, justifying the selection, and expressing their judgment in connection with the disclosure of the content.
Comprehension and memorization of text based on reconstructive imagination.
As you know, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreative. Unlike creative imagination, which is aimed at creating new images, recreating is aimed at creating images that correspond to verbal descriptions. It is the recreating imagination that permeates the entire educational process; without it it is impossible to imagine full-fledged learning.
Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which has only one goal - to find out “what is being said here” and “what will happen next”, does not require active imagination. But such reading, when you mentally “see and hear” everything that is being discussed, when you are mentally transported to the depicted situation and “live” in it - such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination.
The teacher’s task is to make sure that when perceiving a literary text, the student mentally “sees and hears” what he is listening to (reading). Achieving this, of course, is not easy. The reconstructive imagination of different people and children in particular is not developed to the same extent.
If the text has a dynamic plot and is full of dialogues, then when reading it, the imagination, as a rule, turns on involuntarily. With a descriptive text, the situation is different: its full understanding and memorization is impossible without the activity of the imagination, the inclusion of which requires certain volitional efforts.
Psychologists do not yet fully understand the processes that arise during the work of the imagination. Often we cannot control whether it works when perceiving text or not. One of the means of checking the inclusion of imagination is precisely retelling (exposition). If the imagination was active while reading (listening) to the text, then the retelling will be accurate and complete. If the imagination is not activated, students make a large number of inaccuracies, omitting the essential, distorting images, paying attention to minor details.
“Lazy” imagination makes it difficult to understand the text and often makes learning itself painful, because the child has to resort to mechanical memorization of the text, to elementary cramming.
Meanwhile, the recreating imagination is a subjective field of vision, a mental screen that can be developed to an amazing degree.
One of the effective techniques that develops the reconstructive imagination is a type of task called “Turn on the imagination.” It is formulated quite simply: “Imagine that everything you read about, you see on your “mental screen.” Turn it on every time you encounter text.” In the future, you can briefly remind about the need to activate the imagination: “Turn on your “mental screen”,” “Try to mentally see...”, etc.
The development of reconstructive imagination is important not only in itself, but also in connection with attention, memory, emotions, self-control, and most importantly, understanding. Without seeing the picture mentally created by the writer, the student in many cases cannot not only remember, but also understand the text.
One of the most important requirements for working on presentations in a certain system is the diversity of their types. It is necessary to teach schoolchildren not only a complete or detailed presentation, but, starting from the elementary grades, to introduce into the system of work both selective and condensed presentation, and presentation with elements of an essay, and presentation close to the text, gradually complicating the difficulties in carrying out each of these types of exercises.
Characteristic individual species presentations and methods of their implementation.
Full or detailed – this is a type of presentation that involves a detailed, consistent retelling of the content of what was read or heard. The purpose of such a presentation is to teach schoolchildren to understand the content of the text, establish connections between the events or phenomena described in it, convey the content without omitting details, find the words needed for this and construct sentences correctly.
Exposition close to the text also involves a detailed, consistent retelling of the content of what was read, but it differs from a full presentation in that during the lesson, along with the content, language means are also deeply analyzed. At the same time, the most figurative expressions are underlined, written down, and then included in the presentation.
The main task of presentation that is close to the text is to instill in schoolchildren a conscious attitude towards ways of expressing thoughts, instilling in them the ability to expediently use the wealth of vocabulary and synonymous forms found in the work. In the process of working on a presentation that is close to the text, students consolidate the previously acquired skills of detailed, consistent transmission of the content of what they read based on its understanding, the ability to establish connections between phenomena, events and facts, etc.
Usually, during the conversation, a plan of presentation close to the text is drawn up. The parts extracted from the text are written in relation to the points of the plan. The teacher carefully ensures that when presenting, students use the author’s linguistic means appropriately, construct sentences correctly, and select the necessary vocabulary. With such an analysis, what is initially only memorized mechanically is comprehended. Students are instilled with a view of language as a reflection of thought; spontaneity in the use of linguistic means is replaced by consciousness in their use.
During the analysis process, the teacher helps students textually reconstruct the content by rereading some parts of the text.
Presentations close to the text are based on works both familiar to students and unfamiliar to them, but attracting attention with their linguistic expressiveness.
Concise presentation – this is a type of presentation that requires an extremely brief presentation of the main content of what was read or heard. The ability to concisely convey the content of what you read or hear is vital, and the skills acquired in concise lessons are applied directly by students to life practice: in stories about a book read, when conveying the content of a movie watched, a message heard on the radio, etc. The skill of concise presentation is also necessary for in-depth work over educational and scientific literature: when taking notes of material, drawing up abstracts, annotations.
In the process of text compression, material is selected, analyzed, divided into parts, highlighted, and generalized. Concise transmission requires careful work on the design of thoughts: constructing sentences, selecting appropriate vocabulary, and extensively using synonymous linguistic means of expressing thoughts.
Basic techniques used in text compression:
1)Dividing information into main and secondary, excluding unimportant and secondary information (excluding secondary information can be solved by excluding words, phrases and entire sentences);
2)Collapsing the original information through generalizations (translating the particular into the general).
To the main language techniques Source text compression includes:
1.Exception:
· Elimination of repetitions;
· Exclusion of one or more of the synonyms;
· Exclusion of clarifying and explanatory structures;
· Eliminating a sentence fragment;
· Elimination of one or more sentences.
2. Generalization:
· Replacement homogeneous members general name;
· Replacing hyponyms with hypernyms;
· Replacing a sentence or part of it with a definitive or negative pronoun with a general meaning.
3. Simplification:
· Merging several sentences into one;
· Replacing a sentence or part of it with a demonstrative pronoun;
· Replacing a complex sentence with a simple one;
· Replacing a sentence fragment with a synonymous expression.
Mastery of all these skills occurs gradually, in the process of conducting a series of concise presentations that become more complex from class to class. Thus, in grade 5, it is advisable to conduct a concise presentation of a separate part of a narrative work; in the 6th grade - presentation of a text that is larger in volume, familiar and unfamiliar to children; in grade 7 - presentation of the content of a filmstrip, film, radio or television program; in 8th grade - a concise presentation of texts of a journalistic nature; in 9th grade - taking notes on various business articles, drawing up abstracts, concise presentation of an artistic or journalistic style.
Working on a concise presentation requires careful preparation from the teacher. The teacher first of all selects the appropriate text, analyzes it, divides it into logically complete parts and composes rough plan a detailed description of its contents. He writes out difficult words and expressions, outlining ways to clarify them. After this, he highlights the main ideas in the text and in the previously outlined detailed plan identifies points that are necessary to convey the content concisely, i.e. makes a short plan. In order to properly organize the work of students in the lesson, the teacher himself must prepare an approximate concise presentation.
Selective presentation - this type of presentation that requires a logically consistent, detailed presentation of the content on one of the issues covered in this work.
With selective presentation, a thematic selection of material occurs based on the analysis of the text, isolating from it those parts that relate to a given topic, generalizing what is selected, and oral and written transmission of content in a certain sequence. Such work is possible if schoolchildren have fluent, skimming reading skills and some ability to select material.
The nature and content of the work on the selective presentation also determine the methodology for its implementation.
The basis for writing a selective presentation is drawing up a plan for this topic, retelling the text first orally and then in writing.
When retelling, a grammatical and stylistic analysis of the text is carried out, attention is paid to the construction of sentences, the establishment of connections between them, the appropriate vocabulary is selected, etc.
Literary and artistic works or excerpts from them can serve as material for selective presentation; in 9th grade - journalism, literary critical articles. Since selective presentation involves thematic selection of material, texts for it are selected significantly larger in volume than for other types of presentation.
By working on a selective presentation, students consolidate the skills of consistent, complete, detailed transmission of content, because consistency and detailed coverage of a given topic constitute one of the requirements for selective presentation. The skills of text analysis and selection of material, determined not by the degree of importance of individual provisions of the text, as in a condensed presentation, but by a given topic, are also consolidated and improved.
Presentation with elements of an essay It involves, along with conveying the content of a given text, the inclusion of purely creative moments in the retelling, for example: coming up with an ending to a given passage; inserting descriptions of objects, phenomena, events mentioned in the text, based on one’s own observations and impressions of what was seen, heard or read; coming up with the beginning of a story, etc. In the process of teaching presentation with elements of an essay, students are also required to complete gradually more complex tasks.
Tasks: evaluate the action of a particular character, express your opinion on the behavior of the hero of the work, etc., the implementation of which requires a comprehensively justified motivation - certainly more difficult for students and represent a higher degree of difficulty. The inclusion in the retelling of discussions on the topics: “What is a feat,” “How do I understand my duty to the Motherland,” “What is friendship,” etc., which naturally follows from the very content of the text, should also take place in these lessons. The task of introducing into the presentation a description (of the setting, pictures of nature, the appearance of the characters, labor processes, phenomena, events, etc.), based on personal observations or impressions of students and organically arising from the content of the presentation, usually arouses great interest among schoolchildren.
Coming up with an end or a beginning, including small episodes in the presentation and other tasks are usually in the nature of a narrative and are also based on the personal impressions and experiences of students. The ending of the presentation can also serve as a reasoning caused by the content of the text being presented and its analysis.
Literature
1.Antonova E.S. Methods of teaching the Russian language: communicative-activity approach. M.: KNORUS, 2007.
2.Borisenko N.A. How we prepare for the new exam in 9th grade // Russian language, No. 8/2007.
3.Granik G.G., Bondarenko S.M., Kontsevaya L.A. How to teach to work with a book. M., 1995. P.145-200.
4.Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A. Development of reconstructive imagination in Russian language lessons // Russian language at school. 2006. No. 6. pp. 3-10.
5.Evgrafova E.M. Understanding and imagination // Russian language, No. 5/2003. P.14
6.Evgrafova E.M. Secrets of presentation//Russian language, No. 34/1999; No. 10/2000; No. 12/2001.
7.Methods of speech development in Russian language lessons / Ed. T.A. Ladyzhenskaya. M.: Education, 1991.
8.Khaustova D.A. Different types presentations//Russian language, No. 3/2006.
Productive communication skills: 1. Structured perception of text. 2. The ability to identify micro-topics. 3. Highlight the main thing, cut off the unimportant. The purpose of the work is information processing of the text, selection of lexical and grammatical means to convey brief information.
Students' mistakes 1. Inability to recognize words and expressions in the text that mark key points of content. 2. Gravitation towards a complete presentation, which does not require analysis of the content of the source text. 3. Omission of micro-topics or expansion of information in the source text - lack of adequacy of listening comprehension of the text.
Text for a condensed presentation Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are confident that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand all of them, but here they are... But while we are confident that while we judge ourselves less strictly than others, misunderstanding is born. Maybe we should start with ourselves, with what we ourselves lack? Perhaps this is the first step towards understanding? Do we, for example, have enough imagination? After all, imagination, as one of the writers accurately noted, is not needed at all in order to come up with something non-existent or unrealizable. Imagination is needed in order to capture with the mind's eye the hidden corners of the human soul. Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in which we are surrounded only by models and diagrams, and not by real people. But to understand a person, imagination alone is not enough; you also need close attention to people, the desire to peer, listen with benevolent sympathy, with heartfelt participation. We need compassion, which encourages us to listen not only to words, but also to intonation, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. With such an attitude, the difference in views and feelings never turns into misunderstanding. (Based on materials from Internet sites)
Micro-themes of the text: 1. We often worry because they do not understand us, but we are sure that we ourselves understand those around us. 2. Perhaps misunderstanding arises from the fact that we judge ourselves less strictly than others, and do not notice that we ourselves lack something. 3. The role of imagination in understanding the world and man. 4. To understand a person, in addition to imagination, attention and compassion are needed.
IC 1 – 3 points “We are rarely upset that we did not understand someone, but we often worry that we were not understood. We always think that we can understand others, but they cannot understand us. Or maybe this is why misunderstanding arises, because everyone judges himself less strictly than others? Probably the first step to understanding is to think about what we ourselves lack. For example, do we have enough imagination, which is exactly what is needed to understand all the richness and diversity of human life and soul? After all, without imagination there is no image of the world around us. Without this, life becomes flat and people become sketchy. But imagination alone is not enough to understand. We also need attention and compassion for people. Then understanding is possible, even if people have different views.” (116 words)
IR1 – 3 points “Often we are upset by misunderstanding on the part of loved ones, friends, acquaintances: it seems to us that we understand others perfectly, but others do not understand us. This is natural, since a person rarely thinks about the reasons for his misunderstanding, looking for a problem in someone else. Wouldn't it be better to start with ourselves, by thinking about what we ourselves lack? One of the most important criteria for mutual understanding is imagination - not the one that generates in thoughts the non-existent and unrealizable, but the one that allows you to embrace with your mind and heart all the wealth of feelings and emotions, all the richness of life, its joys and tragedies...”
IR1 – 2 points “But it’s not only imagination that helps us understand another person. You also need close attention, compassion, the desire to peer, listen, to notice not only words, but also intonations, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. And then the difference in views and feelings will never develop into misunderstanding. Only by knowing yourself, and then those around you, can you reflect on mutual understanding, look for the causes of problems in relationships and solve these problems.”
IR1 -1 point “People often do not understand each other. We are upset that we are not understood. But that's because we lack imagination. And imagination is not only what is associated with fantasy. Imagination helps to imagine the image of a person, to look into his soul, into the most hidden corners. Without imagination, it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person; everything will turn out to look like a diagram. But imagination alone is not enough to create an image of a person and understand him. You also need to treat him carefully and with compassion. Then there will be no misunderstanding." (79 words)
IR1 -0 points “Very often we ask the question: “Are we understood?” The answer is usually no. And sometimes it hurts to the point of tears because even our closest friends don’t understand us. But does the reason for this lie within us, in the confidence that we understand, try to understand others? Probably, before blaming others, you need to look into yourself, figure out how I treat others. But most of all, attention to people is needed, participation in their problems, compassion for their grief. It is necessary not only to understand the meaning of words, but also to feel the mood and emotions of a person. If a person understands himself, then he will be understood by those around him.” (113 words)
IR1- 0 points The first micro-theme is reflected only partially, an important idea is missed: “We are confident that we ourselves understand those around us.” The second micro-theme has been replaced by another; Speaking about imagination, the author does not identify its function, which in the source text is emphasized as the most important: imagination is necessary for understanding the world and man. Having missed 3 microthemes, the author adds a microtheme that does not exist in the source text (the last sentence of the presentation)
IR2 -1 point The examinee used 1 or several text compression techniques (content, language). “People often do not understand each other. We are upset that we are not understood. But that's because we lack imagination. And imagination is not only what is associated with fantasy. Imagination helps to imagine the image of a person, to look into his soul, into the most hidden corners. Without imagination, it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person; everything will turn out to look like a diagram. But imagination alone is not enough to create an image of a person and understand him. You also need to treat him carefully and with compassion. Then there will be no misunderstanding." (79 words)
2. Replacement of part of the sentence with a defining pronoun with a general meaning (“everything”), elimination of repetitions and simultaneous merging of two sentences into one (“Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in it we are surrounded just models and diagrams, not real people” - “Without imagination it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person, everything will turn out to be similar to a diagram”). Compression methods - language tools
Compression techniques 1). Exclusion of secondary information (content-based technique); 2). Merging two sentences into one (“We are rarely upset that we did not understand someone, but we often worry that we were not understood”); 3). Exclusion of a sentence fragment, different types of substitutions (“We always think that we can understand others, but they cannot understand us”).
SG2 – 0 points “Misunderstanding between people arises unnoticed. Many people think that they understand their close friends well. And their friends don't really understand them. The second example often occurs in life. When our parents, teachers, and classmates don’t understand us, we get upset. And if those people whom we like and whom we respect do not understand us, then we are upset to the point of tears.”
Concise summary Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are sure that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand them all, but here they are...
Concise summary Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are sure that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand all of them, but here they are...
Concise summary Do we, for example, have enough imagination? After all, imagination, as one of the writers accurately noted, is not needed at all in order to come up with something non-existent or unrealizable. Imagination is needed in order to embrace with the mind and heart all the richness of life, its situations, its turns, in order to see with the mind’s eye the hidden corners of the human soul. Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in which we are surrounded only by models and diagrams, and not by real people.
Concise presentation But to understand a person, imagination alone is not enough; you also need close attention to people, the desire to look closely, listen with benevolent sympathy, with heartfelt participation. We need compassion, which awakens us to listen not only to words, but also to intonation, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. With such an attitude, the difference in views and feelings never turns into misunderstanding.
