Info lesson plan:
1. Lexical meaning of paronyms residential - housing
2.Examples of phrases with paronyms residential
3.Examples of sentences with a paronym residential
4.Examples of phrases with paronyms housing
5.Examples of sentences with a paronym housing
1. LEXICAL MEANING OF THE PARONYMS RESIDENTIAL - HOUSING
RESIDENTIAL- 1.Intended for housing. 2. Inhabited, occupied as housing.
HOUSING- 1.Ratio with noun dwelling associated with it. 2.Characteristic of a dwelling, characteristic of it.
2. EXAMPLES OF PHRASES WITH THE PARONYM - RESIDENTIAL
1) residential part of the city
2)residential complex
3)residential area
4) residential area
5) residential area
6) residential apartment
7)interior of a residential building
8)living room plan
9) residential cottage
10) residential buildings
11)residential area
12)living environment
13) upper residential tier
14) level of sound impact on the residential sector
15) residential area
16) living quarters
17) living space
18)living compartment of a space rocket
19) residential area
20) contract for the purchase and sale of residential real estate
21)outside the residential area
3.EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES WITH THE PARONYM - RESIDENTIAL
1)When placed residential
2) Lots of space in residential The room was occupied by a stove.
3) Mansions in ancient times in Rus' - residential home of a wealthy owner.
4) In Rus', the most common type of wooden construction was residential house.
5)Residential
6) Hut - wooden (log) residential
7) There are many in the city residential houses.
8)Residential Home for each of us is the place where we return after a hard day's work.
9) It’s located there residential microdistrict.
10) First put into operation residential microdistrict.
12)Most interesting monument residential architecture in Kizhi - Oshevneva’s house (XIX century) from the village of Oshevnevo.
13) After his marriage and the construction of the Summer and Winter Palaces, the king stopped living in the Original Palace, but he treasured this first one very much residential construction.
14) What is unique? residential buildings of the peoples of the world?
15) In the picture we see residential
16) Why hasn’t a single one survived to this day? residential
17) Climatic conditions influence the layout of houses and the number residential area.
18)Recreated residential
19) Canopy - non-residential premises in village huts and in the old days in city houses between residential part of the house and the porch.
20) The hut consisted of three parts: residential(heated); cold (summer) rooms and vestibules, into which a porch led.
21) The floor was earthen, covered in residential parts with skins and felt.
22) Since ancient times, two types of interior have been distinguished - public and residential.
23) The space from the fortress to nearby ones residential
24)Behind the Acropolis, which is the core ancient city, extends the oldest residential quarter of Athens.
25) The Arabian coffee tree reduces the number of microorganisms in the air by 30% residential rooms.
26) The healthiest air temperature residential rooms - 18°C.
27)They live independently, renting an apartment in one residential block.
4.EXAMPLES OF WORD COMBINATIONS WITH THE PARONYM - HOUSING
1) housing construction
2) housing problems
3)housing legislation
4) residential mortgage
5) housing rights
6) housing code
7) housing committee
8) housing initiative
9) housing capital
10) living conditions
11) housing issues
12) housing policy
13) housing program
14)housing
15) housing commission
16) housing registration
17) living conditions
18) housing department of the district (city) administration
19) financial and housing difficulties of the family
5.EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES WITH THE PARONYM - HOUSING
1) Mass industrial production of building materials contributed to the solution housing
2) At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century housing
3) It was very sharp housing
4) Unfortunately, most people in Russia are not rich, burdened housing and family problems.
5)Objects housing
6) There are four programs for youth that are decisive housing question.
7) The human environment is natural conditions, conditions in the workplace and housing conditions.
8) Sand is widely used as part of building materials in the construction of roads, embankments, etc. housing construction.
9) What changes have occurred in housing construction in the 18th century?
10) Expanded industrial and housing construction required building materials.
11) These areas are used for housing
12) Climate must be taken into account in housing construction.
13) The most widespread professions are carpenters in housing
14) A person can be happy and healthy when he has the opportunity for self-realization and is guaranteed good housing conditions.
15)What housing
16) Factories and housing
17)Get housing A young family can get a loan either in cash in rubles or in any other currency in a non-cash version.
6.TESTS
1)residential construction
2) residential room
3) residential square
4)residential space rocket compartment
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)housing question
2)housing conditions
3) rational use housing area
4)housing policy
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)housing Problems
2)housing the buildings
3)housing legislation
4)housing mortgage
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)residential microdistrict
2)residential array
3)residential apartment
4)residential district (city) administration department
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)zone residential development
2)residential program
3) purchase and sale agreement residential real estate
4)outside residential zones
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)housing commission
2)housing accounting
3)housing complex
4)housing conditions of the townspeople
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)housing Wednesday
2)housing rights
3)housing code
4)housing Committee
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)interior residential Houses
2) plan residential rooms
3)residential cottage
4)residential questions
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)material and housing family difficulties
2)housing farming
3) construction housing complexes
4) the level of sound impact on housing sector
One of the phrases below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the number of the phrase and the correct word.
1)residential initiative
2)residential Part of city
3)residential array
4)residential territory
1)When placed residential objects, the environmental factor should be in first place.
2) The most widespread professions are carpenters in residential construction and furniture production.
3) Lots of space in residential The room was occupied by a stove.
4) Mansions in the old days in Rus' - residential home of a wealthy owner.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
1)Objects housing rights are residential premises.
2) There are four programs for youth that are decisive housing question.
3) Recreated housing the interior provides an opportunity to get acquainted with the furnishings of the inhabitants of Suzdal in pre-Petrine times.
4) The human environment is natural conditions, conditions in the workplace and housing conditions.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
1) Since ancient times, two types of interior have been distinguished - public and residential.
2) The space from the fortress to nearby residential quarters and was called Fortress Square.
3) Mass industrial production of building materials contributed to the solution residential problems in the 1960s. in USSR.
4) The healthiest air temperature residential rooms - 18°C.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
1) Which one housing Is the program currently operating in Russia?
2) It is located there housing microdistrict.
3) Factories and housing Farms are prohibited from releasing water into water bodies without treatment.
4)Get housing A young family can get a loan in cash both in rubles and in any other currency in a non-cash version.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
1) A person can be happy and healthy when he has the opportunity for self-realization and is guaranteed good residential conditions.
2) In Rus', the most common type of wooden construction was residential house.
3) Why hasn’t a single one survived to this day? residential buildings of the Old Kingdom, but the tombs remain?
4) Climatic conditions influence the layout of houses and the number residential area.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
1) Unfortunately, most people in Russia are not rich, burdened housing and family problems.
2) What changes have occurred in housing construction in the 18th century?
3) Hut - wooden (log) housing house in a rural wooded area of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus.
4) At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century housing The problem for the outskirts being developed was most acute: they lived in dugouts, huts, tents, barracks, and extremely rarely - in barracks.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
2) What is unique? residential buildings of the peoples of the world?
3) Climate must be taken into account in residential construction.
4) The most interesting monument residential 19th century architecture in Kizhi - Oshevnev’s house from the village of Oshevnevo.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
1) It was very sharp residential a problem exacerbated by the large number of visitors.
2) They live independently, renting an apartment in one residential block.
3) First put into operation residential microdistrict.
4) In the picture we see residential building against the backdrop of distant mountains.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
1) The Arabian coffee tree reduces the number of microorganisms in the air by 30% residential rooms.
2) Canopy - non-residential premises in village huts and in the old days in city houses between residential part of the house and the porch.
3) Sand is widely used as part of building materials in the construction of roads, embankments, etc. residential construction.
4) There are many in the city residential houses.
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word INCORRECTLY. Find the error and fix it. Write the sentence number and the correct word.
1) After his marriage and the construction of the Summer and Winter Palaces, the king stopped living in the Original Palace, but he treasured this first one very much residential construction.
2) It is located there residential microdistrict.
3)Residential the house is a brilliant invention of mankind.
4) These areas are used for residential and municipal construction.
7. ANSWERS
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Test task no. |
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A5. As a result of collectivization:
1.The development of agriculture has accelerated
2.The peasant community was revived
3.Funds were received to finance industrialization
4.Market elements have been developed
A6. What did it mean to disappear in the village in the 30s? kulats, middle and poor households:
1.Improving the standard of living of the peasantry
2. Transformation of the USSR into an advanced industrial power
3.Mass creation of peasant cooperatives and artels
4. Liquidation of individual farms
A7. Which event happened before the others?
1. Publication of Stalin’s article “The Year of the Great Turning Point”
2. Beginning of industrialization
3.Education of the USSR
4.Death of V.I. Lenin
indicated that the Bolsheviks retained hopes for world revolution and the creation of a "federation" Soviet republics all over the world". Guess what arguments these historians give to support their opinion. Do you agree with him? Why?
Please, what do you know?1.1. Enter the completion date of the first Russian revolution
1. 1905 2. 1906 3. 1907 4. 1909
1.2. Indicate what happens in the period 1906 – 1917.
1. Activities of the first State Dumas 2. Activities of the Provisional Government 3. Russia’s participation in the First World War 4. Russian-Japanese War
1.3 During the first Russian revolution, an event occurred earlier than others
1. Uprising on the battleship Potemkin 2. Armed uprising in Moscow
3. All-Russian political strike 4. Elections to the First State Duma
1.4. In which of the events listed below did S.Yu. participate? Witte
1. In the creation of the cadet party 2. In the signing of peace with Japan
3. In the creation of the Provisional Government 4. When deciding to enter the First World War
1.5 what political demands did the program of the Socialist Revolutionary Party contain at the beginning of the 20th century?
1. Termination revolutionary terror 2. Convening the constituent assembly
3. Proclamation of the Constitution 4. Socialization of the land
1.6 the first listed Russian scientist to win the Nobel Prize
1. P. Lebedev 2. I. Pavlov 3. N. Zhukovsky 4. V. Vernadsky
1.7. Which of the following persons were representatives of the radical, revolutionary movement in social movement in the XIX – early XX centuries.
A) I. Kireevsky B) P. Pestel C) L. Martov (Yu. Tsederbaum) D) V. Ulyanov (Lenin)
D) K. Aksakov E) N. Karamzin
1. ABD 2. ADE 3. BVG 4. VDE
1.8 Dissolution II State Duma can be characterized by the concept
1. “coup d’etat” 2. “constitutional reform”
3. " palace coup» 4. “revolution”
2.1 Read a fragment of a letter from a soldier and indicate the name of the war in question
“...Now we are going deep into Russia, but, in fact, we are not walking, but running. "Herman" is following on our heels. We don't know where we'll stop. It seems that we will flow from Moscow to the Urals. This war is worse than the Japanese one. They drank that one, and sold this one...”
^2.2 Match
Cultural figures Area of activity
A) A. Akhmatova 1) Theater
B) S. Chaplygin 2) Poetry
B) V. Vernadsky 3) Mathematics
D) V. Kholodnaya 4) Philosophy
1. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany was signed by Soviet Russia in:a) March 1918 b) November 1918 c) August 1919 d) December 1917
2. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was created in:
A) 1922 b) 1918 c) 1924 d) 1930
3. The dates 1953,1964,1985 in the history of the USSR are associated with (with):
A) adoption of the Constitution
B) sending troops to other countries
C) holding international youth festivals in the USSR
D) change of leaders of the country
4. Economic reform A.N. Kosygina was carried out:
A) 1949-1953 b) 1956-1960 c) 1965-1970 d) 1985-1991
5. Which of the following measures was carried out in Russia in 1905 -1907:
A) establishing national equality of citizens
B) abolition of the class division of society
B) confiscation of landowners' lands
D) creation of the State Duma
6. Completion of a radical change in the Great Patriotic War associated with:
A) Battle of Kursk c) Battle of Moscow
B) Battle of Stalingrad d) liberation of Kyiv
^ 7. At the XX Congress there was:
A) the personality cult of I.V. has been exposed. Stalin
B) a new party program was adopted
C) the course for perestroika was approved
D) removed from office First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee P. S. Khrushchev
8. Write the last names Russian laureates Second Nobel Prize in Literature
half of the 20th century:
A) M. Sholokhov, B. Pasternak, I. Brodsky c) KFedin, F. Fadeev, KSimonov
B) A. Tvardovsky, Y. Bondarev, E. Evtushenko d) B. Okudzhava, V. Shukshin, KSimonov
9. December 8, 1991, at the residence near Minsk, the presidents of Russia and Ukraine, Chairman
Supreme Council Belarus signed an agreement with U"ob):
A) the introduction of a state of emergency in the USSR
B) formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States
C) the prohibition of the activities of the CPSU in the USSR
D) creation of an inter-republican economic committee
10. P.A. Stolypin’s agrarian reform was characterized by:
A) the creation of peasant communities
B) the rapid development of the cooperative movement
B) the destruction of landownership
D) creation of a class of small owners
11. The command-administrative system in the USSR economy was characterized by:
A) non-intervention of the state in the economy
B) freedom of enterprise
B) non-economic management methods
D) decentralization of the economy
12. The consequences of World War II were:
A) conclusion of the Soviet-American treaty
B) expansion of the political and military influence of the USSR.
C) strengthening ties with the USSR and allies in the anti-Hitler coalition
D) formation of the League of Nations
13. The consequences of the February Revolution include:
A) abolition of the monarchy
B) transfer of land to peasants
C) Russia's exit from the world war
D) establishing workers' control in factories and factories
14. Publication of I. Stalin’s order No. 227 “Not a step back!” dated July 28, 1942 was called
threat
A) the seizure of Crimea by the Germans
B) a new German breakthrough near Moscow
C) the Germans reaching the Urals from the south
D) the surrender of Stalingrad and the exit of the German armies to the Volga
15. The course towards complete collectivization meant:
A) creation of agricultural cities c) resettlement of workers to the village
B) transfer of all land to state farms d) unification of like-minded people into collective farms
16. Place the following events of the 20th century in chronological order:
A) the policy of “war communism” c) NEP (new economic policy)
B) industrialization d) collectivization
17. Establish a correspondence between the concepts and the periods with which they are associated:
Concepts Periods
Glasnost a) 1945 - 1953
Re-Stalinization b) 1953 - 1964
De-Stalinization c) 1965 - 1985
Stalinism d) 1985 - 1991
D) 1991 - 2001
18. Match foreign policy events in the USSR and
dates:
Events Years
Start Afghan war a) 1975
The signing in Moscow of the Soviet-American SALT Treaty (limitation of systems
Missile Defense) $ b) 1968
Introduction of troops of the USSR and other ATS countries into Czechoslovakia c) 1972
Signing in Helsinki of the Final Act on Security and Cooperation in
Europe d) 1989
Test tasks.
1. The thesis that Stalin put forward at the Plenum of the Central Committee in July 1928:
1) it is possible to build socialism in one single
2) the mass struggle in the country will intensify as it moves towards socialism;
3) the current generation of Soviet people will live p| communism.
1) the death penalty was abolished;
Accused of political crimes (“The son is responsible for his father”);
3) bring to criminal court with the application of all penalties, including the death penalty for minors, starting from the age of 12.
3. The reasons for the existence of a totalitarian regime in the USSR do not include:
1) the population’s fear of mass repressions by the Gulag;
2) people's faith in communist ideals;
3) support from Western European countries
4) monopoly of state property.
4. The main sources of industrialization in the USSR:
1) exploitation of the national outskirts of the country;
2) transfer of funds from the village;
3) foreign loans and investments;
4) the enthusiasm of the Soviet people.
5. The grain procurement crisis in 1937 was caused by:
1) recreating the committees of the poor;
2) the beginning of collectivization;
3) new economic policy;
4) the party’s course towards industrialization.
6. Industrialization in the USSR led to:
1) to integrate the economy into the world market;
2) a fall in industrial production;
3) creation of the defense industry;
4) development of light industry.
7. The transition to collectivization policy was proclaimed
1) N.I. Bukharin in the article “Notes of an Economist”;
2) V.I. Lenin in the article “On Cooperation”;
3) V.I. Stalin in the article “The Year of the Great Turnaround.”
8. What do workdays mean?
1) days of free work in production;
2) payment system on collective farms;
3) days allotted to collective farmers to work on their plots.
9. In the history of the USSR in the 1920-1930s. The abbreviated name GULAG was used, which meant:
1) a system of children's health camps;
2) a system of camps for criminal and political prisoners;
3) a system of annual camps for training recruits for the Red Army;
4) the system of correctional institutions for juvenile offenders.
10. The Soviet political system of the 1930s was characterized by:
1) expansion of political and civil freedoms;
2) improving the system of power sharing;
3) broad discussions within the ruling party;
4) state power was exercised by the Communist Party
"State and Law of Medieval England":
Solving work situations that are based on real legal disputes or situations gleaned from court chronicles, writings of ancient lawyers and other sources will help you update your knowledge.
Legal cases are compiled in such a way as to revive the idea of the largest monuments of foreign law; using the example of one or another life situation to show the essence of a new, important legal institution, the features of the legal regulation of life situations and, ultimately, reflect the development of foreign legal thought.
To successfully resolve a legal case you must:
1) carefully study the text of the relevant legal monument;
2) familiarize yourself with special literature;
3) analyze all possible, according to the law, options for its solution;
4) give a reasoned answer to the questions of the case with links and citations of articles of the legal monument. If you have insurmountable difficulties in selecting a modern legal concept, use the terminology of the relevant normative act in your decision.
1) Carol Scott killed his neighbor in a fight and fled the country. The relatives of the deceased went to court.
How will the case be resolved according to Ethelbert's Truth?
Decision: Anglo-Saxon truth and legal codes provided for large monetary fines as punishment for serious criminal offenses. When causing bodily harm, the size of the fine was determined by the severity of the injury. In the case of murder, the wergeld was determined by the social status of the murdered person. Ethelbert's truth sets the fee for killing (wergeld) a freeman at 100 shillings, and a lete (leute) at 40, 60 and 80 shillings, depending on his status. In the Laws of Clothar, the earl's wergeld was determined to be 300 shillings, and in the Ine Laws, the wergeld for the murder of a free man could be equal, depending on his position, to 200, 600 and 1200 shillings, and in addition to paying the relatives of the murdered man, the murderer(s) had to pay a certain amount to the king. In accordance with “Ethelbert's Truth” - “if a murderer flees the country, let his relatives pay half a person (wergeld).”
2) The recently widowed Countess Steinley was suspected of having an illicit relationship with Lord Fridley. The king ordered the rumors to be checked. After a detailed interview with the servants, it turned out that the suspicions were fair. What punishment awaits the Countess under the Charter of Henry I.
What are the rights of the king in the marriage and family sphere in relation to his vassals?
When solving this situation, it is necessary to determine what the status of King Henry I was.
Solution:
The reign of Henry I in England was characterized by significant strengthening royal power and important reforms aimed at creating a centralized administrative apparatus. The royal curia acquired a clearer structure, a payment system was created for senior government positions. The involvement of middle and small knights in the service at court contributed to the emergence of bureaucracy in England. The functions of individual units of the curia became more specialized. The main innovation in the administrative sphere was the establishment of the Chessboard Chamber - supreme body financial management and court. County sheriffs ceased to represent the interests of local barons and became royal officials, supervising the execution of the royal will locally, collecting government revenues and regularly reporting to the Chamber of the Chessboard and the king himself. Henry I also ordered that the courts of the counties and hundreds should be held in the same places and with the same frequency as in the time of Edward the Confessor. Although the king made virtually no new laws and retained the legal system of the Anglo-Saxon period, his constant personal involvement in the administration of justice and strict supervision of the work of royal officials in the field contributed to the streamlining of the judicial system and the introduction of more efficient forms of legal proceedings, in particular the use of jury trials was expanded, and the use of archaic institutions such as ordeals and legal combat declined. To finance government expenses, the king began to actively resort to collecting a shield tax, the funds from which were largely used to maintain mercenary units to fight the wars of France.
In the field of constitutional law, Henry I gave rise to the custom of English kings signing liberties charters at their coronation, in which the monarchs promised fair rule and assumed obligations to protect the rights and interests of various groups of the population. In accordance with the provisions of Henry I's Charter, the funeral was followed by a time for the elaborate and very complex Victorian ritual of mourning. Mourning clothes were worn by representatives of all classes, although the proletariat paid much less attention to them than the “cream of society.” The latter had to give up entertainment for some time, not attend balls and not give receptions. For a whole year after the death of her husband, the widow received only close friends, and about being active social life, was out of the question. Thus, immoral behavior is another common basis for prosecution. Thus, Countess Steinley can be punished by the king for her behavior.
Topic 7:
Brief summary lectures on the topic:
« Feudal state and Russian law"
and the territories of the East European Plain have long been inhabited by various Slavic tribes; evidence from Arab, Roman, and Greek scientists suggests that these tribes were numerous and occupied a vast territory. For the first time, the question of the origin of the ancient Russian state was raised by the monk Nester in the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years,” who reports about 14 tribal unions(Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichs, Rodimichs, etc.). Although there is no reliable scientific data about their political and social structure, but scientists believe that by the 8th century three centers of East Slavic statehood had formed - Kuyavia (around the city of Kyiv), Slavia (around Novgorod) and Artania (on Taman Peninsula). The alliances were headed by princes and tribal nobility. The process of consolidation of such centers as Kyiv and Novgorod ended in the second half of the 9th century. According to the chronicle, the Novgorod prince Oleg captured Kyiv in 882, which later became the capital of the Old Russian state. In historical and historical-legal literature, there has been a dispute for centuries between supporters of the so-called “ Norman theory"and other scientists. Supporters of the “Norman theory” argue that the state has Eastern Slavs it was, as it were, brought “from the outside” by the Normans - the Scandinavian Vikings or Varangians, as they were called in Rus'. In this dispute historical fact the appearance in Novgorod of a Scandinavian named Rurik, who came to Novgorod with a retinue, is not disputed. Scandinavian motifs can be seen in utensils, clothing, the nature of the burial, etc. But the most objective conclusion is that the Eastern Slavs in the middle of the 9th century already had the prerequisites for the formation of statehood, its main institutions were already in operation. The Varangians, most likely, somewhat accelerated the process of strengthening princely power and became the cementing force of Russian society.
b social order Kyiv State There is very little evidence, mainly information from Russkaya Pravda. The economic basis of social development was the peasant neighboring community - verv. The population was represented mainly by peasants - community members. Slavery existed (servitude). Serfs were the most powerless category of the population; they were mostly in service and were recognized in criminal law as an object of law. The semi-free dependent categories of the population included smerds - princely tributaries.
The intermediate class between smerds and serfs were purchasers, that is, those who worked off the “kupa” (loan in grain or money). Ryadovichi are persons who entered into an agreement stipulating the preservation of the status of personal freedom in the event of marrying a slave or entering the service. All this testified to the transformation of former free community members into feudal-dependent people.
The political system of Kievan Rus can be defined as an early feudal monarchy. The head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kiev, who went through the procedure of legitimizing his power - being elected at a congress of feudal lords - “snem”. This procedure was called “table” or “sitting on the table.” The fragility and instability of state power was determined by its insufficient centralization. This was typical not only central government, but also the authorities separate principalities. In the principalities, a huge role was played by “veche”, that is, popular assemblies, which brought together the entire population. A sign of the state’s weakness is the absence, until the middle of the 10th century, of a tax collection system, which was replaced by “polyudye,” that is, the prince’s travel to subject territories for the purpose of collecting tribute. In the middle of the 10th century, Princess Olga established churchyards (small fortifications) - tax collection points and determined payment standards, which were called “lessons”. Posadniks and volostels were sent to the localities to collect taxes in favor of the prince. The control system was based on division into thousands, hundreds, tens. In the cities, the “thousands” were in charge of the city militia. The princely servants "tiuna" managed the feudal economy. “Ognishchans” were the name given to the owners of the “cut” (fireplace, hearth, yard). As the destinies become more separate, the management of the state becomes a palace-patrimonial one, that is, the “keykeeper”, “equer keeper”, “tiun” from the prince’s personal servants turn into traveler-managers of the economic sector.
The basis of the military forces of the ancient Russian state was the squad, which was represented by the elders - the boyars and the younger ones - the youths. For their service, the princely squad received land grants for conditional possession - feeding. In case of war, foot militia were recruited. Mercenaries were also used. There were no permanent judicial bodies. The Grand Duke was the highest court.
Local trials were carried out by representatives of the princely authorities - “posadniki”, “volostels” and the boyars themselves - patrimonial lords. Veche and community courts dealt with conflicts that did not extend beyond the boundaries of the community. With the strengthening of the church, part of the judicial powers passes to it, all marriage and family matters, crimes against Christian morality and ethics. The entire population living on church lands was subject to church jurisdiction. The law of Rus' before the 10th century is known mainly from chronicles transmitting treaties with Byzantium in 911 and 944. Since the 10th century, princely legislation has already been known, as well as Byzantine legislation, which are an additional source of law in relation to customs.
The most significant source of ancient Russian law is “Russkaya Pravda”. More than 100 lists of “Russian Truth” have reached us, which researchers divide into 3 main editions:
- “A Brief Truth” – these are the acts of Yaroslav the Wise and his sons (XI century);
- “Extensive Truth”, supplemented by Vladimir Monomakh and other princes (XII century);
- “Abridged Truth” - created after the collapse of Kievan Rus.
The sources of “Russian Truth” were common law, lawmaking of princes and judicial and administrative practice. “Russian Truth” belongs to the category of “barbaric truths”.
“Russian Truth” contains norms of criminal, civil, procedural law, etc.
The rules on crimes and punishments are scattered, many types of crimes are not specified. Crimes against the state, church and morality are not yet considered. Crime is defined by the word “offense.” There is no clear concept of guilt, degree of guilt, complicity; the concept of recidivism, criminal liability of a woman, and circumstances excluding the criminality of the act are not disclosed. The object and subject of the crime are clearly indicated in “Russkaya Pravda”. All free people were the subjects of the crime. The objective side of the crime took into account the time and place of the crime (a night thief could be killed at the scene of the crime), as well as the method (for example, robbery). There are two types of crimes “against the person” and “against property”. The first included murders, beatings, self-harm, insults, etc.; the second included theft (“tatba”), illegal use, destruction and damage to other people’s property. The law was to protect private property.
There was no self-harm, painful punishment or imprisonment. The death penalty was not provided for by law. Supreme punishment there was a “stream” and “plunder”, it was imposed for murders by robbery, horse theft and deliberate arson, it included the confiscation of property and the extradition of the culprit and his entire family to serfs. The next punishment is “vira” and “sales”. “Vira” is a fine for murder in favor of the prince. Simple - 40 hryvnia for the murder of a free person, double "vira" - 80 hryvnia for the murder of princely people, wild "vira" - was paid by the community on whose territory the murder was committed, but the killer was not found. In addition to the “vira”, the killer paid compensation to the family of the murdered person - “golovnichestvo”. For serious injuries, a “half-virion” was imposed - 20 hryvnia.
“Russian Truth” prescribed fines for damage, destruction and theft of property.
Marriage and family relations in “Russkaya Pravda” are considered through the prism of their material side. Children completely submitted to the authority of their parents; even the crime of their father did not free them from his authority. They were also responsible for their father's debts. The law protects the property interests of young children, so guardianship was established for children left without parents.
The institution of inheritance determines the possibility of separate property between husband and wife and they do not inherit from each other. Inheritance is possible both by will and by law. The form of the will was oral, the inheritance of the deceased who died and left no sons passed to the prince. Unmarried daughters received a dowry. Father's house remained youngest son, illegitimate children (children of a master from a slave) could not claim the property of the deceased, but with his death they received freedom along with their mother. The law protected the property rights of the widow. She managed her personal property and remained the head of the family.The court was not separated from the administration; anyone could apply to the princely court free man and even purchasing. The trial was public, oral, and adversarial. The plaintiff and defendant had equal rights. There was no difference between civil and criminal proceedings. In “Russian Truth” the forms are clearly identified trial. “Zaklich” is a public statement in a public place by the victim about a crime. If, after three days, the item was found, then the person who had the stolen goods was considered the defendant. He returned the stolen item and paid a fine of 3 hryvnia. If the stolen property was not discovered within three days after the theft was announced, then a search began - the search for the culprit of the theft. “Chasing the trail” is the pursuit of a criminal in hot pursuit. If the tracks led to a village, then responsibility for this crime fell on the community. As evidence, Russkaya Pravda points to the testimony of “videos” - witnesses to the incident and “rumors” - witnesses of the integrity of the accused. Ordeals (ordeal with iron and water) could be applied to the accused. The evidence also included an oath, an oath before God, and a guarantee. The state viewed justice as its own prerogative and punished lynching.
The decline of the Old Russian state was due to the development of the system of feudal immunities. However, researchers believe that the main reason for the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus was the establishment of an appanage system of government, that is, when each princely son received a certain part of his father’s reign for independent management - an appanage. Therefore, the Russian principalities were conquered by Batu Khan in 1237-1240. Only Novgorod land managed to avoid the Mongol-Tatar invasion. A unique republican system developed in Novgorod, which lasted for more than 300 years. Novgorod Republic with its attributes such as “veche”, “boyar council”, “mayor”, “thousand”, “archbishop”, “elected prince” was essentially aristocratic, since power was concentrated in the hands of the most noble boyar families.The need to unite the principalities in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars simultaneously against the background of the weakening and collapse of the Golden Horde, accelerating the process of economic and trade relations between Russian lands, the formation of new cities led to the creation of the Russian centralized state. There were several reasons that determined the rise of Moscow:
The process of centralization was accompanied by the unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the creation of a bureaucratic administrative apparatus.
The strengthening of the power of the Moscow Sovereign changes the system of relationships between the Grand Duke and the appanage princes. By the 15th century, feudal privileges and immunities were sharply reduced. The highest category of feudal lords were the appanage and former Grand Dukes of Tver, Ryazan and other principalities. The palace-patrimonial system was modernized by dividing functions between three divisions - the princely palace, the treasury and the roads (separate branches of the princely economy). Gradually, the prince's personal servants turned into government employees. The previous palace bodies, which previously managed only the princely economy, were not prepared to manage a large state. In the current unstable conditions state life large-scale changes in guidelines in organizational issues and industry orientation were required. For this reason, at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. new central governing bodies - “orders” - emerged.Each order oversaw a specialized branch of government activity, thereby being a sectoral governing body.
The clergy was divided into white and black. The white clergy included church ministers (metropolitans, bishops, bishops), and the black clergy included the monastery staff.
The peasantry was divided into two categories:
● black-sown (cultivated state lands)
● privately owned (lived on feudal, palace, appanage lands).
The next most dependent class in number was servitude, which was divided into two groups:
● big (prince's servants)
● complete (population not recognized as subjects of law, enslaved).
Craftsmen and traders belonged to the category of “posad people”. The lowest stratum of the population consisted of “black” people who lived on state lands and paid city taxes.
At the head of the Russian centralized state was the Tsar. His power was recognized not as a right, but as a duty; he could not resign and had to endure all the hardships. The power of the king could not go beyond the limits established by the church canon. The term “tsar” was introduced into circulation in 1547 after the crowning of Ivan IV. Power in Russia could be acquired in the following way:
● right of inheritance
● election.
The tsar could not be limited in his rights by state norms, however, his existence of supreme power did not have legislative support. In this regard, the king did not create the law, but issued charters, decrees, and codes of law. But, in relation to statesmen he would be the only source of state power.
The advisory body of the Russian centralized state was the Boyar Duma, which was formed on the principle of localism (to know). The Boyar Duma did not issue or create new laws; officials only participated in legislation, administration and judicial activities.
In the 15th century, the command system of management was fully established, which went through three stages:
● first stage – the functions of the palace departments were expanded (XV-XVI centuries);
● the second stage - the establishment of clerical departmental institutions (until the middle of the 16th century);
● the third stage – limiting the power of the palace authorities (the sphere of government is the royal estate).
Researchers divide the history of local government in Russia in the 15th century into three eras:
1) Management through governors (until the middle of the 16th century);
2) Labial and zemstvo administration(self-government) (second half of the 16th century - beginning of XVII V.);
3) Command-voivodeship administration in combination with self-government (XVII century).
In the process of social development, ideas about power and regulatory mechanisms change public relations. The main source of Russian law in the XV-XVII centuries. there were royal decrees and charters. In order to systematize legislation, the Code of Laws of 1497 and 1550 appeared, the main task of which was to organize a unified judicial-administrative system throughout the state. Codes of law determined the rights of feudal lords and the legal status of the feudal-dependent population - peasants. Thus, the Code of Law of 1497, which marked the beginning of the formation of serfdom (the rule of St. George's Day), limits the right of a peasant to leave his feudal lord. Serfs and peasants, in accordance with the norms of the Code of Law of 1550, were already recognized as the property of the feudal lord and had no grounds for leaving.
Considerable attention was paid to property relations associated with land ownership. IN mid-16th century-XVII centuries The following forms of land tenure existed:
● patrimonial (ancestral, served, purchased patrimonies)
● local
● community or corporate
The estate was recognized as a conditional form of land ownership and was issued as different kinds public service. It could not be passed on by will. In the middle of the 16th century it was introduced new order, namely, the estate remained in the use of the owner until his sons came of age. The Code of Law of 1550 provided for the following norms:
● prohibited the enslavement of boyar children
● freed the nobility from the court of boyar-governors
● limited the right to buy out ancestral estates
● canceled the issuance of new charters
The object of real rights was recognized as communal lands that were in the possession, use and disposal of a village, volost or suburb.
Types of loans according to the Code of Laws of 1550:
● with bondage
● without bondage (the creditor provides witnesses to prove his claim)
Types of debtors:
● insolvent
● unhappy
Contractual relations were regulated as follows:
● the form of the purchase and sale agreement coincided with the exchange agreement
● the loan agreement was similar to an agreement for a loan or lease of movable property
● a transaction concluded as a result of deception or while intoxicated was declared invalid
● types of transactions had oral and written forms.
In Sudebniki big role is paid to the elements of the crime and circumstances aggravating the responsibility of the offender. A crime is a violation of laws and state interests.
The types of serious crimes (“dashing deed”) included:
● robbery
● murder
● arson
Particularly serious crimes:
● state crimes
● malfeasance
● crimes against order and court
The methods of execution were not defined in the Code of Laws, but the system of punishments was extensive:
● intimidation
● isolation of the offender
● corporal punishment (whip, trade execution)
● imprisonment
● fines for insult and dishonor
● death penalty (provided for 12 types of crimes)
The judicial system consisted of two levels:
● court of the Grand Duke – central court
● court of governors and volosts – local court
The largest body of Russian feudal law is the Council Code of 1649. In terms of its content, the Council Code is recognized as a comprehensive code of Russian law, which covers and regulates the variety of forms of legal relations of that period.
The reason for the adoption of the Code was several factors:
● exacerbation social contradictions
● Moscow uprising of 1648
● disorder of legislation
● officials abuse their power
● judicial confusion and red tape
● the general demand of the population for the creation of clear written laws.
In its structure, the Council Code consisted of 25 chapters and 967 articles. Systematization of the Code was carried out according to the following types of law:
● chapters 1-9 – state law
● chapters 10-15 – legal proceedings and judicial system
● chapters 16, 17, 19, 20 – property law
● chapters 21-22 – criminal law.
Individuals, communities and monasteries were recognized as subjects of civil legal relations. The most important changes that were enshrined in the Council Code of 1649:
Serfdom was finally approved and formalized
The privileged position of feudal lords was confirmed
The unequal position of peasants was formalized in writing.
Direct dependence of the scope of rights and responsibilities on social origin, gender and age
Estates and estates are recognized as types of feudal estates
Establishment of the right of inheritance by law and by will
The repressive nature of criminal law
Church marriage is recognized as the only legal form of marriage
Adoption Cathedral Code 1949 was a significant step forward towards the creation of formalized written Russian law.
The Code regulated the legal relations of all segments of the population, set out the methods and procedure for violated rights, provided for a system of judicial evidence and search for serious crimes.
The penetration of the Council Code into the consciousness of the masses predetermined its success and relevance. The first printed Russian legal monument was published in a circulation of 1,183 copies and influenced the development of Russian civil and criminal law.
The political and legal regime in Russia in the first third of the 18th century is associated with the name of Peter I and is characterized by a period of absolutism and autocracy. Absolutism in legal literature is defined as state uniform government in which the head of state enjoys unlimited power.
At the head of the hierarchy of government was the emperor. Three branches of power were concentrated in his hands:
~ executive
~ legislative
~ judicial
The next highest level after the Emperor in the system of government was the Senate, which replaced the Boyar Duma. The work of the Senate was controlled by a new official - the prosecutor general (since 1722). The central government bodies also underwent changes. Thus, at the end of 1717, nine boards were formed, each of which performed special departmental functions: management foreign affairs, government revenue management, etc.
The reforms also affected the administrative-territorial structure. In 1719, Russia was divided into 11 provinces, which were divided into provinces and districts. The province was headed by a governor, accountable to the Senate. A new state body was introduced - the police, which performed the functions of ensuring public and internal order in the country; the prosecutor's office, audit and fiscal authorities appeared, which exercised control and supervisory functions over the activities of the courts and administration.
In 1719, Russia was divided into judicial districts, which were subordinate to lower provincial courts.
In 1722 it was adopted Table of ranks , abolishing the previous class division. Boyars and service people were united into one social class- nobility, and the title of nobility could be received for services to the Fatherland in military or civil service.
Legal status population was located in the following hierarchy:
1) Nobles (boyars and servants)
2) Clergy (priests and clergy). Peter I forbade the clergy to engage in trade and craft, and the Orthodox Church was subordinated to the state. Benefits and privileges for clergy were provided at the discretion of the king.
3) City nobility (bankers, merchants, pharmacists, jewelers, art historians, etc.)
4) “Vile” population (merchants, artisans and all free population).
despite large-scale reforms political system, the establishment of absolutism did not entail a fundamental change in the current law and systematization of legislation. The source of law of the Russian Empire still remained the Council Code of 1649, which over time was only supplemented with the necessary articles and laws.
New terminology has appeared:
● “property”
● “real estate” (estate, patrimony)
The development of industry, industry and production led to the emergence of a monopoly on certain types of activities:
1) Only the state has the preemptive right to extract minerals;
2) Peter I issued 60 decrees on forest protection and environmental rights;
3) Confiscation of church lands;
4) Factories and factories became state property.
Industry family law has also undergone some changes:
● only church marriage is recognized as legal
● marriageable age: men – 20 years, women – 17 years;
● divorce is difficult, but acceptable
● the principle of patriarchy of the family (the head of the family is the husband)
● the principle of complete submission of children to parents (punishments are allowed)
● termination of parental power over children only in case of reference to hard labor.
Recognized as the most complete legal monument of the Russian Empire Military Article 1715 , with the adoption of which the Russian criminal law fully formed into a separate branch of law, regulating primarily homogeneous group public relations.
With introduction Military Article new designations have appeared:
"crime" (criminal offence)
"state crime"
"particular crime"
"the crime of any evil intent against the person of His Majesty"
"treason to the sovereign"
"stealing the treasury"
"war crimes"
"crimes against the church."
The Military Article provided for the death penalty for the following types of crimes:
● for denial of state religion
● for denying the postulates of the official church
● for blasphemy and sacrilege
● for a false oath in the name of God (bozhba)
● for mentioning the name of God in vanity
● for seduction to another faith
● embezzlement
● non-payment of taxes
● violation of state monopolies.
As a punishment, in addition to the death penalty, trade execution was used for sorcerers, idolaters and warlocks, corporal punishment for accepting bribes for officials of all ranks, as well as defamation for other official crimes.
War crimes included:
~ attack
~ disobedience to a superior
~ violence against civilians
~ desertion
~ failure to comply with an order.
Crimes against the person included:
~ crime against life (murder)
~ crimes against bodily integrity
~ crimes against honor (slander).
Property crimes included:
~ destruction, damage to someone else's property.
The repressive and contradictory policies of the Russian Empire were explained by the unequal situation social strata before the state, the presence of diverse forms of punishment and ambiguous statements of the law.
In 1716, innovations also affected procedural legislation; a military judicial procedural code, “A Brief Description of Processes or Litigations,” was published, which simultaneously applied to civil and criminal courts. Under the new code, the initiative of judges was limited, and the activities of courts were regulated by law.
The new law provided formulations and definitions of the main procedural institutions and concepts:
● secret proceedings
● preliminary preparation cases on private disputes and activities of lawyers
● challenge of a judge.
Types of evidence:
● own confession (torture was used)
● testimony
● written documents
● oath
● red-handed.
The era of the reign of Peter I, on the one hand, is characterized by a period of sharp legal development In Russia, however, at the same time, the adopted legislative reforms were characterized by bureaucratic red tape and arbitrariness, substitution of documents and often incorrect interpretation of the law.
In the second half of the 18th century, after the death of Peter, the form of government of the Russian Empire still remained absolute monarchy. Previous laws with a total of 20 thousand acts continued to exist, but there was no order in legal acts. In order to regulate the number of laws issued and the structure legislative framework, Empress Catherine II, who had established herself by that time, attempted to develop a new Code, but the goal was never achieved.
In criminal law, the sources remained the normative legal acts previously adopted and supplemented by the Empress, starting with the Council Code of 1649.
The following types of acts fell under the concept of “crime”:
● illegal acts against the church
● insult to the emperor and his family
● high treason
In the second half of the 18th century, the court acquired specific characteristics:
● collegiality of consideration of cases
● qualified judges
● system of accusation.
In the first half of the 19th century, the state structure of Russia was located in the following hierarchy:
The legislation was not systematized, the lack of regulation of legal acts led to the arbitrariness of officials and chaos among certain layers of citizens. In 1808 M.M. Speransky was appointed head of the codification commission and brought together all existing laws. On December 12, 1825, the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire was published, on the basis of which the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was compiled in 1832.
Volumes X, XI and XII of the Code of Laws regulated civil law relations; by the nature of their presentation, the rules established the unequal position of subjects of law. The rights of foreigners (people of non-Slavic origin), burghers, commoners and peasants were limited.
During this period, new branches of law were formed:
● maritime law
● bill of exchange law
● industrial law
A feature of criminal law was the lack of a clear legislative distinction between criminal, administrative and disciplinary liability.
Punishments were divided into two groups:
1) criminal:
~ death penalty
~ deprivation of state rights
~ hard labor
~ corporal punishment
~ detention
~ correctional and prison companies
The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire regulated the judicial system, dividing the process into civil and criminal proceedings. The procedure for exclusive legal proceedings included state and official crimes, crimes against faith, etc. The Emperor was the highest authority consideration of cases.
The criminal trial consisted of the following stages:
1) Police investigation
2) Prosecutor's supervision
3) Transfer of the case to the zemstvo court
5) Audit in the Criminal Court Chamber (second instance, if necessary)
6) Consideration of the case in the Senate (if necessary)
The civil process was no different from the criminal process.
The abolition of serfdom gradually led to rapid property and social stratification, but this did not introduce drastic changes in legislation, and the emperor still remained an unlimited monarch.
The intervention of Rospotrebnadzor contributed to solving the problem five years ago
Accidents on water supply and sewer networks are a common occurrence for the city of Makhachkala. Most often, emergency situations arise due to worn-out pipes and failure to carry out timely repairs; the situation is aggravated by the lack of a reliable urban water communications scheme.
The consideration of another complaint about an accident near the “Financial and Economic College” stop, located on Akushinsky Ave. in Makhachkala, once again confirmed the presence of problems in matters of sewerage and water supply to residents of the capital of the republic. “How many times have we written to the administration about the situation at the stop opposite College of Finance– a sewer swamp with holes, not a stop! Can you imagine how terrible it is, all this sewer water flows through the garbage site along Akushinsky. It is impossible to cross the road, and even more so to stand until the bus arrives,” the applicant noted in his appeal.
To clarify the causes and circumstances of the ongoing sewage leak along one of the main avenues of the city, specialists from Rospotrebnadzor of Dagestan invited representatives of all interested services: administration Sovetsky district and UZHKH of Makhachkala, OJSC "Makhachkalavodokanal", Management Company "New City No. 2", etc. However, on the appointed day, none of the above organizations showed up. Instead, garbage has been removed from the specified area, and a team of emergency service workers is carrying out repair work to eliminate the breakdown of the water supply network.
The container site has a large number of insects and a suffocating smell, which indicates that the management company has not carried out deratization and disinfestation work. In addition, the waste collection area is not fenced or landscaped, which also contributes to the creation of unsanitary conditions: garbage scatters around, and stray animals have access to the containers.
Almost the entire road leading from Akushinsky Ave. to st. Soldatskaya has been excavated - Makhachkalavodokanal workers are replacing old pipes with new ones. The head of the repair and construction section, Magomed Daitbegov, inspecting the progress of the work, said that they had been working for the fourth day. “We have replaced more than 200 meters of pipes; all that remains is to do welding work and connect the pipes to the main pipe. I think a week should be enough for us,” Daitbegov tried to calm the furious residents. When asked why the situation remained this way for several years, Daitbegov found it difficult to answer.
The chief expert of Rospotrebnadzor of Dagestan, Ayset Akhadova, said that such violations could lead to outbreaks of an infectious nature. "Unsatisfactory sanitary condition territories, untimely garbage removal, inadequate sanitary cleaning and failure to carry out disinfection and deratization work contribute to an increase in the number and spread of synanthropic rodents and flies, which are sources and carriers of natural focal and especially dangerous infectious diseases of humans and animals,” Akhadova commented.
For this reason, an order was sent to the housing and communal services department and the administration of the Sovetsky district of Makhachkala to improve the container site by October 15 current year. In addition, a protocol under Art. 6.3 Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation “Violation of legislation in the field of ensuring sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population.”
Residents of nearby houses who joined the inspection of the area reported that problems of untimely garbage removal, sewage leaks and broken asphalt had been troubling them for several years. “For the last 5 years there hasn’t been a day when sewerage hasn’t flowed down the street. The situation is aggravated during the rainy season, when garbage stored near containers and sewage rivers are carried onto the roadway. Children, students of the financial and economic college located across the road, pedestrians and citizens waiting for transport at the bus stop get dirty in this slurry. It always stinks of sewage here, we simply cannot open the window or go outside to breathe fresh air,” said Kamilla Bahulieva. Marat Magomedov confirmed that he had repeatedly on this occasion contacted various authorities with a request to eliminate the cause of the leak. “However, the actions of emergency services workers were limited to installing choppiks, which were only enough for a couple of days, and after that the situation repeated itself,” he concluded.
5. The production of silent transport helps solve the problem of ______________ environmental pollution.
parametric
destructive
ingredient
chemical
Solution:
The production of silent transport helps solve the problem of parametric environmental pollution.
6. The concept of sustainable development of the noosphere assumes...
the existence of a compromise in the relationship between man and nature in the name of the future
increasingly active development inanimate nature for the sake of human development
achieving a time-invariant state in the relationship between man and nature
using only renewable sources of raw materials and energy
Solution:
The concept of sustainable development of the noosphere presupposes the existence of a compromise in the relationship between man and nature in the name of the future.
7. One of the ways to solve the problem of physical (parametric) pollution of the urban environment is...
use of silent transport
use of environmentally friendly fuel in transport
creation of waste-free technologies
improvement of wastewater treatment system
Solution:
Physical (parametric) pollution of the environment causes changes in the physical parameters of the environment. Noise pollution is an example of this. Thus, one of the ways to solve the problem of physical (parametric) pollution of the urban environment is the use of silent transport. Other named solutions help solve the problem of ingredient pollution of the environment.
Case 1 subtask 1
Imagine that a symposium is organized using a time machine,
Of the named participants in the symposium, he defended the concept of long-range action...
Aristotle
Maxwell
Solution:
The concept of long-range action states that the interaction between bodies is transmitted without any material intermediary, through emptiness, instantly. It was characteristic only of the mechanical scientific picture of the world and was based on the law of universal gravitation discovered by Newton. Newton himself did not really like the idea of instantaneous action through emptiness, but he emphasized that it follows from the knowledge available at that time and allows one to calculate motion and mutual attraction quite accurately celestial bodies.
Where outstanding thinkers and scientists from different eras can meet and exchange opinions. The discussion about the essence of matter, movement, and interaction mechanisms includes: one of the first atomists Democritus, the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, the most universal thinker of antiquity Aristotle, the founder of the first scientific picture of the world (mechanical) Newton, the creator of the molecular kinetic theory of gases and the founder of the electromagnetic picture of the world Maxwell , one of the creators of the atomic-molecular doctrine Lomonosov, the creator of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein, the founder and inspirer of the development of quantum mechanics Niels Bohr, the outstanding physicist of the 2nd half of the 20th century Richard Feynman and famous physicist modernity Stephen Hawking.
Of the named participants in the symposium, he defended the inequality of interacting bodies and argued that the active (moving) body acts on the passive (movable), but there is no counter-action (moving on the moving) ...
Aristotle
Maxwell
Solution:
All scientific pictures of the world recognize the validity of Newton's third law: action is equal to reaction. If body A acts on body B, then B certainly acts on A with exactly the same force (only in the opposite direction). Therefore, a representative of the pre-scientific era, Aristotle, could assert the asymmetry of interaction.
Of the named participants in the symposium, he stated that he knows exactly two fundamental interactions...
Maxwell
Aristotle
Solution: The very concept of fundamental interactions as various ways of transmitting interaction, to which all forces in the world can be reduced, began to form after the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, which mathematically described the gravitational interaction between bodies with mass. In the mechanical picture of the world there were no equally clearly expressed ideas about forces of a different nature, so we can assume that there is only one fundamental interaction in it - gravitational. Maxwell, having created classical electrodynamics, thereby mathematically described another fundamental interaction - electromagnetic. In the first half of the 20th century, two more fundamental interactions were discovered - strong (nuclear) and weak, which are significant only in the microcosm, and since then the situation has not changed. Aristotle, who lived long before the creation of classical mechanics, simply did not know the concept of fundamental interaction.
Case 1 subtask 2
Where outstanding thinkers and scientists from different eras can meet and exchange opinions. The discussion about the essence of matter, movement, and interaction mechanisms includes: one of the first atomists Democritus, the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, the most universal thinker of antiquity Aristotle, the founder of the first scientific picture of the world (mechanical) Newton, the creator of the molecular kinetic theory of gases and the founder of the electromagnetic picture of the world Maxwell , one of the creators of the atomic-molecular doctrine Lomonosov, the creator of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein, the founder and inspirer of the development of quantum mechanics Niels Bohr, the outstanding physicist of the 2nd half of the 20th century Richard Feynman and the most famous physicist of our time Stephen Hawking.
Of the named participants in the symposium, they argued that not a single material object can move at a speed exceeding a certain value, which is determined by the properties of our world as a whole, ...
Einstein and Feynman
Feynman and Niels Bohr
Aristotle and Maxwell
Democritus and Newton
Solution:
The idea of the utmost possible speed the movement of material bodies was developed by Einstein in the theory of relativity, at the end of the popularity of the electromagnetic picture of the world, and has not changed since then. In previous scientific and natural philosophical pictures of the world, the question of maximum speed was not even raised.
2. Imagine that a symposium is organized using a time machine, where outstanding thinkers and scientists from different eras can meet and exchange opinions. The discussion about the essence of matter, movement, and interaction mechanisms includes: one of the first atomists Democritus, the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, the most universal thinker of antiquity Aristotle, the founder of the first scientific picture of the world (mechanical) Newton, the creator of the molecular kinetic theory of gases and the founder of the electromagnetic picture of the world Maxwell , one of the creators of the atomic-molecular doctrine Lomonosov, the creator of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein, the founder and inspirer of the development of quantum mechanics Niels Bohr, the outstanding physicist of the 2nd half of the 20th century Richard Feynman and the most famous physicist of our time Stephen Hawking.
Of the named symposium participants, the opinion that there are fundamentally different forms of movement that are not reducible to each other was shared by...
Aristotle and Feynman
Maxwell and Aristotle
Heraclitus and Democritus
Maxwell and Newton
Solution:
Atomists believed that everything that happens in the world comes down to the mechanical movement of atoms. The same idea prevailed in the mechanical picture of the world. In the electromagnetic picture of the world, which arose on the basis of Maxwell’s electrodynamics, there was already a clear idea of processes that cannot be reduced to the movement of any particles - for example, the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In the modern scientific picture of the world, there has been (of course, at a new level) a return to the Aristotelian ideas that movement is any change in general, including qualitative, and not just a change in position in space over time.
3. Imagine that a symposium is organized using a time machine, where outstanding thinkers and scientists from different eras can meet and exchange opinions. The discussion about the essence of matter, movement, and interaction mechanisms includes: one of the first atomists Democritus, the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, the most universal thinker of antiquity Aristotle, the founder of the first scientific picture of the world (mechanical) Newton, the creator of the molecular kinetic theory of gases and the founder of the electromagnetic picture of the world Maxwell , one of the creators of the atomic-molecular theory Lomonosov, creator of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein, founder and inspirer of the development of quantum mechanics Niels Bohr, outstanding physicist 2nd half of the 20th century, Richard Feynman and the most famous physicist of our time, Stephen Hawking.
In his speech on the issue of the movement, Heraclitus stated that...
everything flows
it is impossible to step into the same river twice
The earth still turns
there is an inevitable element of randomness in the movement of atoms
Solution: In the history of ancient Greek natural philosophy, Heraclitus is known as the creator of the doctrine of the non-stop variability of things, similar to the non-stop flow of water in a river. He taught that everything exists only in process constant change, as a result of which any thing a moment later is no longer identical to itself, which was a moment ago.
Case 1 subtask 3
1. Imagine that a symposium is organized using a time machine, where outstanding thinkers and scientists from different eras can meet and exchange opinions. The discussion about the essence of matter, movement, and interaction mechanisms includes: one of the first atomists Democritus, the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, the most universal thinker of antiquity Aristotle, the founder of the first scientific picture of the world (mechanical) Newton, the creator of the molecular kinetic theory of gases and the founder of the electromagnetic picture of the world Maxwell , one of the creators of the atomic-molecular doctrine Lomonosov, the creator of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein, the founder and inspirer of the development of quantum mechanics Niels Bohr, the outstanding physicist of the 2nd half of the 20th century Richard Feynman and the most famous physicist of our time Stephen Hawking.
Establish a correspondence between the symposium participant and his opinion on the issue of emptiness (vacuum).
1. Democritus
2. Aristotle
emptiness exists and, along with atoms, is an independent beginning of the universe
emptiness does not exist, the Universe is densely filled with matter everywhere
vacuum is not emptiness, but one of the forms of matter that determines the appearance of the Universe
a vacuum is an empty space devoid of matter, which can be easily created using pumps
Solution:
Atomists, including Democritus, believed that everything consists of indivisible atoms, and everything that happens comes down to the movements of atoms. But then the existence of that which separates one atom from another and in which the atoms move—emptiness—is logically necessary. Aristotle believed that matter has a continuous structure, due to which it fills the narrowest cracks and leaves no room for emptiness anywhere. The Latinized form of his statement on this subject was very popular at one time: Nequaquam vacuum (Emptiness does not exist!). The modern scientific picture of the world in this matter is closer to Aristotle: it is believed that absolute emptiness, the absence of matter, does not exist, and it is impossible to create it. And what was previously considered synonymous with absolute emptiness - vacuum - turned out to be one of the forms of matter with a rather complex structure and properties. The emergence and development of our Universe are largely determined by the properties of the physical vacuum.
2. Imagine that a symposium is organized using a time machine, where outstanding thinkers and scientists from different eras can meet and exchange opinions. The discussion about the essence of matter, movement, and interaction mechanisms includes: one of the first atomists Democritus, the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, the most universal thinker of antiquity Aristotle, the founder of the first scientific picture of the world (mechanical) Newton, the creator of the molecular kinetic theory of gases and the founder of the electromagnetic picture of the world Maxwell , one of the creators of the atomic-molecular doctrine Lomonosov, the creator of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein, the founder and inspirer of the development of quantum mechanics Niels Bohr, the outstanding physicist of the 2nd half of the 20th century Richard Feynman and the most famous physicist of our time Stephen Hawking.
Establish a correspondence between the symposium participant and his opinion on the question of what matter is.
1. Aristotle
3. Maxwell
matter is the substance of which all bodies are composed, continuous and infinitely divisible
matter is a substance consisting of discrete corpuscles
matter is a substance with a discrete structure and a continuous physical field
matter is an objective reality accessible to knowledge through empirical experience
Solution:
For Aristotle, like all ancient philosophers, matter is the universal substance from which everything consists. The only question was what kind of substance it was and what properties it had. Aristotle considered matter to be continuous, without any structure (and indeed certain properties) and filling the entire Universe without voids. In the mechanical picture of the world, it was believed that matter has the only form– a substance with a discrete (corpuscular) structure. In the electromagnetic picture of the world, the idea of another form of matter appears - the physical field, which, in contrast to matter, was thought of as continuous, indivisible into elementary units. In the 20th century, it became clear that the forms of matter are diverse and it is not easy to draw clear boundaries between them, so matter began to be understood as all things that are amenable to scientific knowledge.
3. Imagine that a symposium is organized using a time machine, where outstanding thinkers and scientists from different eras can meet and exchange opinions. The discussion about the essence of matter, movement, and interaction mechanisms includes: one of the first atomists Democritus, the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, the most universal thinker of antiquity Aristotle, the founder of the first scientific picture of the world (mechanical) Newton, the creator of the molecular kinetic theory of gases and the founder of the electromagnetic picture of the world Maxwell , one of the creators of the atomic-molecular doctrine Lomonosov, the creator of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein, the founder and inspirer of the development of quantum mechanics Niels Bohr, the outstanding physicist of the 2nd half of the 20th century Richard Feynman and the most famous physicist of our time Stephen Hawking.
Establish a correspondence between the symposium participant and his opinion on the question of which concept - corpuscular or continuum - more correctly describes the properties of matter.
1. Aristotle
3. Maxwell
properties of matter should be described within the framework of the continuum concept
It is more correct to describe the properties of matter within the framework of the corpuscular concept.
both corpuscular and continuum concepts are necessary to describe the properties of matter
both the corpuscular and continuum concepts incorrectly describe the properties of matter
Solution:
Aristotle considered matter continuous and infinitely divisible, that is, he stood for a continuum concept. In Newtonian mechanics, the main process is the movement of a material point (particle, corpuscle) along its trajectory, therefore the corpuscular concept prevailed in the mechanical picture of the world. In the electromagnetic picture of the world, along with the idea of particles carrying electric charges, the idea of a continuous electromagnetic field created by these charges arises.
Case 2 subtask 1
In this drawing, the artist who depicted the device solar system, made a serious mistake. It lies in the fact that...
the proportions between the sizes of the Sun and the sizes of planetary orbits are greatly distorted
the proportions between the sizes of the Sun and the sizes of the planets are greatly distorted
the proportions between the sizes of different planets are greatly distorted
the order of the planets from the Sun is mixed up
Solution:
The order of the planets from the Sun, the relationship between their own sizes and the size of the Sun are conveyed close to reality. But the artist downplayed the size of the planetary orbits (compared to the size of the Sun). The radius of the Sun is about 700 thousand kilometers, and the radius (more precisely, the semimajor axis) of the earth's orbit is 150 million kilometers, that is, in 200 s one more time greater than the radius of the Sun. If the Sun is depicted in the same size as in the figure, then if the proportions are observed, the Earth should be at a distance of several meters from it - not to mention the more distant planets!
2. If you imagine that
The photograph shows a very small area of the sky, taken at very high magnification by the Hubble Space Telescope. The photograph is known as "Portrait of the Distant Depths of the Visible Universe." Most of the objects visible in this photo are...
galaxies
metagalaxies
Solution:
We immediately exclude metagalaxies, since the Metagalaxy (the observable region of the Universe) is unique by definition. Planets and stars are also not suitable, since, firstly, planets and stars are compact celestial bodies, and many of the objects in the photograph appear as more or less loose nebulae; secondly, in the distant depths of the visible Universe, even with the most powerful telescope it is impossible to see individual stars, much less planets. This photograph, of course, includes several stars belonging to our Galaxy, but only a few, because the photographed area of the sky is very small. And the planets that we can directly observe through a telescope are part of the solar system, which cannot be called “the most distant depths of the Universe.” Thus, the vast majority of objects in this image are galaxies.
3. If we imagine that the Universe exists for one day, then a person appeared on Earth just a couple of seconds ago. Therefore, when observing the sky, we see an instantaneous snapshot, a frozen photo of the Universe at one of the moments of its evolution. Nevertheless, even from this photo one can say a lot not only about what is in the Universe now, but also about what happened in it previously, as well as about its future fate.
The two brightest objects in this telescope photograph are...
star cluster and comet
Jupiter and its moon Ganymede
solar system
our Galaxy and its satellite the Large Magellanic Cloud
Solution:
None of these objects can be our Galaxy, since we ourselves live in it, in the plane of its spiral. Therefore, in any real photo, the Galaxy is visible edge-on as a narrow luminous strip stretching across half the sky. This cannot be the Solar System, since it contains many more objects than two. This cannot be Jupiter with its satellite Ganymede, since both Jupiter and Ganymede are planets, that is, compact celestial bodies, while the left object in the picture is clearly a system of many celestial bodies, that is, it may well be a cluster of stars, connected into a system by mutual gravity. And the right object has a typical sign of a comet - an extended tail and, most likely, is a comet.
Case 2 subtask 2
1. If you imagine that The universe exists for one day, then man appeared on Earth just a couple of seconds ago. Therefore, when observing the sky, we see an instantaneous snapshot, a frozen photo of the Universe at one of the moments of its evolution. Nevertheless, even from this photo one can say a lot not only about what is in the Universe now, but also about what happened in it previously, as well as about its future fate.
With this drawing the artist illustrated the main features of the solar system. Historically, the first scientific hypothesis of the origin of the Solar system, the Kant-Laplace hypothesis, was able to explain the following features of its structure...
The orbits of all planets lie almost in the same plane
all planets revolve around the sun in the same direction
all planets are clearly divided into two classes: small rocky planets and gas giants
light chemical elements predominate in the composition of all giant planets
Solution:
According to the Kant–Laplace hypothesis, the solar system was formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust, which was compressed under the influence of its own gravity, turning into a flat disk. The Sun then formed from the central part of this disk, and the planets from the peripheral part. Since all the planets were once parts of a single whole, they must maintain the same direction of rotation around the center. Since they formed from a flat protoplanetary disk, they must continue to move in its plane - common to all.
At the same time, the Kant-Laplace hypothesis considered the formation of the Solar system as a purely mechanical process, and processes of a different nature - chemical, optical, nuclear, etc. – I didn’t take it into account in principle. Therefore, it did not explain the difference in the chemical compositions of the terrestrial planets and the giant planets.
Appeared on Earth just a couple of seconds ago. Therefore, when observing the sky, we see an instantaneous snapshot, a frozen photo of the Universe at one of the moments of its evolution. Nevertheless, even from this photo one can say a lot not only about what is in the Universe now, but also about what happened in it previously, as well as about its future fate.
The photograph shows a very small area of the sky, taken at very high magnification by the Hubble Space Telescope. The photograph is known as "Portrait of the Distant Depths of the Visible Universe." Almost all of the objects depicted in the photo were formed at one time according to the most common cosmogonic scenario, which assumes that planets, stars and galaxies are formed... 
During a long time
by compression of dispersed matter under the influence of gravitational forces
as a result of catastrophically rapid events
through the disintegration of larger celestial bodies
Solution: According to modern concepts, the main mechanism for the formation of celestial bodies and their compact systems is that, due to gravitational instability, matter uniformly distributed in space is collected into denser formations under the influence of forces of mutual attraction (gravity). Against this background, of course, other scenarios are possible - the disintegration of a large celestial body into small fragments or even an explosion (for example, a Supernova explosion), but they are considered less common.
3. appeared on Earth just a couple of seconds ago. Therefore, when observing the sky, we see an instantaneous snapshot, a frozen photo of the Universe at one of the moments of its evolution. Nevertheless, even from this photo one can say a lot not only about what is in the Universe now, but also about what happened in it previously, as well as about its future fate.
The two brightest objects present in this photograph of a section of the starry sky are united by the fact that...
their origin and development are studied by the same science - cosmogony
the main source of knowledge about their properties is the analysis of the radiation coming from them
they have the same source of glow energy – thermonuclear reactions in their depths
these objects themselves and their position in the sky have practically not changed over the entire period of astronomical observations
Solution:
The two brightest objects in the image are a galaxy or star cluster (left) and a comet (right). The mass of the comet by cosmic standards is negligible and completely insufficient for thermonuclear reactions to occur in it. The passage of a comet near the Sun does not take very long (several years at most) and is expensive: the comet loses part of its matter due to evaporation from the surface heated by the sun's rays. Therefore, changes in both the comet itself and its position in the starry sky are quite observable.
Cosmogony, by definition, is the science of the origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems, so that comets, stars, star clusters, and galaxies are under its jurisdiction.
The main source of knowledge about the properties of almost all celestial bodies, not only comets, stars and galaxies, is the study of the radiation coming from them.
Case 2 subtask 3
1. If we imagine that the Universe exists for one day, then a person appeared on Earth just a couple of seconds ago. Therefore, when observing the sky, we see an instantaneous snapshot, a frozen photo of the Universe at one of the moments of its evolution. Nevertheless, even from this photo one can say a lot not only about what is in the Universe now, but also about what happened in it previously, as well as about its future fate.
With this drawing the artist illustrated the main features of the solar system. The composition of the Sun and planets includes all chemical elements of the periodic table that have somewhat stable isotopes. Regarding the origin of these chemical elements it can be said that...
hydrogen, the share of which is significant in the composition of the Sun and the giant planets, was formed in the first seconds of the existence of the Universe
uranium, which has only radioactive isotopes, was formed during supernova explosions in the first billions of years of the existence of the Universe
aluminum and silicon, the share of which is significant in the composition of the terrestrial planets, were formed during thermonuclear reactions in the bowels of the Sun
oxygen, the share of which is significant in the composition of the terrestrial planets, was formed during chemical reactions on these planets
Solution:
In the first seconds of the existence of the Universe, the nuclei of atoms of only the lightest chemical elements - hydrogen and helium - were formed. When the first stars formed, they consisted of only these two elements. However, thermonuclear reactions of the fusion of light nuclei in their depths led to the gradual emergence of increasingly heavier chemical elements up to the iron group. Even heavier elements, such as uranium, could only be formed during the catastrophic end of the life of the heaviest stars of the first generation, namely, during supernova explosions. Chemical reactions, unlike thermonuclear reactions, never create any new elements.
2. If we imagine that the Universe exists for one day, then a person appeared on Earth just a couple of seconds ago. Therefore, when observing the sky, we see an instantaneous snapshot, a frozen photo of the Universe at one of the moments of its evolution. Nevertheless, even from this photo one can say a lot not only about what is in the Universe now, but also about what happened in it previously, as well as about its future fate.
The photograph shows a very small area of the sky, taken at very high magnification by the Hubble Space Telescope. The photograph is known as "Portrait of the Distant Depths of the Visible Universe." Distant galaxies included in the photo...
look redder than they are
look younger than they are
look brighter than they are
moving towards an observer on earth
Solution:
In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered the law according to which all distant galaxies move away from the observer (no matter where in the Universe he is) at a speed proportional to their distance. Due to the Doppler effect, this leads to a shift in their emission spectra to the long-wave (red) side of the spectrum. Cosmological redshift in the spectra of galaxies reduces the energy of photons (which is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the radiation) and, as a result, makes the light of galaxies dimmer to the observer. Because the galaxies in the image are so distant from us, it took their light a significant amount of time to reach the Hubble Telescope and form this image. Therefore, in the image the galaxies look younger than they are now.
3. If we imagine that the Universe exists for one day, then a person appeared on Earth just a couple of seconds ago. Therefore, when observing the sky, we see an instantaneous snapshot, a frozen photo of the Universe at one of the moments of its evolution. Nevertheless, even from this photo one can say a lot not only about what is in the Universe now, but also about what happened in it previously, as well as about its future fate.
The objects shown in this image are made of the same matter as you and I - atoms, consisting of electrons and nuclei, the latter consisting of protons and neutrons, which are made of quarks. However, according to modern scientific data, in the Universe, in addition to ordinary matter, which makes up less than 5% of the contribution to the total mass of the Universe, there is...
"dark matter", the contribution of which is about 25% of total weight Universe
"dark energy" that causes the Universe to expand at an accelerating rate
world ether, whose contribution to the total mass of the Universe reaches 70%
antimatter in quantity, equal amount substances
Solution:
The left object in the image is the globular cluster of stars M92. The study of the motion of stars in such clusters and galaxies has shown that the attraction of all the other stars included in them is not enough to hold a star in these formations. There is something else there that, with its attraction, prevents star clusters and galaxies from falling apart. This something is called “dark matter”.
At the very end of the 20th century, it was discovered that the Universe was not just expanding, but expanding with acceleration. A certain substance must be responsible for this, which is called “dark energy”. The mass of this substance makes up the lion's share of the total mass of the Universe - more than 70%. As for antimatter, it has been known since the mid-20th century that there is no complete symmetry between them. There is much less antimatter in the Universe than matter.