The 14th century in the history of Russia became a time of change. This was the period when the Russian lands began to recover from the terrible consequences of Batu's invasion, the yoke was finally established as a system of subordination of princes to the power of the khans of the Golden Horde. Gradually, the most important issue became the unification of the appanage principalities and the creation of a centralized state that could free itself from Tatar rule and gain sovereignty.
Several state formations, which strengthened in the period after Batu’s campaigns, claimed the role of a center for gathering Russian lands. The old cities - Vladimir, Suzdal, Kyiv or Vladimir-Volynsky - were never able to recover from destruction and fell into decay; new centers of power arose on their periphery, between which the struggle for the great reign flared up.
Among them, several state formations stood out (there were many more applicants), the victory of each of which would mean the emergence of a unique state, unlike other states. We can say that at the beginning of the 14th century, the Russian principalities were at a crossroads, from which several roads diverged - possible paths for the development of Russia.
Novgorod land
Massacre of the inhabitants of Ryazan by Batu Khan in 1237. Miniature from the Facial Chronicle. Mid-16th century RIA News" Reasons for strengthening. During the Mongol invasion, Novgorod escaped destruction: Batu's cavalry did not reach the city less than a hundred kilometers. According to various historians, it was either the spring thaw, or the lack of food for horses, or the general fatigue of the Mongol army.
Since ancient times, Novgorod has been a crossroads of trade routes and the most important center of transit trade between Northern Europe, the Baltic states, Russian lands, the Byzantine Empire and the countries of the East. The cooling that began in the 13th-14th centuries caused a sharp reduction in agricultural productivity in Rus' and Europe, but Novgorod only became stronger from this
due to increased demand for bread in the Baltic markets.
Until its final annexation to Moscow, the Novgorod land was the largest of the Russian principalities, covering vast areas
from the Baltic Sea to the Urals and from Torzhok to the Arctic Ocean. These lands were rich in natural resources - furs, salt, wax. According to archaeological and historical data, Novgorod in the XIII
and in the 14th century it was the largest city in Rus'.
Territorial limits. Novgorod Rus' is presented as a “colonial empire”, the main direction of expansion of which is the development of the North, the Urals and Siberia.
Ethnic composition. Representatives of the North Russian people
and numerous Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, Ves, Korela, Voguls, Ostyaks, Permyaks, Zyryans, etc.) who are in a state of dependence
from Novgorod and are obliged to pay yasak to the state treasury - a tax in kind, mainly in furs.
Social structure. The raw materials nature of Novgorod exports was the reason for the strong position of the boyars. At the same time, traditionally the basis of Novgorod society was a fairly broad middle class: the living people were landowners who had less capital and less influence than the boyars, who were often engaged in trade and usury; merchants, the largest of whom were members of the “Ivanovo hundred” - the highest guild of Novgorod merchants; artisans; svoezemtsy - people of humble origin who owned their own land plot. Novgorod traders, artisans and conquerors of new lands were not so dependent on the feudal lords (boyars), having a greater share of freedom than their colleagues in other Russian principalities.
Novgorod trade. Painting by Apollinary Vasnetsov. 1909 Wikimedia Commons Political structure. The level of democracy in a society is proportional to the level of its well-being. Rich commercial Novgorod is often called a republic by historians. This term is very conventional, but reflects the special management system that has developed there.
The basis of Novgorod's governance was the veche - a people's assembly at which the most pressing issues of the life of the city were discussed. The veche was not a purely Novgorod phenomenon. Appearing at the pre-state stage of the history of the Eastern Slavs, such bodies of direct democracy existed
in many lands until the XIII-XIV centuries and came to naught only after the establishment of the yoke. The reason was largely that the khans of the Golden Horde dealt only with princes, while uprisings against the Tatars were often launched by representatives of urban communities. However, in Novgorod, the veche from a city advisory body with uncertain powers turned into a key government body. This happened in 1136, after the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from the city and decided from now on to invite the prince at their own discretion. His powers were now limited by the text of a specific agreement, which stipulated, for example, how many servants the prince could bring with him, where he had the right to hunt, and even what payment he would receive for performing his duties. Thus, the prince in Novgorod was a hired administrator who kept order and led the army. In addition to the prince, there were several other administrative positions in Novgorod: posadnik, who headed the executive branch and was in charge of the court for criminal offenses, tysyatsky, the head of the city militia (he exercised control in the field of trade and ruled on commercial matters), and the archbishop, who was not only a religious leader , but was also in charge of the treasury and represented the interests of the city in foreign policy.
Novgorod was divided into five districts, and those, in turn, into streets. In addition to the citywide meeting, there were also Konchansky and Ulichansky meetings, at which issues of local significance were resolved, where passions ran high and noses often got bloody. These evenings were a place of outburst of emotions
and rarely influenced city policies. Real power in the city belonged to a narrow council of the so-called “300 golden belts” - the richest and most noble boyars who skillfully used veche traditions to their advantage. Therefore, despite the freedom-loving spirit of the Novgorodians and veche traditions, there is reason to believe that Novgorod was more of a boyar oligarchy than a republic.
Nautical chart of Olaf Magnus. 1539 One of the earliest maps of Northern Europe. Wikimedia Commons Foreign policy. Traditionally, the most important partner and rival of the Novgorodians was the Hansa - a union of cities engaged in trade
along the Baltic Sea. The Novgorodians could not conduct independent maritime trade and were forced to deal only with the merchants of Riga, Revel and Dorpat, selling their goods cheaply and purchasing European goods at high prices. Therefore, a possible direction of the foreign policy of Novgorod Rus, in addition to expansion to the east, was advancement into the Baltic states and the struggle
for their trading interests. In this case, the inevitable opponents of Novgorod, in addition to the Hansa, would be the German knightly orders - Livonian and Teutonic, as well as Sweden.
Religion. Novgorod merchants were very religious people. This is evidenced by the number of temples that have survived to this day in the city.
and monasteries. At the same time, many “heresies” that spread in Rus' arose precisely in Novgorod - obviously as a consequence of close ties
with Europe. As an example, we can cite the heresies of the Strigolniks and “Judaizers” as a reflection of the processes of rethinking Catholicism
and the beginning of the Reformation in Europe. If Russia had its own Martin Luther, most likely he would have been from Novgorod.
Why didn't it work? Novgorod land was not densely populated. The number of inhabitants of the city itself in the XIV-XV centuries did not exceed 30 thousand people. Novgorod did not have sufficient human potential to fight for supremacy in Rus'. Another serious problem facing Novgorod was its dependence on food supplies from the principalities located to the south. Bread went to Novgorod through Torzhok, so as soon as the Vladimir prince captured this city, the Novgorodians were forced to fulfill his demands. Thus, Novgorod gradually found itself increasingly dependent on neighboring lands - first Vladimir, then Tver and, finally, Moscow.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Reasons for strengthening. In the 10th-11th centuries, Lithuanian tribes were
in a state of dependence on Kievan Rus. However, due to the collapse of the unified Russian state, they achieved independence already in the 1130s. There, the process of disintegration of the tribal community was in full swing. In this sense, the Principality of Lithuania found itself in an antiphase of its development with the surrounding (primarily Russian) lands, weakened by the separatism of local rulers and boyars. According to historians, the final consolidation of the Lithuanian state occurred in the middle of the 13th century against the backdrop of Batu’s invasion and the increased expansion of German knightly orders. The Mongol cavalry caused great damage to the Lithuanian lands, but at the same time cleared space for expansion, creating a vacuum of power in the region, which the princes Mindovg (1195-1263) and Gediminas (1275-1341) took advantage of to unite the Lithuanian, Baltic and Slavic tribes under their rule . Against the backdrop of the weakening of traditional centers of power, residents of Western Rus' saw Lithuania as a natural protector in the face of danger from the Golden Horde and the Teutonic Order.
Victory of the Mongol army at the Battle of Legnica in 1241. Miniature from the legend of Saint Jadwiga of Silesia. 1353 Wikimedia Commons Territorial limits. During the period of its greatest prosperity under Prince Olgerd (1296-1377), the territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania extended from the Baltic to the Northern Black Sea region, the eastern border ran approximately along the current border of Smolensk and Moscow, Oryol and Lipetsk, Kursk and Voronezh regions. Thus, his state included modern Lithuania, the entire territory of modern Belarus, the Smolensk region, and after the victory over the army of the Golden Horde in the Battle of Blue Waters (1362) - a significant part of Ukraine, including Kiev. In 1368-1372, Olgerd waged war with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich. If Lithuania had been successful and managed to conquer the great reign of Vladimir, Olgerd or his descendants would have united all Russian lands under their rule. Perhaps then our capital would now be Vilnius, and not Moscow.
The third edition of the statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, written in the Ruthenian language. Late 16th century Wikimedia Commons Ethnic composition. The population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century was made up of only 10% Baltic peoples, who later became the basis of the Lithuanian, partly Latvian and Belarusian ethnic communities. The vast majority of the inhabitants, not counting Jews or Polish colonists, were Eastern Slavs. Thus, the written Western Russian language with Cyrillic letters (however, monuments written in Latin are also known) prevailed in Lithuania until the middle of the 17th century; it was also used in state document circulation. Despite the fact that the ruling elite in the country were Lithuanians, they
were not perceived by the Orthodox population as invaders. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a Balto-Slavic state in which the interests of both peoples were widely represented. Golden Horde yoke
and the transition of the western principalities under the rule of Poland and Lithuania predetermined the emergence of three East Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
The appearance of Crimean Tatars and Karaites in the Principality of Lithuania, apparently dating back to the reign of Prince Vytautas, is extremely interesting.
(1392-1430). According to one version, Vytautas resettled several hundred families of Karaites and Crimean Tatars to Lithuania. According to another, the Tatars fled there after the defeat of the Khan of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh, in the war with Timur (Tamerlane).
Social structure. The social structure in Lithuania differed slightly from what was typical for the Russian lands. Most of the arable land was part of the prince's domain, which was cultivated by unwitting servants and tax people - categories of the population who were personally dependent on the prince. However, often non-taxable peasants were also brought in to work on the princely lands, including the Syabrs - personally free farmers who jointly owned arable land and land. In addition to the Grand Duke, in Lithuania there were also appanage princes (as a rule, Gediminovich), who ruled different areas of the state, as well as large feudal lords - lords. Boyars and peasants were in military service
from the prince and received the right to own land for this. Separate categories of the population were the townspeople, the clergy and Ukrainians - residents of the “Ukrainian” territories bordering the steppe and the Moscow principality.
Wooden panel depicting the coat of arms of one of the noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 15th century Getty Images / Fotobank.ru Political structure. Supreme power belonged to the Grand Duke (the term “sovereign” was also used). Appanage princes and lords were subordinate to him. However, over time, the position of the nobility and local feudal lords strengthened in the Lithuanian state. The Rada, a council of the most influential lords that appeared in the 15th century, was initially a legislative body under the prince, similar to the boyar duma. But by the end of the century the Rada began to limit the princely power. At the same time, the Val Sejm appeared - an estate-representative body, in the work of which only representatives of the upper class - the gentry - took part (unlike the Zemsky Sobors in Russia).
Princely power in Lithuania was also weakened by the lack of a clear order of succession to the throne. After the death of the old ruler, strife often arose, fraught with the danger of the collapse of a single state. In the end, the throne often went not to the eldest, but to the most insidious and warlike of the contenders.
As the position of the nobility strengthened (especially after the conclusion of the Krevo Union with Poland in 1385 Union of Krevo- agreement
about the dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland,
according to which the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jagiello, having married the Polish Queen Jadwiga, was proclaimed the Polish king.) The Lithuanian state developed
towards a limited gentry monarchy with an elected ruler.
Fragment of a letter from Khan Tokhtamysh to the King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello. 1391 Khan asks to collect taxes and reopen the roads to the Ortaks, official state traders in the service of the Genghisids. Ms. Dr. Marie Favereau-Doumenjou / Universiteit Leiden Foreign policy. The very emergence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
was largely a response to the foreign policy challenges faced by the population of the Baltic states and Western Russian principalities - the Mongol invasion and the expansion of the Teutonic and Livonian knights. Therefore, the main content of Lithuania’s foreign policy was the struggle for independence and resistance to forced Catholicization. The Lithuanian state was stuck between two worlds - Catholic Europe and Orthodox Russia, and had to make its civilizational choice, which would determine its future. This choice was not easy. Among the Lithuanian princes there were quite a few Orthodox (Olgerd, Voishelk) and Catholics (Gedimin, Tovtivil), and Mindaugas and Vytautas switched from Orthodoxy to Catholicism and back several times. Foreign policy orientation and faith went hand in hand.
Religion. Lithuanians remained pagans for a long time. This partly explains the inconstancy of the great princes in matters of religion. There were enough Catholic and Orthodox missionaries in the state, there were Catholic and Orthodox dioceses, and one of the Lithuanian metropolitans, Cyprian, became the Metropolitan of Kyiv in 1378-1406
and all Rus'. Orthodoxy in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania played an outstanding role for the upper strata of society and cultural circles, providing enlightenment, including for the Baltic nobility from the grand ducal circle. Therefore, Lithuanian Rus', without a doubt, would be an Orthodox state. However, the choice of faith was also the choice of an ally. Behind Catholicism stood all the European monarchies led by the Pope, and only the Russian principalities subordinate to the Horde and the dying Byzantine Empire were Orthodox.
King Vladislav II Jagiello. Detail of the triptych "Virgin Mary" from the Cathedral of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslas. Krakow, 2nd half of the 15th century Wikimedia Commons Why didn't it work? After the death of Olgerd (1377), the new Lithuanian prince Jagiello converted to Catholicism. In 1385, under the terms of the Union of Krevo, he married Queen Jadwiga and became the Polish king, effectively uniting these two states under his rule. For the next 150 years, Poland and Lithuania, formally considered two independent states, were almost always ruled by one ruler. Polish political, economic and cultural influence on Lithuanian lands grew. Over time, Lithuanians were baptized into Catholicism, and the Orthodox population of the country found itself in a difficult and unequal situation.
Muscovy
Reasons for strengthening. One of the many fortresses founded by the Vladimir prince Yuri Dolgoruky on the borders of his land, Moscow was distinguished by its favorable location. The city stood at the intersection of river and land trade routes. Along the Moscow and Oka rivers it was possible to reach the Volga, which, as the significance of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” weakened, gradually turned into the most important trade artery along which goods from the East passed. There was also the possibility of overland trade with Europe through Smolensk and Lithuania.
Battle of Kulikovo. Fragment of the icon “Sergius of Radonezh with the Life”. Yaroslavl, XVII century Bridgeman Images/Fotodom However, it became completely clear how successful the location of Moscow turned out to be after Batu’s invasion. Unable to escape destruction and burned to the ground, the city was quickly rebuilt. Its population increased annually due to immigrants from other lands: covered with forests, swamps and lands of other principalities, Moscow did not suffer so much in the second half of the 13th century
from the devastating campaigns of the Horde khans - armies.
The important strategic position and the growth in the number of residents of the city led to the fact that in 1276 Moscow had its own prince - Daniil, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky. The successful policy of the first Moscow rulers also became a factor in strengthening the principality. Daniil, Yuri and Ivan Kalita encouraged the settlers, providing them with benefits and temporary exemption from taxes, increased the territory of Moscow, annexing Mozhaisk, Kolomna, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Rostov, Uglich, Galich, Beloozero and achieving recognition of vassal dependence on the part of some others (Novgorod, Kostroma and so on). They rebuilt and expanded the city fortifications and paid great attention to cultural development and temple construction. From the second decade of the 14th century, Moscow waged a struggle with Tver for the great reign of Vladimir. The key event in this struggle was the “Shchelkanov’s Army” of 1327. Ivan Kalita, who joined the army of Shevkal (in different readings also Cholkhan or Shchelkan), Uzbek’s cousin, on his orders, led the Tatar troops in such a way that the lands of his principality were not affected by the invasion. Tver never recovered from the destruction - Moscow's main rival in the struggle for the great reign and influence on Russian lands was defeated.
Territorial limits. The Moscow principality was a constantly growing state. While the rulers of other Russian lands divided them between their sons, contributing to the increasing fragmentation of Rus', the Moscow princes in various ways (inheritance, military seizure, purchase of a label, etc.) increased the size of their inheritance. In a sense, it played into the hands of Moscow that of the five sons of Prince Daniil Alexandrovich, four died childless and Ivan Kalita ascended the throne, inheriting the entire Moscow inheritance, carefully collecting lands and changing the order of succession to the throne in his will. In order to consolidate Moscow's dominance, it was necessary to preserve the integrity of the inherited possessions. Therefore, Kalita bequeathed to his younger sons to obey the elder in everything and unevenly distributed the lands between them. Most of them remained with the eldest son, while the inheritance of the younger ones was rather symbolic: even united, they would not be able to challenge the Moscow prince. Compliance with the will and preservation of the integrity of the principality was facilitated by the fact that many descendants of Ivan Kalita, for example Simeon the Proud, died in 1353, when the plague pandemic known as the “Black Death” reached Moscow.
After the victory over Mamai on the Kulikovo Field (in 1380), Moscow was almost without alternative perceived as the center of the unification of Russian lands. In his will, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the Great Reign of Vladimir as his patrimony, that is, as an unconditional hereditary possession.
Ethnic composition. Before the arrival of the Slavs, the area between the Volga and Oka rivers was the border of settlement of the Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes. Over time, they were assimilated by the Slavs, but back in the 14th century, compact settlements of Meri, Murom or Mordovians could be found in the Moscow Principality.
Social structure. The Moscow principality was originally a monarchy. But at the same time, the prince did not have absolute power. The boyars enjoyed great influence. Thus, Dmitry Donskoy bequeathed to his children to love the boyars and not do anything without their consent. The boyars were the prince's vassals and formed the basis of his senior squad. At the same time, they could change their overlord by going into the service of another prince, which happened often.
The prince's younger warriors were called "youths" or "gridi". Then the prince's "court" servants appeared, who could become free people and even slaves. All these categories eventually united into a group of “children of the boyars,” who never grew up to become boyars, but formed the social base of the nobility.
In the Moscow principality, a system of local relations developed intensively: nobles received land from the Grand Duke (from his domain) for service and for the duration of their service. This made them dependent on the prince
and strengthened his power.
Peasants lived on the lands of private owners - boyars or princes. For the use of land it was necessary to pay rent and perform some work (“product”). Most of the peasants had personal freedom, that is, the right to move from one landowner to another,
At the same time, there were also “involuntary servants” who did not have such rights.
Portrait of Dmitry Donskoy. Yegoryevsky Historical and Artistic Institutemuseum. Painting by an unknown artist. 19th century
Getty Images/Fotobank Political structure. The Moscow state was a monarchy. All power - executive, legislative, judicial, military - belonged to the prince. On the other hand, the control system was far
from absolutism: the prince was too dependent on his squad - the boyars, whose top members were included in the princely council (a kind of prototype of the boyar duma). The key figure in the management of Moscow was Tysyatsky. He was appointed prince from among the boyars. Initially, this position involved the leadership of the city militia, but over time, with the support of the boyars, the thousand people concentrated in their hands some of the powers of city administration (court, supervision of trade). In the middle of the 14th century, their influence was so high that the princes themselves had to take them seriously.
But as the power of Daniel’s descendants strengthened and centralized, the situation changed, and in 1374 Dmitry Donskoy abolished this position.
Local government was carried out by representatives of the prince - governors. Through the efforts of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow state did not have a classical appanage system, but small plots were received by the younger brothers of the Moscow ruler. In boyar estates and noble estates, their owners were given the right to maintain order and administer justice
on behalf of the prince.
Battle of Kulikovo. Miniature from “The Life of St. Sergius of Radonezh.” 17th century Getty Images / Fotobank.ru Foreign policy. The main directions of foreign policy activities of the Moscow Principality were the collection of lands and the struggle for independence from the Golden Horde. Moreover, the first was inextricably linked with the second: in order to challenge the khan, it was necessary to accumulate forces and bring out a united all-Russian army against him. Thus, in the relations between Moscow and the Horde one can see two phases - the phase of submission and cooperation and the phase of confrontation. The first was personified by Ivan Kalita, one of whose main merits, according to chroniclers, was the cessation of Tatar raids and the “great silence” that lasted for the next 40 years. The second dates back to the reign of Dmitry Donskoy, who felt strong enough to challenge Mamai. This was partly due to the long-term turmoil in the Horde, known as the “great turmoil,” during which the state split into separate uluses, and power in its western part was seized by the temnik Mamai, who was not a Genghisid (descendant of Genghis Khan), and therefore right the puppet khans he proclaimed were not legitimate. In 1380, Prince Dmitry defeated Mamai’s army on the Kulikovo Field, but two years later Genghisid Khan Tokhtamysh captured and plundered Moscow, again imposing tribute on it and restoring his power over it. Vassal dependence continued for another 98 years, but in the relations between Moscow and the Horde, increasingly rare phases of submission were increasingly replaced by phases of confrontation.
Another direction of the foreign policy of the Moscow Principality was relations with Lithuania. The advancement of Lithuania to the east due to the inclusion of Russian lands in its composition ceased as a result of a clash with the strengthened Moscow princes. In the 15th-16th centuries, the united Polish-Lithuanian state became the main opponent of the Moscow rulers, given their foreign policy program, which involved the unification under their rule of all Eastern Slavs, including those who lived as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Religion. By uniting the Russian lands around itself, Moscow relied on help from the church, which, unlike the secular feudal lords, was always interested in the existence of a single state. The alliance with the church became another reason for the strengthening of Moscow in the first half of the 14th century. Prince Ivan Kalita launched a vigorous activity in the city, building several stone churches: the Assumption Cathedral, the Archangel Cathedral, which became the tomb of the Moscow princes, the court church of the Savior on Bor and the Church of St. John the Climacus. One can only guess what this construction cost him. The Tatars were very jealous of this: all the extra money, in their opinion, should have gone to the Horde as tribute, and not been spent on the construction of temples. However, the game was worth the candle: Ivan Danilovich managed to convince Metropolitan Peter, who lived in Moscow for a long time, to leave Vladimir completely. Peter agreed, but died that same year and was buried in Moscow. His successor Theognostus finally made Moscow the center of the Russian metropolitanate, and the next metropolitan, Alexy, was from Moscow.
Why did it happen? The success was associated with two major military victories for Moscow. Victory in the war with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1368-1372) and Olgerd’s recognition of Dmitry’s right to the great reign of Vladimir meant that Lithuania admitted its defeat in the struggle for the unification of Russian lands. The victory on the Kulikovo Field - even though it did not mean the end of the yoke - had a huge moral impact on the Russian people. Muscovite Rus' was forged in this battle, and the authority of Dmitry Donskoy was such that in his will he transferred the great reign as his patrimony, that is, an inalienable hereditary right that does not need to be confirmed by a Tatar label, humiliating himself in the Horde before the khan.
Local cathedral of 1503 (cathedral of widow priests)
About the Cathedral
The Council of 1503, also known as the “Cathedral of the Widowed Priests,” is a council of the Russian Orthodox Church that was held in Moscow in August - September 1503. The task of the council was to resolve a number of disciplinary issues, in relation to which two decisions were made. However, it remained more in memory as a council at which the issue of monastic land ownership was decided.
Conciliar resolution on non-collection of bribes for ordination from clergy.
(Quoted from “Acts collected in the libraries and archives of the Russian Empire by the archaeographic expedition of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.” Volume I" St. Petersburg. 1836 Pages 484-485)
We are John, by the grace of God the Sovereign of All Russia and the Grand Duke, and my son Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich of all Russia, having spoken with Simon Metropolitan of All Russia, and with Archbishop Gennady of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov, and with Nifont with the Bishop of Suzdal and Toru, and with Protasius the Bishop Ryazan and Murom, and with Vasyan Bishop of Tfer, and with Nikon Bishop of Kolomensky, and with Trifon Bishop of Sarsky and Poddonsky, and with Nikon Bishop of Perm and Vologda, and with archimandrites, and with abbots, and with all the holy cathedral oh, and according to the Rule of Saints Apostle and holy Father, which is written in the Rule of Saints Apostle and holy Father, from being appointed a saint, from Archbishops and Bishops, and from archimandrites, and from abbots, and from priests, and from deacons, and from the entire priestly rank, do not have anything, and they laid it down and strengthened it: that from this time forward to us the saint, to me the Metropolitan and to us the Archbishop and Bishop, or whoever other Metropolitans and Archbishops and Bishops in all the Russian lands on those tables after us will be holy from the installation patron of the Archbishops and Episcopes, Archimandrites and abbots, and priests and deacons, and from the entire priestly rank, do not owe anything to anyone, nor should we receive anything from the ordination to anyone; Likewise, from the issued letters, the printer from the seal and the clerk from the signature, do not receive anything, and all our duty officers, my metropolitans and our archbishops and bishops, do not receive anything from the issuance of duties; Such a saint, the Metropolitan and to us with the Archicup and the ESCUPUP, among the Archimandrites and the Igumen, and Popov, and Diakonov, from the sacred land and the churches of the Imati, but the reign of the rank of priestly and without any gift and without him let go; and according to the Rule of the Saints, the Apostle and Saints, the Father ordained priests and deacons for us, a deacon for 25 years, and for priests for 30 years, and below those years neither a priest nor a deacon are appointed for certain affairs, but for clerks they are appointed for 20 years, and below 2 0 years do not make clerks; and which saint from us and after us, Metropolitan, Archbishop, or Bishop, in all Russian lands, from this day forward, some with negligence dare to transgress the law and strengthening and take what from the installation or from the place of the priesthood whom, let him be deprived of his dignity, according to By the rule of the saints, the Apostle and the saints Father, let himself and those appointed from him be cast out, without any answer.
And for the further confirmation of this regulation and strengthening, we John, by the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Russia and the Grand Duke, and my son, the Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia, have attached our seals to this charter; and our father Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, put his hand to this document and attached his seal; and the Archbishop and Bishops put their hands to this document. And written in Moscow, summer 7011 August on the sixth day.
I am the humble Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, with the Archbishop and the Bishops, and with the Archimandrites, and with the Abbots, and with the entire sacred cathedral, having searched according to the Rule of the saints the Apostle and the saints the Father, dividing the fortresses, so that the matter ahead with us and after us will not it was destructible , he put his hand to this document and attached his seal.
The humble Archbishop of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov Gennady put his hand to this document.
The humble Bishop Niphon of Suzdal and Torus put his hand to this document.
The humble Bishop Protasey of Rezan and Murom put his hand to this document.
The humble Bishop Vasyan of Tver put his hand to this letter.
The humble Bishop Nikon of Kolomensky put his hand to this document.
The humble Bishop Tryphon of Sarsk and Poddonsk put his hand to this document.
The humble Bishop Nikon of Perm and Vologda put his hand to this letter.
From a modern Manuscript belonging to G. Stroev.
This act is compared with two lists of the 17th century
Conciliar definition on widow priests and deacons and on the prohibition of monks and nuns living in the same monasteries
(Quoted from “Acts collected in the libraries and archives of the Russian Empire by the archaeographic expedition of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.” Volume I" St. Petersburg. 1836 Pages 485-487)
We are John, by God's grace the Sovereign of All Rus' and the Grand Duke, and my son Grand Prince Vasily Ivapovich of all Russia. What our father Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, spoke to us about Saint Dus with his children, with Gennady Archbishop of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov, and with Nifont Bishop of Suzdal and Torus, and with Protasius Bishop of Ryazan and Muromsky, and with Vasian the Bishop Tfersky, and with Nikon Bishop of Kolomna, and with Tryphon Bishop of Sarsky and Poddonsky, and with Nikon Yeniskop of Perm and Vologotsky, and with archimandrites, and with abbots, and with the entire sacred cathedral, they searched for what is in our Orthodox faith There are many Christian Greek laws priests, priests and deacons, widowers, strayed from the truth and, forgetting the fear of God, committed disorder, after
their wives were kept by their concubines, and all the priestly functioned, it was not worthy for them to do it, they were for the sake of lawlessness and nasty deeds: and they searched the council and, according to the Rule of the saints, the Apostle and the holy Father, and according to the teachings of the holy and great Wonderworker Peter, Metropolitan of all Russia, and according to the writing of Photios, Metropolitan of All Russia, laid down and strengthened the priests and deacons of widowers, that, for the sake of lawlessness, from now on we shall not serve as priests and deacons as widowers; and which priests and deacons were caught as concubines and who said to themselves that they had concubines, and brought their letters of commission to the saint, otherwise the priest and deacon should no longer keep concubines with them, but should live in peace other than the church, and on top of that, raise your hair, and wear worldly clothes, and give tribute to them with worldly people, and not act on or touch any priestly affairs; and those widowed priests and deacons, without giving up their appointed positions, let him go somewhere to distant places, taking himself a wife, and call himself a wife, and negligence begin to serve in the metropolis, whether in the archbishops or in the bishops ъ, and who will be convicted of this, Otherwise, they should be handed over to the city judges. And those priests and deacons are widowers, and there is no word on them about the fall of prodigal, and they themselves said that after their wives they live purely, and they told them that they should stand in churches on wings and receive communion from the priest in the altars in they were guardians, and in their own houses they were kept guards, and as a deacon they should receive communion in the altar, even in the surplices with a surplice, and not serve as either a priest or a widower deacon; and which priests or deacons learn to serve in those places and at those churches, and those priests and deacons who are widowers should not be sent away from the churches, but given priests to serve as widows
as a priest, and as a serving deacon, a widower, the fourth hour in all church income; and those who do not teach those widowed priests and deacons to stand on the wing in the church, but teach them to do worldly things, and therefore do not give the fourth part of the church any share in all church income; and those priests and deacons widowers who, after their wives, live cleanly, but want to dress themselves in monastic attire, and such, thanks to God's fate, go to monasteries and from the spiritual superior of the abbot, take tonsure and renew themselves about everything with pure repentance to their father spiritually and according to dignity, if they are worthy, then such people, with the blessing of the saint, may serve as priests in monasteries, and not in secular ones. And that in the monasteries monks and monks lived in one place, and abbots served with them, and they laid down that from now on, monks and monks should not live in the same monastery; and in which monasteries teach monks to live, otherwise serve the abbot, and monks not to live in that monastery; and in which monasteries will teach monks to live, otherwise they will serve as priests, but not live as monks in that monastery. And whose priest and deacon will get drunk for days and will not be able to serve him mass the next day.
And for the greater confirmation of this constitution and strengthening, we John, by the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Russia and the Grand Duke, and my son, the Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia, have attached our seals to this document; and our father Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, put his hand to this document and attached his seal; and the Archbishop and Bishops put their hands to this document. And it was written in Moscow, about 7000, September 2nd.
Yaz Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, put his hand to this document and attached his seal.
Language of the humble Gennady, Archi e piskop V e face O of Novgorod and Pskov, kb e th gra m I put my hand to it.
Yaz the humble Nifont, Bishop Suzh d Alsky and Torussky, put his hand to this document.
Yaz the humble Protasey, Bishop of Ryazan and Murom, to this letter the hand of St. O I attached.
Yaz the humble Vasian, Bishop of Tfer, put his hand to this document.
Yaz the humble Nikon, Bishop of Kolomna, put his hand to this document.
Yaz the humble Tryphon, Bishop of Sarskaya and Poddonskaya, put his hand to this document.
The humble Nikon, Bishop of Perm and Vologda, put his hand to this document.
This Council definition was copied from a modern manuscript belonging to G. Stroev, and verified with two copies of the century.
Certificate of Metropolitan Simon in Pskov
(Quoted from “Acts collected in the libraries and archives of the Russian Empire by the archaeographic expedition of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.” Volume I" St. Petersburg. 1836 Pages 487-488)
Blessing of Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, on the Holy Spirit of the lord and son of our humility, the noble and faithful Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia and his son, the noble and faithful Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia to the Viceroy of Pskov son-in-law Dmitry Volodimerovich, and all the mayor of Pskov, and the Holy Cathedral Trinity, and to the Cathedral of St. Sophia, and to the Cathedral of St. Nicholas, and to all the priests and all the people of the Lord named after Christ. I am writing to you, my sons, about these that I am here, speaking with my master and son with the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia and with his son with the Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia and about Saint Dus with his children, with Gennady ъ Archbishop of the Great Novgorod and Pskov and with all the Bishops of Russia of our metropolis, with archimandrites and abbots and with the entire holy cathedral, searched for the fact that in our Orthodox faith of the peasant Greek law, many priests, priests and deacons, widowers, have lost their way from the truth and , forgetting the fear of God , they did disorderly things, after their wives they kept concubines, and the whole priestly acted, it is not worthy for them to do this, they were for the sake of disorderliness and bad deeds; and we searched the cathedral about this and, according to the teachings of the great holy Wonderworker Peter Metropolitan of All Russia and according to the writings of Photius Metropolitan of All Russia, we laid it down and strengthened it about priests and about deacons, about widows, that of that outrage from this time forward. pom and Do not serve as a deacon to a widower for everyone; and which priests and deacons were convicted of having concubines and who said to themselves that they had concubines, and brought their letters of commission to the saint, but the priest and deacon before them did not keep concubines at all, but lived in the world other than the church , and above all, grow their hair, and wear worldly clothes, and give tribute to them with worldly people, and in no way do they act or touch priestly affairs; and which of those widowed priests and deacons, without giving up their appointed ones, but go somewhere to a distant place, taking with him a wife, and call her his wife, and negligence begin to serve, in the metropolis, in the archdioceses or in the bishops ъ, and which in some will be convicted, others will be brought before the city judges; and who are priests: and deacons, widowers, and there are no words on them about the fall of prodigal, and they themselves said that after that they live purely, and we laid down a council about them, that they should stand in churches on the wings and receive communion with priests the altars wear a patrakhil and they also keep a patrakhil in their houses; and as a deacon to receive communion at the altar in the surplice with ularis, and not serve as either a priest, or a deacon, or a widower; and which priests and deacons in their place will learn to serve in those churches, and those priests and deacons should not send widowers away from the churches, but give the priest and deacon to the service widower a quarter of all church income; and whoever, in those priests and deacons in the church, will not stand on the krylos, but will take care of worldly affairs, and thus will not be given a quarter of the church income. And who is the Popov and Dіyakonov, the Vdovtsov, who live their wives after their wives, but they will want to do their own in the monastic dress, and thanks to the gods of the judges and from the abbot of the spiritual, they are tonsured from the abbot, and, upgrading everything honestly, repentant spiritually, and according to dignity, if the essence is worthy, and then such a one, with the blessing of the saint, may serve as a priest in monasteries, and not in secular ones. And that in the monasteries, monks and monks lived in one place, and abbots served with them, and we laid down that from now on, monks and monks should not live in the same place in a monastery; and in which monastery monks will learn to live, otherwise they will serve as priests of Belts, but not live as monks in that monastery; and whose priest and deacon will get drunk for days, otherwise you won’t serve him the next day. And so that from this time forward in Pskov and throughout the entire Pskov land all priests, priests and deacons, widowers, do not serve; and it would be about everything, about priests and about deacons, and about widowers, and about monasteries, because as it is written in this letter of mine; and I bless you.
Written on July 7012 on the 15th day.
And this letter lay before the mayors of Pskov and the priests at the bench, Augustus on the 11th day.
From the Pskov Chronicle (іn F, l. 299-301), located,
Arkhangelsk Province, in the archives of the Kholmogorovsky Cathedral under No. 33.
"The Word Is Different"
(Quoted from Begunov Yu. K. “The Word is Different” - a newly discovered work of Russian journalism of the 16th century about the struggle of Ivan III with the land ownership of the church // Proceedings of the department of ancient Russian literature. - M., L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1964. - Volume XX. - pp. 351-364.)
This word is different, and not from the book.
At the same time, in the delight of the great prince Ivan Vasilyevich, the metropolitan and all the rulers and all the monasteries took the villages and united them all to their own. Please provide the Metropolitan and the rulers and all the monasteries with money from your treasury and with bread from your granaries.
He calls upon the Metropolitan and all the bishops and archimandrites and abbots, and the council reveals his thoughts to them and everyone obeys him, fearing that their power will fall away.
The Great Prince calls upon hegumen Serapion of the Trinity Sergius Monastery, and he will give the villages of the Sergius Monastery to that one. Serapion, the abbot of the Trinity, comes to the cathedral and says to the Grand Duke: “I came to the life-giving Trinity in the Sergius monastery and sat down in the monastery without giving in, only having a staff and a mantle.”
Nil, a monk from Belaozero, with a lofty life of the second word, and Denis, a monk of Kamensky, come to the Grand Duke, and they say to the Grand Duke: “It is not worthy for a monk to have a village.” Vasily Borisov, the boyar of the Tfer lands, and the children of the Grand Duke were also attached to this: and the Great Prince Vasily, Prince Dmitry Ugletsky, was attached to the advice of his father. And the diyaks were introduced according to the Grand Duke’s verb: “It is not worthy for a monk to have a village.” Prince George is all-blessed about these verbs.
Serapion, abbot of the Trinity, comes to the Metropolitan Simon and says to him: “O sacred head! I am a beggar against the Grand Duke. You don’t say anything about these things.” The Metropolitan responded to Serapion, the abbot: “Send Denis the monk away from you, I am with you in one word.” Serapion said to the Metropolitan: “You are the head of us all, are you the one who fights this?”
The same metropolitan gathered with archbishops and bishops, and archimandrites, and abbots and came with everyone to say to the Grand Duke: “For I do not give up the villages of the most pure church, they were owned by the former metropolitans and miracle workers Peter and Alexei. Likewise, my brethren, archbishops and bishops, and archimandrites, and abbots, do not give up church villages.”
The same saying goes to Metropolitan Genady, Archbishop of Nougorodtsk: “Why don’t you say anything against the Grand Duke? You are so talkative with us. Nowadays you don’t say anything? Gennady answered: “You are saying, because I was robbed before this.”
Gennady began to speak against the Grand Duke about church lands. The great prince stopped his mouth with many barks, knowing his passion for money. The great prince, leaving everything behind, said: “All this is done by Serapion, abbot of the Trinity.”
After these there is a volost called Ilemna, and some of these people, for the sake of evil, living near that volost, spoke to the Grand Duke, saying: “Conan the monk has overthrown the earthly boundary and is yelling at your land, the Grand Duke.” The great prince soon ordered the rabble to be presented to his court. Testing the monk a little, he sent him to the market and led him to beat him with a whip. And Abbot Serapion ordered the week worker to take 30 rubles. And he calls on the cellarer Vasian and, with rebuke, orders all the villages of the monastery to bring their letters to him. Vasyan’s cellarer calls for the week’s workers and says to them: “Take, brothers, the money that the great prince commands.” And not a single one of them stretched out their hands for money, saying: “Don’t let us stretch out our hands for the silver of the Sergius Monastery, lest we accept the leprosy of Ogeze.” Serapion, the abbot, enters the Church of the Epiphany of our Lord Jesus Christ and sends cellarer Vasyan to the monastery and commands him to become an old elder with letters, which do not come from cells. Let the priests and remaining brethren not leave the church, as they await the race of Sergius the Wonderworker day and night. The old elders moved, some on horses, some on chariots, some on carriers. On the same night, the elders moved from the monastery, and a visitation from God came to the Grand Duke Autocrat: it took away his arm and leg and eye. At midnight he sends abbot Serapion and the elders, asking for forgiveness, and sends alms to the brethren. Serapio And the abbot and his brothers returned to their monastery, like some warriors of the fortress, returning from the brigade, giving glory to God, who humbled the great prince of the autocrat.”
Council response 1503
The meeting was about the lands of the church, saints, and monasteries. Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, and with the entire sacred gathering, sent this first message to the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia with the clerk and Levash.
Speak to Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia from Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia and from the entire consecrated cathedral to clerk Levash.
Your father, sir, Simon Metropolitan of All Russia and the archbishops and bishops and the entire consecrated council say that from the first pious and holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Constantine, and after him, under the pious kings reigning in the city of Constantine, saints and monasteries, cities and authorities and villages and lands trembled. And at all the councils of saints, the father is not forbidden by the saint and the monastery of the lands to tremble. And all the saints, the councils of saints, the fathers of the saints and the monastery, did not order the immovable acquisitions of the church either to be sold or given away, and this was confirmed by great oaths. It is the same in our Russian countries, under your ancestors of the great princes, under the Grand Duke Vladimer and under his son Grand Duke Yaroslav, even to this place the saints and monasteries held cities and authorities and villages and lands.
And after that, Metropolitan Simon himself with the entire consecrated cathedral was with the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Rus'. And this list was in front of him.
From Being. And Joseph bought all the land of Egypt, so that the famine would end. And the whole earth became Pharaoh's and the people enslaved to him from the edge of Egypt to the edge, unless it was the land of the priests, for Joseph did not buy it. Pharaoh himself and the people gave tribute to the priests, and I collected the tribute from the priests and yadyahu, which Pharaoh gave to them. And Joseph gave a commandment to all the people until this day on the land of Egypt: a fifth for Pharaoh, except for the land of the priests, for that would not belong to Pharaoh.
From the Levgite book. The Lord spoke to Moses, saying: Speak to the sons of Israel thus: if a man sanctifies his temple, he is holy to the Lord, let the priest judge him between good and evil. And as the priest performs the act, so be it. If he should consecrate and redeem his temple, he should add five parts of the price of the silver, and so be it to him. If the Lord sanctifies his seed from the fields, let the price be according to his sowing, even as he sows that field, like fifty bushels of barley, thirty pounds of silver. And if he redeems his sanctified field to the Lord, let him add five parts of the price of his silver, and so be it to him. If he does not redeem the field, and gives the field to his friend, and does not redeem her, may the field be a holy praiseworthy field for the past abandonment of the Lord, like the land called by the priest, may their possession be for ever and ever.
[The same - on the field] Chapters of Levgitstia. And the authorities and villages of their cities, their possessions and lessons, and tributes, and duties, will forever be the Levvites, like the courtyard city of the Levvits. Their possession among the children of Israel, and the villages named in their cities, may they not be sold or given away, for their possession is eternal.
From the life of the pious and equal-to-the-apostles great Tsar Kostyantin and his Christ-loving and equal-to-the-apostles mother Elena. The holy and blessed Queen Helena, the mother of the blessed great King Constantine, diligently and kindly and piously arranged all this, giving many acquisitions to cities and villages to the churches and many other countless acquisitions, and with gold and silver, and stone, and holy beads, decorating icons and sacred vessels. , there is a lot of gold and countless amounts distributed to the churches and the poor. The Holy Patriarch Macarius received many gifts in mail.
[The same] Speech of the blessed Tsar Constantine: Throughout the entire universal church, for the sake of maintenance and fortress, the lordships acquired land, villages and grapes, and lakes, taxes were reduced by the sum. And by divine and our commandment in the eastern and western and southern countries and throughout the entire universe, where Orthodoxy the kings and princes and rulers under us have dominion over the saint. And let no lay rank touch church duties, we adjure God and by His divine command and our command we affirm that it will be immutable and observed even until the end of this age.
[The same] All this, even for the sake of the divine and many instructions and the sacred and our scriptures, was established and commanded, even until the end of this world, even throughout the entire universe the church duties given by the saint are not touched and are commanded to remain unshakable. The same before the living God, who commanded us to reign, and before His terrible judgment, for the sake of the Divine and ours, for the sake of this royal instruction, we testify to all our successor, who wants to be king for us, to all the thousand, all the centurion and all the nobles, and to the entire most extensive synclite of the Polata of our kingdom, and to everyone who has been a king throughout the entire universe, and a prince, and a ruler for us, and to everyone who has been throughout the entire universe, people who exist now and want to be forever, not one of these changes or transforms some for the sake of the image, which, by divine and our royal command, is given to the sacred saints of the Roman Church and to all who are under it by the saint throughout the entire universe, so that no one dares to destroy, or touch, or annoy in any way.
If you want to know about these in more detail, let him read the spiritual things of the pious Tsar Constantine and the great and praiseworthy words about him and others about him.
And if there were cities and authorities, and villages, and grapes, and lakes, and duties were not decent, and not beneficial to the Divine Churches, the holy fathers of the 318 first council would not have remained silent, but they would have forbidden Tsar Constantine in every possible way from such a thing. And not only is it not forbidden, but it is also holy to the Lord and praiseworthy and favorable.
And from the first pious king Kostyantin, and after him, during the pious kings reigning in the city of Constantine, the saints and monasteries held cities and villages, and lands and now hold them in those same Orthodox reigning countries. And in all the cathedrals of the holy fathers, the saint and the monastery have not forbidden the holding of villages and lands, and it has not been commanded by all the cathedrals of the holy fathers, the saints and the monastery, to sell or give away church lands. And it was confirmed by great and terrible oaths.
The rule of the Council of Carthage is 32, 33, the Fourth Council is Rule 34, the Fifth Council is the rule against those who offend the Holy Church of God, Justinian's Rule is 14, 15, the same in Sardakia is Rule 14, Justinian's Rule is 30, the Seventh Council is Rule 12, 18. And in Spiridonevo of Trimythia the life is written and in Grigoriev the Theologian’s life is written, and in Chrysostom’s life is written, and in the Besedovnitsa is written; that the villages were church villages is revealed in the life of Saint Savin, the bishop and miracle worker.
The villages also had monasteries in previous years after the Great Anthony. Our venerable and great father Gelasius the Wonderworker had villages, and Athanasius of Athos had villages, and Theodore of Studi had villages, and Saint Simion the New Theologian in his writing reveals that from villages and from vineyards monasteries and laurels are built. And in Rustei, the land of miracle workers Anthony the Great and Theodosius of Pechersk and Varlam of Novograd, and Dionysius and Demetrius of Vologda - all the villages had. So are the saints of Russia like those in Kyiv, and after them Saint Peter the miracle worker and Theognostus, and Alexei the miracle worker - all the cities and authorities and villages had. And Saint Alexei the Wonderworker, Metropolitan of All Russia, created many monasteries, and provided villages with lands and waters. And the blessed Grand Duke Vladimer and his son Grand Duke Yaroslav gave cities and villages to the holy churches with the saint and monastery, even to these places the great princes of Russia gave power and villages, lands, waters, and fisheries to these places of piety and love of Christ. And this is holy to the Lord and acceptable and praiseworthy. And we please and praise and hold this.
Reply of Macarius, Metropolitan of All Russia, from the divine rules of the holy apostles and holy fathers of the seventh council, and local, and the individual of the existing holy fathers, and from the commandments of the holy Orthodox kings, to the pious and Christ-loving and God-crowned Tsar Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich, self-dignified ruler of All Russia, about immovable things given by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings.
Hear and heed, O God-loving and wise one to the king, and having judged royally, choose what is beneficial for the soul and eternal, and the corruptible and fleeting things of this world are of no account, to the king, consider that the essence is beyond transitory, but one virtue and truth endures forever.
From the right pious and equal-to-the-apostles holy king Constantine of Greece and all the pious kings of Greece, and to the last pious king Constantine of Greece, not one of them dared to taunt or move, or take from the holy churches and monasteries given and entrusted to God and the Most Pure Mother of God in inheritance of the eternal blessings of the church estate of immovable things: curtains and loans, and books, and unsold things, villages, fields, lands, grapes, hayfields, forests, sides, waters, lakes, springs, pastures and other things given by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings , fearing condemnation from God and from the holy apostles and holy fathers of the seven assemblies and the local holy fathers and individual beings, terrible and formidable and great for the sake of the commandment. There, with the Holy Spirit, the holy fathers cried out: “If any king or prince, or any other person, in whatever rank, snatches or takes away from the holy churches or from the holy monasteries, entrusted by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings from immovable things, such according to the divine rule from Those who blaspheme are condemned by God, but the Father is under eternal oath from the saints.”
And for this reason, all the Orthodox kings, fearing God and the holy father’s commandments, did not dare to move from the holy churches and from the holy monasteries the immovable things given by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings. And not only did they collect, but the pious kings themselves donated villages and grapes and other immovable things to the holy churches and monasteries as an inheritance of eternal blessings, with the scriptures and with great devotion, and with the golden seals of their kingdom, fearing God and the commandments of the holy and rightful Equal-to-the-Apostles the pious great Tsar Constantine, because he was enlightened and instructed by the Holy Spirit, signing the spiritual commandment with his royal hand and confirming it with terrible and magnificent oaths, placing it in the shrine of the holy Apostle Peter. And there shouted to all that unshakable and immovable being from all the Orthodox kings and from all the princes and nobles throughout the entire universe and until the end of the world.
And only after the blessed Pope Selivester and according to him did he command that all the saints be venerated throughout the entire universe. Because the blessed pope made a sign on the crown of the main tonsure, for his honor for the sake of blessed Peter, he did not want to wear a golden crown. We inscribed the bright Resurrection of the Lord on his main veil, placing our hands on his most sacred head, tremblingly placing the reins of his horse in our hands, for the sake of the honor of Blessed Peter, we bestowed upon him the rank of horseman. We command the same rite and custom to all, like the saint, to always create in their own ways in the likeness of our kingdom, for the sake of this tonsured sign of the supreme hierarchal head. Let no one think that this tonsure is bad and dishonorable, but rather than the earthly kingdom it deserves to be adorned with rank and glory and power. But the Roman city and all of Italy and the Western authorities and places, and lands, and cities of the same, which were many times prophesied to our blessed father Selivester, are betrayed and surrendered to the national pope and to all who are like him as a saint and in the whole universe, where our Orthodox faith will hold, possession and judgment will tremble for the sake of the divine and our created establishment, we command that the truth of this holy Roman church be established, which is subject to abiding. In the same way, it is appropriate for the judges of our kingdom to order the eastern countries to place the city of the Byzantine wondrous and most beautiful place, to build a city in their name and establish their kingdom there, where the priestly principle and power, and the glory of Christian good faith was established quickly from the heavenly King, it is unrighteous to rule there to the earthly king.
For this reason, everything that was established and commanded by our sacred scriptures for the sake of many divine instructions was established even before the end of this world, even throughout the entire universe, and given by the saint to church lands and villages, and grapes, and lakes, and taxes that were calculated, by the way.
And by divine command and our royal decree we set orders on the eastern and western countries, and at midnight and on the southern countries, and in Judea, and in Asia, and in Thrace, in Elada, in Athrace and in Italia, and in our various islands We proclaim to them the command of liberation and throughout the entire universe, where the Orthodox princes and rulers under us have our liberation, and having established their will, with the will of the saint, and no secular rank to touch church lands and duties, we conjure by God and with our royal command we uphold immutably and observed We command you to remain unwavering and unshakable even until the end of this age.
In the same way, before the living God, who commanded us to reign and before His terrible judgment, for the sake of this royal order, let us testify to all our successors and those like us who want to be king, all the thousanders and all the centurions, and all the nobles of the Romans, and the entire most extensive synclite of our kingdom, and to all the same people in the entire universe, those who now exist and those who have existed throughout history, and those who are subject to our kingdom. And not a single thing from these should be changed or transformed for the sake of the image, which is given to us by royal command in the most holy of the Roman Church and to everyone under it by the saint throughout the entire universe, so that no one dares to destroy or touch, or annoy in any way.
If anyone from these, if he does not believe in this existence, is heavy and harsh, or a despiser, condemns these eternal things, he will be condemned and guilty of eternal torment. And may we then have as our opponent the holy Lords of God, the Apostolic Peter and Paul, in this time and in the future, we will be tormented in the underworld, so that we may disappear with the devil and with all the wicked.
Having confirmed our commandment of the royal scripture with our own hands, we placed the honorable body of the ruler of the Apostolic Peter in a shrine with our own hands, for we promised the Apostle of God indestructible to us, and for those who want to be for us, both here and in the whole universe. And the Orthodox king and prince, and nobles, and rulers are to remain for the sake of our commandments until the end of the world. And to our blessed father Selivester, the consecrated pope, and for his sake, his vicar and here and in the whole universe, the saint of the Lord God and our Savior Jesus Christ, having well-behavedly told, eternally and safely delivering these rewards, and also now to the four patriarchal thrones, to the utmost honest sake of the apostle and disciple of Christ: Byzantine, he was named after Andrew in his own name for the sake of the Apostle, as having worked hard to bring those to the understanding of God and to make friends of the Orthodox churches; likewise to the successor of Alexandria, Mark’s successor, and of Antioch, Luchinus, the patron of Jerusalem, Jacob, the brother of the Lord, to whom we give due honor to each in our territory, and our successors after us for centuries, likewise to all the churches of Christ and the most reverend metropolitan, and archbishops, and others like them We ourselves give the honor to the tablemaster. And our successors and great rulers, as the apostle of God and the successor of Christ, do this and take care, lest you fall under the foretold burden and be deprived of the glory of God. But tremble the tradition, as if you were a priest, fear God and His sacred church, and honor its abbots, so that you may receive the mercy of God in this world and in the future, and you will be sons of light.
The royal signature: May the Divine protect you for many years, holy and blessed fathers.
Given to Rome, on the third day of the April calendar, our lord Flavius Constiantus Augustus, was given by Galican, a most honest and most glorious man.
And for this reason, all the Orthodox kings, fearing God and the holy father’s commandments, and the commandments of the great Tsar Constantine, did not dare to move from the holy churches and from the holy monasteries the immovable things given by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings. And not only did they collect, but the pious kings themselves gave the holy churches and monasteries, villages, grapes and other immovable things as an inheritance of eternal blessings, with the scriptures and with great devotion, and with the golden seals of their kingdom. And all those Orthodox kings until the end of their kingdom. And all those Orthodox kings, and until the end of the Greek kingdom, and with the most holy popes and with the most holy patriarchs, and with the most holy metropolitans, and with all the saints, and with the holy fathers of all seven, they themselves were and ruled divinely and established royal laws both terrible and magnificent With seven oaths the gathering was sealed with the royal signature. And tired of all that from no one to be motionless until the end of time. And against those who offend the holy churches and holy monasteries, and all the Orthodox kings and saints, stand firmly and fight royally and masculinely. And no one would allow those given to God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle worker to touch or shake immovable things from the sacred and inherited eternal blessings until the end of the world.
It is the same in your pious and Christ-loving Russian kingdom from your right-pious and equal-to-the-apostles holy great-grandfather, the Grand Duke Vladimir of Kiev and All Rus' and his son, the pious Grand Duke Yaroslav, and all your holy ancestors, and to your Christ-loving kingdom. Not a single one dared to seize or move from them, or take from the holy churches and monasteries, given and entrusted to God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the Great Wonderworker as an inheritance of the eternal blessings of the church estate of immovable things, in the same way as other Orthodox Greek kings, fearing from God's condemnation and from the saints, the apostles and the saints, the fathers of the seven local assemblies and the individuals of those who exist, the terrible and formidable and great foretold commandments and oaths, because they cried out to the holy fathers with the Holy Spirit: Whoever is a king or a prince, or another, in whatever rank you may be, will groan or it will be taken from holy churches or from holy monasteries, entrusted by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings from immovable things, such, according to the divine rule, from God are condemned as blasphemers, and from the saints the father is under an eternal oath.
And for the sake of all Orthodoxy, the kings of Greece and the Russian kings, your ancestors, fearing from God and from the saints the father’s commandments, did not dare to move from the holy churches and from the holy monasteries the immovable things given by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings and to this day not only from the holy churches I did not take the immovable things given to God, but they themselves gave immovable things to the holy churches and monasteries: villages and grapes and other immovable things, countlessly donated by their royal souls as an inheritance of eternal blessings. Like your great-grandfather, the holy and Equal-to-the-Apostles Great Prince Vladimir of Kiev and all Russia, he showed great diligence to God and to the holy churches: from his entire kingdom throughout the Russian land he gave the tenth kingdom to the holy churches and set aside the most holy metropolitan of Kiev and all Russia. Tamo Bo wrote in his royal will and statute:
In the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.
Behold, Prince Volodymer, named in holy baptism Vasily, son Svyatoslavl, grandson Igor, blessed princess Olga, I received holy baptism from the Greek king Constantine and from Photius, the patriarch of Tsar-Gorod. And the priest from him, Metropolitan Michael of Kyiv, baptized the entire Russian land with holy baptism.
After that summer, many years passed, I created a special church, the Holy Mother of God of Tithes, and gave it tithes from all my reign, as well as throughout the entire Russian land. And from the reign to the cathedral church from the entire prince of the court the tenth century, and the trade for the tenth week. And from every house every summer from every herd and from every belly to the wonderful Savior and the wonderful Mother of God.
Therefore, having looked at the Greek Nomocanon and found it written in it, it is not proper for these courts to judge the prince, neither his boyars, nor his tyun.
And Iaz, having spoken with his children and with all the princes, and with his boyars, gave those judgments to the churches of God and to his father, the metropolitan, and to all the bishops throughout the Russian land.
And for this reason, there is no need to intercede neither with my children, nor with my grandchildren, nor with my great-grandchildren, nor with my entire family forever, nor with the people of the church, nor with all their courts.
Then I gave everything to the churches of God throughout the city and in the churchyards, and in the settlements and throughout the whole earth, wherever there are Christians.
And I order my boyars and tiuns: do not judge church courts and do not judge our courts without metropolitan judges for tithes.
And these are the courts of the church: dissolution and merciful, detection, beating, tricks, between husband and wife about their bellies, in marriage or in matchmaking, witchcraft, indulgences, sorcery, sorcery, greenery, the three reproaches: whore and potion, and heresy, toothache or the son beats the father, or the mother beats the daughter-in-law, or the daughter-in-law, the mother-in-law, or whoever is accused of using nasty words and using the father and mother, or sisters, or children, or a tribe is suing their asses, church theft, scumming the dead, cutting a cross, or eating cod on the walls of the cross, cattle or dogs, or birds without great need to be brought into the church, and anything else that is not like the church to eat, or two friends are beaten, one is the wife and the other is by the womb and crushed, or someone is caught with four legs, or someone is praying under a barn, either in the rye, or under the bushes, or near the water, or the girl will spoil the child.
All those judgments given to the churches of God were given before us, according to the law and according to the rule of the holy fathers, Christian kings and princes in all Christian people.
And the tsar, and the prince, and the boyars, and the judges cannot intervene in those courts.
And in the same way, you gave everything according to the order of the first kings and according to the ecumenical saints, the father of the seventh ecumenical assemblies, the great saint.
The prince and the boyars and the judges are not forgiven by the law of God to intervene in those courts.
If anyone transgresses this statute, being so unforgiven by the law of God, he will inherit sin and grief.
And with my tiun I order the church courts not to offend and from the Gorodets courts to give nine parts to the prince, and a tenth to the saints of the church and our father, the metropolitan.
This, from time immemorial, has been entrusted by God to the saint and to their bishops - all sorts of city and commercial measures, measures, weights, and scales. It was ordained from God to eat this way from time immemorial. And it is fitting for the metropolitan to observe all this without dirty tricks, for for all this to give him a word on the day of the great judgment, as well as about the souls of men.
And all church people, hand over to the metropolitan according to the rule: abbot, abbess, priest, deacon, priest, deaconess and their children. And who is in the krylos: a monk, a monk, a marshmallow, a sexton, a healer, a forgiver, a widow woman, a suffocating person, a butt, a supporter, a blind man, a lame man, a monastery, a hospital, a hermitage, a stranger, and who will destroy the ports of the monk.
Those people, the church almshouses and the metropolitan, know between them the courts, or some offense, or ass.
If another person experiences a judgment or an offense against them, then there will be a wholesale judgment, and judgment and judgment to the floor.
If anyone transgresses these rules, just as I ruled according to the holy fathers and the first Orthodox kings, whoever transgresses these rules - either my children, or my grandchildren, or great-grandmothers, or princes, or boyars, or in which city the governor or judge, or tiun, but to offend or take away those church courts, may they be cursed in this age and in the next, and from the seven councils of the holy fathers of the ecumenical.
And this is about tithes. From the entire prince's judgment, a tenth week, and from the auction, a tenth week, and from tribute, from faith, and from all the collection and profit, and from the prince's catch, and from every herd, and from every life, a tenth to the cathedral church to the bishop. The king or prince is in nine parts, and the cathedral church is in a tenth part.
No one can lay a foundation other than this one, and let everyone build on this foundation. If anyone scatters the temple of God, God will scatter him, for there are holy churches. And if anyone changes this holy statute of his fathers, he will inherit sin and grief.
If he offends the church courts, pay him with yourself. And before God, the answer to the same will be given at the Last Judgment before the darkness by an angel, where everyone’s deeds are revealed to reality, good or evil, where no one will help anyone, but only truth and good deeds, thereby getting rid of the second death, rather than eternal torment and baptism of the unsaved Geon fire, holding truth in untruth. About them the Lord says: Their fire will not be quenched, and their worm will not die. For those who create good things, eternal life and inexpressible joy. And those who have committed evil, who have judged unjustly and deceitfully, will inevitably receive judgment.
If anyone destroys my rule, either my sons, or my grandsons, or my great-grandsons, or from my family, or from a prince, or from the boyars, if anyone destroys my rule or stands up in the courts of the metropolitan, which I gave to the metropolitan, my father, and the bishop, according to the rule of the holy fathers and according to the first Orthodox kings, judged the administration, and executed him according to the law.
If anyone has to judge, having listened to us, the church courts that were betrayed to the Metropolitan, our father, he will stand with me before God at the Last Judgment, and may the oath of the holy fathers be upon him.
Likewise, your ancestor, the pious and Christ-loving prince great Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, founded Volodymeri and erected the Church of the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos of one world. And in the hands of the Most Holy Theotokos and his father Constantine, Metropolitan of All Russia, and where he was Metropolitan for centuries, there were many estates and settlements, and buildings, and the best villages, and tribute, and tithes in everything. And in his flocks, and the tenth bargainer in his entire kingdom in the same way, like your great-grandfather, the holy and Equal-to-the-Apostles Great Prince Vladimer of Kiev and all Russia. And by God's mercy and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle workers with the prayers, and the holy Russian tsars, your ancestors and the royal parents of your saints with prayers and care and your royal salary and care, all the villages and settlements and lands with all the lands of old in the house of the Most Pure Mother of God and great miracle workers in the most holy metropolis of Russia and to this day remain unmoved and unharmed by anyone. Even if for a time people are insulted by evil people, but by God’s mercy both the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle workers, through the prayers and your royal salaries and intercession of the holy churches who take away the packs, are filled and even depleted; offend or shake, or move immovable from the Church of God, since the Church of God is higher and firmer than heaven, and wider than the earth, and deeper than the sea, and brighter than the sun, and no one can shake it, it is founded on stone, that is, on the faith of Christ’s law .
Even if many of the infidels attempted to sway them, they all perished and came to nothing. And many others, from the wicked kings in their kingdoms, from the holy churches and holy monasteries, took nothing, and did not dare to move or shake immovable things, fearing God and the commandments of the holy fathers and the royal statutes of the ancient law-making, but also the holy churches were very careful, not only in your own countries, but also in your Russian kingdom. Once upon a time there was, in the years of the great miracle workers Peter and Alexei, and in the years of Michael, and Ivan, Theognostus, Russian metropolitans, but those holy metropolitans gave their labels for the establishment of the holy churches and the holy monastery with a great prohibition, so that they would not be offended by anyone and They remained motionless until the end of their kingdom.
And to this day in the Russian Metropolis of those metropolitan saints seven labels have been written, and from them is the only one now written, the great wonderworker Peter, Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia, property owner:
Label of Tsar Azbek, tribute in the Horde to the great miracle worker Peter, Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia.
The highest and immortal God with the power and majesty, and his many mercy, the ABC word to all our princes, great and middle, and low, and strong commanders, and nobles, and our appanage princes, and glorious roads, and the lamentable princes high and low, and the scribe and the charter drazhalnik, and the teacher, and the human messenger, and the collector, and the baskak, and the traveling ambassador, and our lonets, and the falconer, and the pardusnik, and all the people high and low, small and great of our kingdom in all our countries, according to all our uluses, where our power trembles with the power of the immortal God, and our word rules. Yes, no one would offend the elected church in Rus' and Metropolitan Peter and his people, and his church people, they do not charge anything, no acquisitions, no estates, no people.
And Metropolitan Peter knows the truth and judges right, and governs his people with the truth in whatever they may do. And in robbery and in the act, and in theft, and in all sorts of matters, Peter the Metropolitan alone is in charge, or whomever he orders. Let everyone repent and obey the metropolitan, all his church clergy according to their first laws and according to the first charters of our first kings, great charters and decremes, and let no one interfere with the church and metropolitan, since they are all outside of God.
But whoever stands up and disobeys our label, our word, is guilty of God, and will receive wrath from him, and from us he will receive the death penalty. But the Metropolitan walks on the right path, and stays on the right path and amuses himself, and with a right heart and a right thought governs and judges, and knows, or whoever he commands to do and govern, but we will not interfere in anything, nor our children. , nor to all our princes of our entire kingdom and all our countries, all our uluses, let no one interfere with anything of the church, the metropolitan, nor in their cities, nor in their volosts, nor in their villages, nor in any of their catches, nor in the borders them, nor in their lands, nor in their meadows, nor in their forests, nor in their fences, nor in their salt fields, nor in their vineyards, nor in their mills, nor in their winterings, nor in their herds of horses, nor into all their herds of cattle. But all the acquisitions and church property, and the people, and all their clergy, and all their laws laid down old from their beginning, then the metropolitan knows everything, or whomever he orders.
Let nothing be altered or destroyed, or harmed by anyone. May the Metropolitan remain in a quiet and meek life without any goals, and with a right heart and a right thought pray to God for us and for our wives, and for our children, and for our tribe. We also instruct and favor, just as our former kings gave them labels and favored them. And we follow the same path, with the same labels, we favor them, may God have mercy on us, intercede.
But we neglect God, and do not take what is given to God. But whoever takes away what is divine will be guilty of God, and God’s wrath will be upon him. And from us he will be executed with the death penalty, but seeing this, others will be afraid.
And our Baskaks, customs officers, tribute officers, collectors, scribes will go according to these our charters, as our word has spoken and set, so that all the metropolitan churches will be intact, all his people and all his acquisitions will not be harmed by anyone, as the label has. And the archimandrites and the abbots, and the priests, and all his ecclesiastical clergy, let no one be harmed in any way. Should we be subject to tribute or anything else, tamga, plough, pit, washing, bridging, war, any kind of fishing, or whenever we order our service from our uluses, where we want to fight? , but from the elected church and from Metropolitan Peter we do not charge anything, and from their people, and from all his clergy: they pray to God for us and watch over us and strengthen our army.
Whoever doesn’t know even before us that everyone lives and fights by the power and will of the immortal God, then everyone knows. And we, praying to God according to our first kings’ letters and letters, gave them letters in nothing, as was the case before us.
So say, our word has set the first path, which will be our tribute, or our requests, or our trodden, or our ambassadors, or our stern and our horses, or carts, or the food of our ambassadors, or our queens, or our children, and whoever it is, and whoever it is, don’t take it and don’t ask for anything. And what they take up in thirds, give back in thirds. Even if they take it for a great need, they will not be meek from us, and our eye will not quietly look at them. And what if church people are craftsmen or scribes, or stone makers, or woodworkers, or other craftsmen of any kind, or falconers, or fishermen of whatever kind of fishing, but let no one of ours intervene in our cause and let them not eat . And let not our guards, and our fishers, and our falconers, and our shore-keepers, interfere with them, and let them not take them; let them not take away their useful tools, nor take them from them. And what is their law, and their law is that their churches, their monasteries, their chapels, do not harm them in any way, do not blaspheme them.
And whoever abuses and blasphemes the faith, that person will not apologize in any way, and will die an evil death. And that priests and deacons eat the same bread and live in the same house with anyone - brother or son, and thus our salary follows the same path. If someone does not come forward from them, but if someone comes out from them, but does not serve the Metropolitan, but lives for himself, then the name of the priest is not taken away, but he gives tribute.
And priests and deacons and church clergy were granted from us according to our first charter. And they stand praying to God for us with a right heart and a right thought.
And whoever teaches with an unjust heart to pray to God for us, that sin will be upon him.
And whoever is a priest, a deacon, a cleric, a church official, or other people, no matter where they come from, wants to serve the Metropolitan and pray to God for us, what will be in the Metropolitan’s thoughts about them, the Metropolitan knows.
So our word did, and we gave Peter the Metropolitan a letter of this fortress for him, and this letter, seeing and hearing, all people and all churches and all monasteries, and all church clergy, do not disobey him in anything, but obey him and be according to according to their law and according to old times, just as they have done from old times. May the Metropolitan remain with a right heart, without sorrow and without any sorrow, praying to God for us and for our kingdom. And whoever stands up for the church and metropolitan, and the wrath of God will be upon him. And according to our great torture, he will not apologize in any way and will die an evil execution.
So the label was given, so saying, our word was made, with such strength it confirmed the hare’s summer, Asenago of the first month 4, old, written and given on them.
How more befitting is it for you, pious and God-crowned king, to show your royal faith to God and your great diligence for the holy churches and holy monasteries, not only immovable, but also for you yourself to give, just as all your holy royal ancestors and parents gave to God into an inheritance of eternal blessings. It is fitting for Sitsa and you, the Tsar, to create kingdoms for the sake of heaven, the pious, Christ-loving and veleum Tsar, the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia, the self-king, and more than all the kings in your Russian kingdom, you, the Tsar, are now exalted and venerable from God, the autocratic Tsar in everything great Russian kingdom, I am a self-confessor and ultimately knowledgeable of Christ’s law of the Gospel teaching and the holy apostle and holy father’s commandments, and I teach you all the divine scriptures and bring them to the tongue, not by human teaching, but by the wisdom given to you from God. And for this reason, O pious king, it is fitting for you, having judged, to look and do what is useful and pleasing to God, like other pious kings, guard and protect your royal soul and your Christ-loving kingdom from all enemies, visible and invisible.
And the mercy of God and the Most Pure Mother of God, and the great miracle workers, prayer and blessing, and may our humility be a blessing with your Christ-loving kingdom forever. Amen.
Likewise, all the most holy popes and most holy omnipotent patriarchs and holiness metropolitans, and the love of God archbishops and bishops, the apostles and co-thrones of the saints, the apostles and honorable archimarites and the fear of God abbots and humility are considered, and many from those great miracle workers were, and no one from them created and or allow those entrusted to God and given to the holy churches and holy monasteries as an inheritance of the blessings of eternal immovable things to be given away or sold. And on all the holy seventh councils and local and individual saints, the fathers of the Holy Spirit instructed the holy fathers, confirming and commanding, and with terrible and terrible, and great oaths, they vehemently proclaimed and sealed the seventh councils according to the grace given to us from the Holy Life-giving Spirit, and thunder like a chick screaming:
If anyone from the church estate of holy curtains or holy loans, or holy books, or other things, it is not proper for them to sell or give them away, entrusted to God as an inheritance of eternal blessings, immovable things, such as villages, fields, grapevines, hayfields, forests, forests, waters, lakes, springs, pastures and so on, given by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings.
If any bishop or abbot sells or gives away church immovable property to the prince of that land or to other nobles, he is not firm in the sale, but if sold or given to the holy church in a bishopric or monastery, let it be returned. The bishop or abbot who did this, let him be expelled from the bishopric, and the abbot from the monastery, as if he had squandered it in evil, and they will not be removed. If anyone is not of the priestly rank, they should create such a thing, and they will pervert. Mish or the worldly people exist, let them go away. If there is condemnation from the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, let there be a dispensation so that the worm does not die and the fire does not go out, because they resist the voice of the Lord, which says: Do not do (to my Father’s house) to my purchased house.
The same goes for all the honors of the Metropolitan of Russia, from the Right Reverend Metropolitan Leon of Kiev and All Russia, and to the great miracle workers Peter and Alexei and Jonah, and the other holy metropolitans of Russia, and to your Christ-loving kingdom, and to our humility, all God-loving archbishops and bishops, and honest archimarites and God-fearing abbots, great miracle workers: Sergius and Cyril, and Barlaam, and Paphnutius, and other saints of Russia, miracle workers and humility honoring the holy monasteries. And no one from those created or allowed those entrusted to God and given to the holy churches and holy monasteries as an inheritance of the blessings of eternal immovable things to give or sell, according to the same divine holy rule and according to the commandment of all saints, the father of the seven collections and local and individual holy fathers.
Since it is more unbecoming for me, humble, even though I am a sinner and not worthy of teaching the word, such is the priesthood, but according to the grace given to us from the Holy and life-giving Spirit, I am called Metropolitan, then the all-generous and philanthropic God has arranged for me, humble and unworthy, with his usual love for mankind, by their own destinies the message itself, gift and entrust the true word to rule over me for the sake of the Most Pure Mother, my Mother of God. And for this reason, I cannot think or think about such a terrible thing: from the immovable things entrusted to God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle worker as an inheritance of eternal blessings from the House of the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle workers, give it away or sell it, don’t wake it up. And until our last breath, Omnipotent God, deliver us all and save us from such crime and do not allow it to be not only with us, but also for us until the end of the age, for the prayers of Thy Most Pure Mother, Our Lady, and the great miracle workers and all the saints. Amen.
And for this reason, do not be amazed at the fact that, O God-loving king, think below the caressing thing, as the Holy Fathers ordained and commanded with the Holy Spirit, and sealed the seventh collection for us to keep, here we philosophize and keep, and until our last breath. We are human beings, we swim in this many-loved sea. From now on, we have no idea what will happen to us. It does not want to be revealed to all man, but only to be afraid of the heavenly sickle, in the form of which Zechariah the prophet descends from heaven: twenty fathoms in length, and ten fathoms in breadth, judging those who offend and unrighteously and swearing in the name of God to lie.
And for this reason I am afraid, when I was ordained, that is, placed in the priesthood, and then in the midst of the sacred gathering in the holy assembly of the apostles of the church before God and before all the heavenly powers, and before all the saints, and before you, the pious king, and before the entire synclit, and before all the people I swore to preserve the destinies and laws and our justification, great is our strength. And before the kings we should not be ashamed of the truth, even if we were required by the king himself or by his nobles to command us to speak, except for the divine rules, we would not listen to them, but even if we were punished by death, then we would not listen to them. And for this reason, I fear, I say to you, O pious king, and I pray to your royal majesty: stay, sir, and do not create such an undertaking, which God did not command you, the Orthodox king, to create. But all His holy things were chosen by you, the Orthodox Tsar, to us, the bishops, who strictly forbade the sacred rules and sealed the seventh collections according to the grace given to them from the Holy and life-giving Spirit.
And for this reason, we pray to your royal majesty and with many tears, that you, Tsar and Sovereign, Great Prince Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia, are self-driving, according to that divine rule of the Most Pure Mother of God and of the great miracle workers from the house of those immovable things given to God as an inheritance eternal blessings, he did not order to be taken.
And may the mercy of God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle workers, prayer and blessing, and the blessing of our humility always be with your Christ-loving kingdom for many generations and forever. Amen.
compiler: Anatoly Badanov
missionary administrator
project “I Breathe Orthodoxy”
The truce of 1503 is the greatest success of the foreign policy of the Russian state. For the first time, the beginning of the large-scale liberation of Russian lands was laid. The principle of the unity of Rus', continuity from the Kyiv princes began to acquire its material embodiment. For the first time, a real, big victory was won in the West - over a strong enemy, over a major European power, which until recently had seized Russian lands with impunity and threatened Moscow itself.
The dawn of the new, sixteenth century illuminated the glory of Russian weapons and the successes of the renewed state. Triumph on Vedrosh, victory at Mstislavl, liberation of the Seversk land... The triumph of strategy and diplomacy, military and state building of Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich is the result of his policies over many decades.
The summer of 1503 arrived. A church council was held in Moscow. His decrees on not charging fees (“bribes”) for ordination to the priesthood and on depriving widowed priests of the right to church service have been preserved. It was also decided to prohibit the residence of monks and nuns in the same monastery. The Council of 1503, without a doubt, dealt with very important issues related to the internal structure of the Russian Church. But even more important was the question of church lands. The “Conciliar Report” on this issue, sent to the Grand Duke by Metropolitan Simon, has been preserved (according to researchers, an extract from the original protocol of the cathedral), and several journalistic works by contemporaries on this topic have been preserved. Of particular importance is “The Other Word,” a monument relatively recently introduced into scientific circulation by the Soviet researcher Yu. K. Begunov. Taken together, these sources make it possible to reconstruct in general terms the events associated with the discussion at the council of the issue of church land ownership.
For consideration by the cathedral, the Grand Duke proposed a radical reform project: “The Metropolitan and all the rulers and all the monasteries will have villages and unite them all to their own.” This meant the secularization of the main categories of church lands - their transfer to the jurisdiction of state power. In return, the Grand Duke offered to “...give the metropolitan and the rulers and all the monasteries plenty from their treasury and produce bread from their granaries.” Deprived of their own lands, hierarchs and monasteries had to receive ruga - a kind of state salary. The feudal church was deprived of all economic independence and placed under the complete control of state power.
It is not surprising that the reform project caused a fierce controversy, in which the sons of the Grand Duke were also drawn into it. According to the testimony of "Another Word", the process of secularization was supported by the heir Vasily and the third son of the Grand Duke Dmitry. The second son, Yuri Ivanovich, apparently did not approve of the reform. The introduced clerks - the heads of government departments - spoke out in favor of secularization. Among the church leaders on the side of the reform were Nil Sorsky and the bishops - Vassian of Tver and Nikon of Kolomna. Metropolitan Simon (despite his constant fear of the Grand Duke), Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod, Bishop Nifont of Suzdal, as well as abbot of the Trinity Sergius Monastery Serapion spoke out against secularization. The ideological inspirer of the opposition to the reform was Joseph, abbot of the Volokolamsk monastery 17.
The controversy at the council ended with the victory of Joseph and his supporters, that is, the majority of the hierarchs. Referring to church decrees and historical precedents, the council, in its response to the Grand Duke, decisively emphasized the inviolability of the provision on the inviolability of church property: “... not for sale, not given away, nor owned by anyone, ever and ever, and inviolable.”
It is possible that the outcome of the debate was ultimately connected with a purely accidental, but fundamentally important fact. According to the Nikon Chronicle (later, but well-informed), “the same summer (1503 - Yu. A.) on the 28th day of the month of July... Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of all Russia began to suffer.” The illness, apparently, was sudden (as evidenced by the exact date) and very serious (otherwise the chronicler would not have written about it). The Power Book clarifies: the Grand Duke “and his legs can barely walk, we will hold them from certain people.” This means that Ivan Vasilyevich lost the ability to move independently - most likely, he suffered a stroke (in current terminology - a stroke) 18.
The author of “Another Word” directly connects the sudden illness of the Grand Duke with the struggle for the monastery lands. According to him, in the next conflict between the monks and black peasants over land in the village of Ilemna, the Grand Duke took the side of the peasants and ordered the Trinity elders to be fined. Moreover, Ivan Vasilyevich ordered the authorities of the Trinity Monastery to present all the charters for the monastery estates. Undoubtedly, it was a question of revising the ownership rights of the largest church landowner in Russia. In response to this, Abbot Serapion prepared a spectacular spectacle - he ordered the Grand Duke “to be an old elder with letters, which do not even come from his cells.” The decrepit hermits set off on their journey in chariots, and some on stretchers... But that same night the Grand Duke lost an arm, a leg and an eye. He was punished for his "sacrilege"...
A legend is one of the forms of reflection of reality. Despite its legendary overtones, the story of “Another Word” is plausible.
The sudden illness of Ivan Vasilyevich and heated debates about church lands coincided in time. The illness of the head of state could have contributed to the victory of the clerical opposition at the council.
Only two hundred years later, under Peter the Great, a similar reform was carried out, but only in the 60s. XVIII century the project of secularization was actually carried out.
It is difficult to say how things would have turned out in Rus' if secularization had been achieved at the beginning of the 16th century. In the countries of Western Europe, secularization of the first half of the 16th century. was closely connected with the Reformation and was objectively progressive in nature - it contributed to the development of bourgeois relations. In any case, it can be assumed that in Rus' secularization would lead to a strengthening of state power and secular tendencies in culture and ideology. But the secularization project was not accepted by the council. This meant a victory for the conservative clerical opposition and had far-reaching consequences.
Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich suffered a political defeat - the first and last time in his life. Defeat at the council and at least partial loss of legal capacity due to a severe, incurable illness marked the end of the real reign of the first sovereign of all Russia.
“This path is short, we follow it. Smoke is this life,” taught the wise Nil Sorsky. Life was coming to an end.
On September 21, Ivan Vasilyevich “with his son, Grand Duke Vasily and other children” left Moscow on a long journey. They toured monasteries. They visited the Trinity in the Sergius Monastery, and in Pereyaslavl, and in Rostov, and in Yaroslavl, “extending prayers everywhere.” Only on November 9 did the grand ducal train return to Moscow. Ivan Vasilyevich was never distinguished by demonstrative, ostentatious piety, and he definitely did not like the monastery elders. A sharp change in mood and behavior is indirect evidence of a serious illness 19 .
Like his once blind father, Ivan Vasilyevich now needed a real co-ruler. Power was slipping out of our hands. The Grand Duke at times still took part in affairs. On April 18, 1505, “according to his word,” the Belozersk scribe V. G. Naumov judged the court about the local lands. This is the last mention of the name of Ivan III in judicial acts 20. The Grand Duke continued to be interested in stone construction, especially in his beloved Moscow Kremlin. The chronicler reports his orders on this matter. The last one was May 21, 1505. On this day, Ivan Vasilyevich ordered the old Archangel Cathedral and the Church of St. John the Climacus to be dismantled “for bells” and new churches were founded.
As far as possible, he did not lose sight of his other favorite brainchild - the embassy service. The last words of Ivan Vasilyevich known to you date back to February 27, 1505. Addressing the ambassadors of Mengli-Girey, the “great great prince” ordered to convey to the khan: “... so that he would do this to me too, with me he would make my son Vasily a direct friend and brother, and he would give him his charter, and my eyes would have seen it. But the king himself knows that every father lives for his son...” 21
In December 1504, fires blazed: “I burned in a cage the deacon Volk Kuritsyn, and Mitya Konoplev, and Ivashka Maksimova, December 27. And I ordered Nekras Rukovov to cut his tongue and burn him in Novgorod the Great.” Archimandrite Cassian and his brother were burned, along with “many other heretics.” For the first time (and almost the last) in Rus', an auto-da-fé was committed, the bloodless and radical method of fighting heretics favored by the Catholic Church 22 .
Who was the initiator of this “humane” order? According to the chronicler, this is “the Great Prince Ivan Vasilyevich and the Great Prince Vasily Ivanovich of All Rus' with his father, with his Metropolitan Simon and with the bishops, and with the entire cathedral, searched the heretics, ordering their dashing executions to be executed.” There are now two great princes in Rus'. Which one of them said the final word? One way or another, the December bonfires are a direct, inevitable consequence of the victory of the clerical opposition at the council of 1503, those shifts in the political climate of the country that were caused by the failure of the secularization project and the serious illness of Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich.
The new council has gone far from the soft policy of 1490.... The power that saved the lives of heretics then has now disappeared. Ivan Volk Kuritsyn, an employee of the embassy department, brother of Fyodor Kuritsyn, the de facto head of this department for many years (last mentioned in 1500), was burned. In the ominous flames of winter fires, the contours of a new era were visible. The time of Ivan Vasilyevich was ending, the time of Vasily Ivanovich was beginning.
“Every father lives for his son...” The spiritual charter of the first sovereign of all Rus' was preserved only in the list, although close in time to the original. The spiritual document was compiled in the first months of the Grand Duke's illness - in June 1504 it was already a valid document, marking the retirement of its compiler 23.
Like father and grandfather, great-grandfather and great-great-grandfather, Ivan Vasilyevich “with his belly, in his own sense” gives “a number to his sons.” Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon, Andrey are ordered to their “eldest brother” - they must keep him “instead of their father” and listen to him “in everything.” True, Vasily must hold “his young brothers... almost, without resentment.” Vasily - Grand Duke. For the first time in the entire history of the house of Kalitich, he receives Moscow entirely, without any division into thirds, “with the volosts, and with the roads, and with the camps, and with the villages, and with the Gorodtsky courtyards with everyone, and with the settlements, and with the tamga... " He is the sole ruler of the capital. Only he keeps permanent governors here - large and on the former “third” of the Serpukhov princes.
Almost all the cities and lands of the Grand Duchy of Moscow come under the direct control of the new Grand Duke. He receives the great reign of Tver and the great reign of Novgorod, all the way to the ocean, “the whole Vyatka land” and “the whole Pskov land”, part of the Ryazan land - a lot in Pereyaslavl Ryazan, in the city and on the suburb, and Old Ryazan, and Perevitsk.
What do the other brothers get? Once every few years - the right to a part of Moscow income. The new Grand Duke pays each of them one hundred rubles annually. Each of them is assigned several courtyards in the Kremlin and a couple of villages near Moscow. They also receive land in other places. Yuri - Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Kashin, Ruzu, Bryansk and Serpeisk. Dmitry - Uglich, Khlepen, Zubtsov, Mezetsk and Opakov. Semyon - Bezhetskaya Verkh, Kaluga, Kozelsk. Andrey - I believe, Vyshgorod, Lyubutsk and Staritsa.
So the principalities reappeared. But how different they are from the old destinies...
The destinies of the new formation are scattered across the entire Russian land. They consist of cities, towns, parishes and villages, interspersed here and there in state territory at a great distance from each other. Nowhere do they form closed, in any way interconnected territorial complexes.
The new princes “besides this... do not intervene in anything” - the idea of the possibility of any “redistribution” is rejected from the very beginning. The princes “according to their inheritance... do not order money to be made, but my son Vasily orders money to be made... as it was with me,” the testator establishes.
In their city courtyards in Moscow and the villages near Moscow, the princes “do not hold trades, they do not order merchants to sell goods, they do not set up shops, they do not order foreigners with goods, either from the Moscow lands or from their appanages, to set up in their courtyards”: all trade in Moscow is carried out only at the gostiny dvors, as it was under Ivan Vasilyevich himself, and all trade duties go to the treasury of the Grand Duke. Princes can trade only small “edible goods” - subject to payment of the counter tax.
Page 27
When was the unification of the northeastern and northwestern Russian lands around Moscow completed? What task faced the great princes after the completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow?
Under Vasily III (by 1533), with the annexation of Pskov, Smolensk, and Ryazan, the unification of the lands of North-Eastern and North-Western Rus' around Moscow was completed. The main task of the sovereign was the transformation of independent lands into a single Russian state. The first national institutions were created, a unified army and a communications system appeared. The country was divided into districts, headed by Moscow governors.
Page 28
What is inheritance? Who was given the inheritance?
Udel is an appanage principality in Rus', that is, a territory formed after the division of large principalities in the period from the 12th to the 16th centuries. The estate was under the control of an appanage prince, and formally - in the possession of the Grand Duke. Often, appanages were formed as a result of inheritance, donation, land redistribution and even violent seizures. In connection with the formation of the Russian state, the formation of appanage principalities ceased in the 16th century: the last one, Uglich, was abolished in 1591. The share of a representative of the princely family in the family domain was also called appanage.
Page 33. questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph
1. Explain the economic and political meaning of assigning the exclusive right to mint coins to the Grand Duke.
Economic meaning: filling the treasury, forming a single internal market for the development of trade, crafts, and the economy as a whole
Political meaning: strengthening the state, autocratic power.
2. Was the unification of Rus' inevitable?
The unification of Rus' was inevitable as there was liberation from the Horde, strengthening of central power, and economic growth.
3. Describe the role of the sovereign’s court in governing the country.
The role of the sovereign's court in governing the country was great. This is the ruling elite of Moscow society, associates and like-minded people of the Grand Duke, who were appointed governors, governors, butlers, ambassadors, i.e. were the conductors of his policies.
4. What was the source of income for the sovereign's governors? Why was this form of receiving funds called “feeding”?
The source of income for the sovereign's governors was the support of the local population in money and products of this governor and his court.
This form of receiving funds was called “feeding” because the charter of the Grand Duke determined the amount of the governor’s salary - “feed”.
5. Who formed a single army in the first third of the 16th century? Explain the origin of the names of these classes.
In the first third of the 16th century, a single army was formed from local nobles. The origin of the name “mestny” is from the word “to place”; an estate is a plot of government land with peasants, given to a specific person on the condition of performing military service. These persons were palace servants, and even serfs, junior members of noble families.
Page 33. Working with the map
Show on the map the territorial acquisitions of Vasily III listed in the paragraph.
Territorial acquisitions of Vasily III: Pskov land, Chernigov-Seversky lands, Smolensk, Ryazan principality, Belgorod.
Page 33. Studying documents
What character qualities of Vasily III can be judged from this fragment of the letter?
This fragment of the letter allows us to judge such qualities of the character of Vasily III as caring, loyalty, responsibility.
Page 34. Studying documents
2. Why was the veche bell removed from the city?
The Veche bell was removed from the city because it convened the residents of Pskov for the Veche and symbolized the independence of the Pskov people.
Page 34. We think, compare, reflect
2. Explain the meaning of the phrase: “At the church council, Ivan III proposed “to take villages from the metropolitan, and from all the rulers, and from all the monasteries,” and in return to provide them “from his treasury with money... and bread.”
The meaning of the phrase is that in this way the sovereign limited the influence and power of the church, subordinating it to his authority, while simultaneously replenishing the treasury.
4. Give examples showing the significance of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.
Examples showing the importance of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow: strengthening the central government, economic development, ending internecine wars, the safety of the inhabitants of the state, the development of the lands that became part of the Russian state.
When the Russian Church began to convene councils, what problems were solved, and what was their relationship with the authorities? Candidate of Historical Sciences Fyodor GAIDA talks about the history of the conciliar movement in Russia.
On the illustration: S. Ivanov. "Zemsky Sobor"
Under the wing of Byzantium
Until the mid-15th century, the Russian Church was an integral part of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and therefore Russian metropolitans took part in its councils. The history of Byzantine church councils is by no means limited to the famous seven Ecumenical Councils. And after the 8th century, issues of dogma and church law were resolved at councils. Soon after the first Baptism of Rus', a Council was held under Patriarch Photius (879-880), at which the Filioque was condemned - a Latin insertion into the Creed, according to which the Holy Spirit comes not only from the Father (as in the original text of the symbol), but also from the Son. In Byzantium it was always revered as the Eighth Ecumenical Council. In the XI-XIII centuries, issues of Orthodox liturgics were developed at the councils of Constantinople. The councils of 1341-1351 were marked by the victory of hesychast teaching (theology and asceticism aimed at knowledge of God and deification), with which the spiritual revival of Rus' in the 14th century was associated.
In Rus', councils were also convened to resolve local judicial and disciplinary issues. In a number of cases, when the issue could not be resolved in Constantinople, the Metropolitan of Kyiv was elected at a council of local bishops. Thus, at the first council of the Russian Church, of which there is evidence, in 1051 Metropolitan Hilarion, the author of the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace,” was elected to the All-Russian see. In 1147, also at the cathedral, Metropolitan Kliment Smolyatich, distinguished for his education, was elected. In 1273 or 1274, on the initiative of Kyiv Metropolitan Cyril III, a council of Russian bishops was held, at which, after Batu’s pogrom, it was decided to strengthen church discipline and eradicate pagan customs.
Russian Symphony
Constantinople's acceptance of a union with papal Rome led to the proclamation of autocephaly of the Russian Church. In 1448, at a council in Moscow, Bishop Jonah of Ryazan was elected metropolitan. From that time on, Moscow metropolitans were elected by a council of the Russian Church, which met on the initiative of the Grand Duke or Tsar, who also approved the council’s decision. A similar tradition existed in Byzantium since the time of Emperor Constantine the Great. However, the great influence of state power on the decisions of the councils did not mean that it was always decisive. In 1490, church hierarchs achieved a council at which the “Judaizers” heretics were condemned, who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ and the holiness of icons, but were strengthened at court and had indirect support from Grand Duke Ivan III. The Sovereign of All Rus' did not go against the Novgorod Archbishop Gennady and Abbot Joseph Volotsky. At the council of 1503, the Grand Duke tried to raise the question of the secularization of church lands and again was forced to yield to the conciliar opinion of the Church.
The council of 1551, nicknamed Stoglav for the collection of decisions of 100 chapters it adopted, was of great importance for the entire Russian history. The real initiator of the council was Metropolitan Macarius of Moscow (1542-1563). It was he who crowned the first Russian Tsar, Ivan IV. Following the example of church councils, in 1549 the “Council of Reconciliation” was convened - the first Zemsky Sobor, a government body designed to correct the imbalances of the Russian state. In the zemstvo councils that made national decisions, along with representatives of various groups of the population, the clergy also took part. The reforms of the Chosen Rada, carried out at the beginning of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, were blessed by Metropolitan Macarius. It was under him that, at the councils of 1547 and 1549, an all-Russian council of saints was approved, Alexander Nevsky, Metropolitan Jonah, Paphnutius Borovsky, Alexander Svirsky, Zosima and Savvaty Solovetsky, Peter and Fevronia of Murom were canonized. Church law was also unified in Stoglav, and clergy were removed from the jurisdiction of the secular court. The canons of church architecture and icon painting were determined. Drunkenness, gambling, and buffoonery were condemned. The growth of church land ownership was brought under state control: land was the main source of income for service people, and the reduction of the land fund undermined the combat effectiveness of the army. The decision was made in the interests of the state - and the Church agreed with this. Subsequently, the councils of 1573, 1580 and 1584 continued this policy.
After the death of Metropolitan Macarius, the time of oprichnina began. Violence also affected the Church; the grandson of Ivan III did not stop even before this. In 1568, the cathedral, at the behest of the tsar, illegally removed St. Metropolitan Philip from the All-Russian see, who publicly condemned the oprichnina terror (however, already at the end of the 16th century, veneration of the saint began, culminating in official glorification in 1652, which actually canceled the decision of the council of 1568). In 1572, the cathedral allowed the tsar to enter into a fourth marriage (the next four marriages were already left without a wedding - even the formidable tsar could not obtain a blessing here).
After the death of Ivan the Terrible, both the state and the Church needed mutual support. In 1589, the “Council of the Russian and Greek Kingdoms”, composed of Russian bishops with the participation of the Patriarch of Constantinople Jeremiah II (the status of the Russian primate could be changed only with the consent of Ecumenical Orthodoxy), established the patriarchate in Russia and enthroned Metropolitan Job of Moscow. The speech of Patriarch Jeremiah, who blessed the creation of a new patriarchal see, at the Moscow Council spoke of “the great Russian kingdom, the Third Rome.” The councils of Constantinople in 1590 and 1593 approved this decision. The Patriarchs of Moscow and All Rus' Job and Hermogenes became a real stronghold of statehood during the Time of Troubles, especially the interregnums of 1598 and 1610-1613, when the convening of councils due to circumstances was impossible.
In the 17th century, church councils were convened most often - at that time more than three dozen of them were assembled. The clergy also played an active role at zemstvo councils. The main issue was church reforms, which were designed to raise the morality and piety of the people and prevent spiritual impoverishment. The councils became the most important instrument of reforms of Patriarch Nikon (1652-1666). However, the court case of the Patriarch and Great Sovereign Nikon himself (Nikon’s official title is editor's note ) was considered conciliarly. In the Great Moscow Council of 1666-1667, along with 17 Russian bishops, the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, representatives of the Constantinople and Jerusalem patriarchates, a total of 12 eastern hierarchs, as well as archimandrites, abbots, priests and monks took part. Nikon was removed from the patriarchate for interference in state affairs and unauthorized abandonment of the cathedral city, after which the cathedral nominated three candidates for the patriarchal throne, leaving the final choice to the tsar. The Great Moscow Council confirmed the theory of a symphony of spiritual and secular authorities, according to which they joined their efforts, but did not interfere in each other’s sphere of jurisdiction. The council confirmed the correctness of Nikon's reforms, condemned the “old rituals,” introduced regular diocesan councils of the clergy, and also prohibited the appointment of illiterate priests.
Substitution
After 1698, church councils stopped meeting in Russia: this was due both to the desire of Tsar Peter Alekseevich to strengthen his sole power, and to the course of cultural Westernization he pursued, which often met with discontent from the clergy. On January 25, 1721, a Manifesto was issued on the establishment of the Holy Governing Synod (from Greek - “cathedral”), headed by the Chief Prosecutor, which included bishops, abbots of monasteries and representatives of the white clergy (initially it was determined that their number should correspond to 12). The Manifesto stated that the Synod “is the Spiritual Council Government, which, according to the following Regulations, has all sorts of Spiritual affairs in the All-Russian Church...”. The Synod was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as an equal. Thus, the Synod had a patriarchal status and was therefore called the Most Holy, at the same time replacing a church council. In 1722, the Synod introduced the position of Chief Prosecutor - “the eye of the sovereign and solicitor on state affairs in the Synod.” The chief prosecutor, being a secular official, in charge of the office of the Synod and monitoring its regulations, was not part of its composition. However, the importance of the chief prosecutor gradually grew and especially intensified in the 19th century, as the Russian Church turned into a “department of the Orthodox confession,” when the chief prosecutor actually became the head of the Synod.
The cathedral of 1917-1918 is an example of Russian conciliarity
Already at this time, voices were heard about the need to renew the living conciliar practice of the Church. At the beginning of the twentieth century, in the circumstances of growing anti-clericalism and religious tolerance proclaimed in 1905, the question of convening a Local Council became most urgent. The “Maintain Church” in the new situation turned out to be the only denomination subordinate to the state. In 1906, the Pre-Conciliar Presence opened, which consisted of bishops, priests and professors of theological academies and was supposed to prepare materials for the upcoming council within several months. The presence spoke in favor of the regular convening of councils and their election of members of the Synod. However, the council was never convened due to fear of political criticism of the government. In 1912, a Pre-Conciliar Conference was created in its place, which lasted until the revolution.
Only after the February Revolution of 1917 did the real possibility of convening a Local Council arise. It opened on the feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (August 15, old style) in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. The difference between this cathedral was that the laity took an active part in its work, making up more than half of its members. The Council restored the Patriarchate and elected by lot its chairman, Metropolitan Tikhon of Moscow, to the patriarchal throne. Determinations were adopted on the powers and procedure for the formation of the highest church bodies, diocesan administration, parishes, monasteries and monastics. The need was determined to establish a new legal status for the Church in the state: it called for recognition of freedom in its internal structure and, at the same time, a primacy position among other faiths; the head of state had to be Orthodox. It was decided to involve women in church service as elders, missionaries, and psalm-readers. The Council of 1917-1918 strengthened the Church at the beginning of the era of persecution and became a real example of the conciliar structure of the Church. It was decided to convene the next council in 1921, but under Soviet rule this turned out to be impossible.
Meeting of the Local Council of 917-1918, at which, after more than a two-hundred-year break in the Russian Church, a patriarch was elected. He became Metropolitan Tikhon (Bellavin) of Moscow- pictured in the center
There were robber cathedrals in Russia too
On the contrary, with the active support of the Bolsheviks, schismatic renovationists held their “local councils” in 1923 and 1925, trying to bring the Church under their control. Having not received the support of the church people and most of the episcopate, the renovationists ultimately lost the help of the authorities. The attempt to fabricate the “Soviet heresy” failed ingloriously.
Only in September 1943, at the height of the Great Patriotic War, when the ideology of the regime sharply evolved in a patriotic direction, for the first time since 1918, it became possible to convene a council, which was attended by 19 bishops (some of them had recently left the camps). The Holy Synod was restored and, on a non-alternative basis, Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky) of Moscow was elected patriarch (after a break of 18 years). Subsequently, alternative election was introduced only at the 1990 council, and the candidacies of patriarchs, like all decisions made at the councils, were agreed upon with the Soviet leadership. However, having tested the strength of the faith of the Church during the years of bloody persecution, the communist state never again tried to break its core - the doctrine.
Under Soviet control
In January - February 1945, after the death of Patriarch Sergius, the Local Council was convened. It was attended by priests and laity, but only bishops were given the right to vote. Delegations from many local Orthodox churches also attended the cathedral. Metropolitan Alexy (Simansky) of Leningrad was elected Patriarch.
The Council of Bishops in 1961 took place under the conditions of Khrushchev’s persecution, when the Church, under pressure from the authorities, was forced to make a decision to remove priests from administrative and economic responsibilities in the parish and assign them to a special parish “executive body” (the authorities thus counted on weakening the influence of the clergy; decision this was abolished by the 1988 Council). The Council also decided on the entry of the Russian Church into the “World Council of Churches”, which was explained by the task of preaching Orthodoxy in the Protestant world. The authorities considered the Church as one of the possible levers of their “peace-loving” foreign policy, but did not take into account the opposite effect: the international position of the Church itself strengthened, which often made it possible to defend its truth before the atheistic state.
The local council in 1971 elected Metropolitan Pimen (Izvekov) of Krutitsky as patriarch. This council also canceled the oaths of the Great Moscow Council of 1666-1667 on the “old rites”, recognizing the possibility of their use (but the condemnation of the Old Believers for participating in the schism was not lifted).
Freedom again
The local council of 1988, timed to coincide with the 1000th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus', marked the spiritual revival of the country, where the Church ceased to be persecuted, and atheistic control sharply weakened. The cathedral canonized many saints: Dmitry Donskoy, Andrei Rublev, Maxim the Greek, Metropolitan Macarius of Moscow, Xenia of Petersburg, Ambrose of Optina, Theophan the Recluse, Ignatius Brianchaninov.
The Council of Bishops in 1989 glorified Patriarch Tikhon as a saint. Convened after the death of Patriarch Pimen in 1990, the Local Council for the first time since 1918 had the opportunity to make a decision on a new primate of the Russian Church, free from government interference. By secret ballot, the cathedral elected the patriarch from three candidates previously nominated by the Council of Bishops: Metropolitans of Leningrad Alexy (Ridiger), Kyiv Philaret (Denisenko) and Rostov Vladimir (Sabodan). The authorities of that time preferred to see the most loyal figure of Metropolitan Philaret on the patriarchal throne, but did not insist. Another sign of the end of the communist era was the canonization of Righteous John of Kronstadt that took place at the cathedral.
Under Patriarch Alexy II (1990-2008), bishops' councils met in 1990, 1992, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2008. In the 1990s, the main problem was the Ukrainian church schism, headed by Filaret, who never became patriarch in Moscow. The 2000 Council canonized 1,071 saints in the host of new martyrs and confessors of Russia, including Emperor Nicholas II and his family. The Fundamentals of the Social Concept of the Russian Church were adopted, which clearly defined the principles of church-state relations and, in particular, the duty of a Christian to peacefully resist any atheistic policy.
On January 27, 2009, at the Local Council, Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad was elected Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'.
The more significant the event in the eyes of contemporaries, the greater the likelihood that it will be reflected in historical sources. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. Moscow plunged into disputes about the way of monastic life.
Ivan III not only participated in the dispute, but also found himself at the center of it. Thanks to the abundance of sources, we have a rare opportunity to penetrate his mental laboratory, capture his moods, and explore in detail the relationship between secular and spiritual power. The materials from the cathedral of 1503 are especially important.
The council began its activities by approving two sentences on September 1, 1503. After the report to the sovereign, the hierarchs, “searching him” (having studied the case), “arranged” the widow priests not to serve. The sentence did not go beyond church routine. For the sake of maintaining morality, widowed priests were forbidden to serve. At the same time, the council referred to the atrocities of widowers who kept concubines. The verdict prohibited the residence of monks and nuns in the same monastery, etc. The initiative for the first verdict came from the metropolitan and the hierarchs, the second verdict, apparently, from Ivan III.
The sovereign and his son, “talking” with the metropolitan and the council, “conquered and strengthened” the verdict on duties. The importance the authorities attached to the verdict can be seen from the fact that Ivan III sealed it with his seal, the metropolitan and the bishops put their hands on it.
Simony has long been a real plague on the church. At times, Russian metropolitans tried to limit the evil that resulted from the sale of church positions. Following Byzantine laws, they limited the amount of duties for delivery. But these measures did not achieve their goal. The hierarchs tenaciously clung to the orders sanctified by the Byzantine church and which brought them a substantial income. Freethinkers like the Pskov abbot Zacharias sharply criticized simony. Zechariah was punished as a heretic. Nevertheless, Ivan III, having taken up the task of cleansing the church, took the path indicated by the “heretics.” The law imposed on the hierarchs by secular authorities was one of the most radical laws in the history of the Russian church. The Council solemnly proclaimed the immediate abolition of all fees for appointment to any church position. Officials were not supposed to take fees and commemorations; the printer and clerk were forbidden to take bribes “from the seal and from the signature” of the issued letter. Both bribes and “all kinds of gifts” were abolished. For breaking the law, not only the bishop, but also the one who gave the bribe were “dismissed” from the rank.
The law on duties was impeccable from a moral point of view, but it was in conflict with the centuries-old practice of the universal Orthodox Church. The verdict symbolized the rejection of the traditional orientation towards Byzantine rules and laws, from the point of view of which the abolition of duties was lawless. The conciliar resolution opened the door to the interference of secular authorities in the internal affairs of the church. The procedure for removing hierarchs was extremely simplified. The dependence of the clergy on the monarch increased.
After the verdict on duties was approved, the activities of the cathedral were turned in a new direction. Elder Nil of Sorsky, with the blessing of Ivan III, brought up for discussion the question of whether it is worthy for monasteries to own “villages” (patrimonies). Neil's speech was viewed as a kind of manifesto of non-covetousness. A few years before the cathedral, Ivan III took away a significant part of its estates from the Novgorod Sophia House. This fact is briefly mentioned in the unofficial Pskov chronicle. But neither the Moscow nor the Novgorod chronicles said a word about him. In the eyes of the Novgorod archbishop and the Moscow high hierarchs, the attempt on church property was sacrilege, and they did not want to touch on a topic that was painful for them. The Pskov chronicle says that Ivan III undertook secularization “with the blessing of Metropolitan Simon.” There can hardly be any doubt that the consent of the head of the church was forced.
The observations made explain why Moscow sources are silent about secularization projects at the cathedral. Essentially, in 1503 the authorities tried to extend the Novgorod experience to the Moscow lands, which led to an acute conflict between the monarch and the clergy.
Discussion of plans for the alienation of church lands in 1503 did not lead to concrete results. The members of the council left without making any decision. The topic of secularization was forgotten for several decades. The secular authorities did not want to remember their failure, and the clergy, outraged by the criminal attack on their property, were interested in consigning the incident to oblivion. Only after the death of Vasily III, the previously taboo topic began to be widely discussed by publicists. Monuments about the cathedral appeared during the lifetime of a generation that did not know Nil Sorsky and Joseph Sanin and drew information about them from the mouths of their closest students.
Inaccuracies and contradictions in memories are quite natural. Neither in the chronicle reports about the council, nor in the council verdicts is there a hint of a discussion about church lands. All data about the speech of Nil Sorsky and secularization projects are contained in late journalistic works. Explaining this paradox, a number of researchers began to consider the news about the appearance of non-covetous people in 1503 as completely unreliable. It is believed that publicists of the mid-16th century. constructed information about the clash between non-possessors and Osiphlites at the council of 1503.
Scribes did not have to construct events of the past. All they had to do was remember them.
The weakness of the hypothesis about the falsification of the conciliar materials lies in the fact that it does not explain at all the motives for the hoax, in which not one, but many scribes and theologians participated, working at different times and belonging to different directions of church thought. Either side would hasten to expose the other if it had committed gross falsification.
In 1408, the two centers of unification of Russian lands - Moscow and Lithuania for the first time received a common border, but a clash was avoided and the principalities lived peacefully for almost a century. But from the beginning of the 16th century, a series of conflicts began, most of which ended in favor of the eastern state. Although there were occasional defeats, and the Troubles after the death of the last Rurikovich briefly reversed the process of reconquest, Ancient Rus' was gradually revived under the hand of the Moscow ruler. Why did Moscow become the capital of Russia and not Vilna?
Lithuania took full advantage of the Mongol invasion of Russian lands and began annexing the devastated principalities
The Lithuanians were the first to begin collecting Russian lands. In the period after the Mongol invasion until the early 1250s, Prince Mindovg occupied the western regions of the future Belarus. He and his descendants successfully defended the integrity of their new possessions from the Russian princes and their Horde overlords. And after the start of civil strife or the “great turmoil” in the Golden Horde, Olgerd defeated three Tatar commanders at Blue Waters and annexed Kyiv. The ancient capital of Prince Vladimir became a secondary city for the new rulers. Lithuania joined the race to annex ownerless Russian lands.
At the time of the beginning of the Lithuanian conquests, Moscow was not even independent yet. In 1266, the young son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel, received this city as his inheritance, which became the center of the new principality. His possessions were poor and small. But the prince was very lucky: in 1300, the Golden Horde Khan Tokhta defeated his rebellious military leader Nogai. His Russian vassals went into the service of Daniil and were used by him in wars to increase his principality.
In 1339, at the libel of Ivan Kalita, Prince Alexander of Tver was killed by the Khan of the Golden Horde. After this, the only rival of Moscow became the Lithuanian state
The liar, renegade and collaborator Ivan Kalita, son of Daniil, truly strengthened the power of Moscow. He achieved the right to collect tribute for the khan from the Russian principalities, and repeatedly brought Tatar armies against all his enemies. But he kept his own lands intact. Kalita's children and grandchildren only increased the army and the size of the state until they equaled its power with Lithuania, despite the late start.
However, resources were not comparable. The northern Moscow principality was locked in forests, sparsely populated and had not very fertile soils, barely enough to feed itself. And Lithuania owned rich Ukrainian lands with a high population density. And the adoption of Catholicism and the union with Poland strengthened it even more.
The Lithuanian princes did everything to ensure that Western Rus', subordinate to them, received all the attributes of an “independent” power. At their instigation, in 1317, Constantinople created a separate metropolis of the Russian Orthodox Church, not connected with Moscow. That time was troubled for world Orthodoxy. The Turks drove the Greeks out of Asia and began territorial conquests in the Balkan Peninsula. Among the Greek Church, talk began about submitting to the Pope in order to receive military assistance from Europe. The church hierarchs of Western Rus' were also not against recognizing the power of Rome.
Fermentation began among them, which ended in 1596 with the announcement by the Kyiv Metropolitan of the transition to submission to the Roman throne.
But this did not hinder the rise of Moscow. What is the reason for the victory of the economically and militarily weaker Moscow principality? Its rulers did not stop paying tribute to the Golden Horde until the very end in order to be able to use Tatar troops in their wars.
But this is only one reason for further victories. In 1385, the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila was chosen king of Poland. A gradual merger of the two states began. The subsequent Union of Gorodel equalized the rights of the Polish and Lithuanian Catholic nobility. But the Orthodox boyars were excluded from this privileged group. They were no longer allowed into the princely council. “Differences in faith produce differences in opinions,” the union explained. The restriction of the rights of Russian subjects on their own lands began. The rulers of Lithuania, instead of a previously loyal vassal, received the eternally dissatisfied Western Rus' - the “fifth column”, always ready to stick a knife in the back.
Many Orthodox princes, according to ancient Russian law, went into the service of the Moscow ruler. And that wasn't the end. The gentry's autocracy in Poland and Lithuania led to the destruction of a strong central government. And in Moscow, autocracy only strengthened. The first major military conflict of 1500-1503 led to Lithuania losing a third of its possessions and recognition of the title “Sovereign of All Rus'” for Ivan III, i.e. his rights to the historical lands of the Eastern Slavs.
Three great deeds of Ivan III - overthrowing the Tatar yoke, taking over the Byzantine heritage and victory over Lithuania
The strong power and desire of Western Rus' to unite with co-religionists led to the slow fall of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which after the Pereyaslav Rada of 1654 became irreversible.