Geographical location plan. Education for everyone

Health concept. Health criteria. Population health is one of the the most important criteria assessing the well-being of society. Increasing pollution environment associated with the development of industry and energy. The state of health of the population is a generalized integral indicator of the quality of the living environment and its impact on human life.

According to the WHO charter, health is understood as a state of complete physical, spiritual and social well-being, and not just the absence of disease as such or physical defects, as is still quite widespread in the public consciousness. However, this definition cannot be used to assess health on a population (social) and individual level. According to WHO, in health statistics, health at the individual level is defined as the absence of identified disorders and diseases. Public health is characterized by a system of statistical medical and demographic indicators, morbidity, disability, physical development and mental health of the population.

In biomedical research, physical development indicators are used to assess health. Body functions are assessed by indicators of physical and mental performance, and adaptive reserves are assessed by indicators of biochemical, hormonal and immunological status.

The magnitude of health loss is expressed in terms of morbidity and disability, reflecting disturbances in the structures and functions of the body, changes in its adaptive capabilities.

All criteria must be assessed dynamically. An important criterion for assessing public health should be considered health index, i.e., the proportion of those who were not ill at the time of the study (for example, during the year).

In sanitary statistics, the indicator is used as a criterion for health status, especially at the population level. soreness, or morbidity. This indicator reflects the prevalence of diseases and is determined by the ratio of the number of diseases per year, multiplied by 1,000 and divided by the average population size. In general, the morbidity indicator is a collective designation of negative health indicators.

The human body reacts equally to a variety of influences. Changes of similar severity can be caused in one case by the action harmful substances, in another, excessive physical or mental stress, in the third case, the trigger may be a deficiency of motor activity with increased neuro-emotional stress.

Moreover, factors can have an isolated, combined, complex or cumulative effect on the body.

Isolated action harmful substances are rare; usually a person is exposed to the cumulative or combined influence of negative factors.

Under combined action understand simultaneous or sequential action on the body by factors of the same nature, often a number of chemicals, through the same route of entry (for example, with air, water or food).

Complex action manifests itself when negative factors of different nature (physical, chemical) enter the body simultaneously in different ways (for example, through the respiratory system and skin).

Cumulative Action observed with simultaneous or sequential action on the human body of factors of various natures (physical, chemical, biological).

Finally, we must remember that various environmental pollutants can play a role in the development of a pathological process in the body. risk factors, i.e. factors that are not the direct cause of a certain disease, but which increase the likelihood of its occurrence.

Features of the impact of environmental factors lead to significant changes in population health indicators, which consist in the fact that new patterns are observed in the prevalence and nature of human pathology, otherwise demographic processes proceed differently. In general terms, these changes can be expressed in an acceleration of the rate of dynamics of indicators characterizing health; manifestation of a new non-epidemiological type of pathology; characteristic demographic changes; occurrence of previously rare diseases; increase in infectious diseases; formation of multiple pathologies.

The estimated contribution of various factors to the health of the population is assessed according to four positions: lifestyle, human genetics (biology), environment and healthcare. The materials of the World Health Organization indicate that in the total impact on the health of the population, 50% is attributed to lifestyle, 20% each falls on the environment and heredity (genetic factors), and 10% on the quality of health care. It should be noted that these data are, firstly, indicative in nature, and secondly, their influence is interrelated. The environment (air, water, soil pollution; sudden changes in atmospheric phenomena; increased cosmic, magnetic and other radiation, etc.) can influence the remaining components. Thus, its impact on health increases significantly, but manifests itself indirectly.

Environmental diseases. Technogenic urban environment has a profound impact on the main social quality of a person – his health in the broad sense of the word. Factors such as air and water pollution from industrial and transport emissions, electromagnetic fields, vibration and noise, chemicalization of everyday life, as well as flows of excessive information, an excessive number of social problems, lack of time, physical inactivity, emotional overload, nutritional deficiencies, bad habits, to one degree or another and in various combinations become somatotropic and psychotropic factors in the etiology of prenosological conditions, and then diseases.

High concentrations of pollutants in various components of the environment have led to the emergence of so-called “ environmental diseases", including chemical asthma; Kirishi syndrome (severe allergy associated with emissions from the production of protein-vitamin concentrates); ticker syndrome, which develops in children in oil refinery areas; general immune depression due to intoxication with heavy metals, dioxides, etc.; Yushko's disease, associated with the effect of polychlorinated biphenyls on the child's body; a disease appeared in the Urals, called “potato disease” (symptom of “squelching foot”); A disease called “yellow children” was discovered in the Altai Territory.

The following are the main indicators of environmental risk: environmental pathologies: indicator pathology, characterized by a high degree of dependence on environmental pollution (occupational diseases, high rates of cancer, perinatal mortality, congenital pathology, genetic defects, allergies, toxicological lesions); environmentally dependent pathology, characterized by a moderate degree of dependence on environmental pollution (increased overall infant mortality, secondary immunodeficiencies, exacerbation of underlying diseases due to worsening weather conditions); environmentally determined pathology, characterized by a moderate degree of dependence on environmental pollution (higher morbidity with temporary loss of performance, chronic bronchitis and pneumonia in adults and children).

The environmental situation in our country still remains extremely alarming and is accompanied by a deterioration in key indicators of public health, including the health of young children, an increase in mortality and a decrease in average life expectancy. Suffice it to say that currently more than 100 large cities and regions of the country, including Krasnoyarsk region, are characterized by an environmental situation unfavorable to human health.

Currently, in an unstable economic situation, health is also becoming a major economic force. A sick person concentrates only on the problems of his body and completely loses interest in the world around him, cannot work and earn normally. Our country currently has a very difficult demographic situation, which is close to critical: infant mortality has increased (3 times higher than in Europe); Life expectancy has decreased, including for men up to 65–67 years of age, which is 15 years less than in Europe.

Even more a difficult situation observed in our region. Thus, according to federal criteria for assessing fertility levels, in the Krasnoyarsk Territory the indicator is at a low level (from 10.0 to 14.9 per 1,000 population). Infant mortality in the region is higher than the Russian average. The total fertility rate does not exceed 1.33 (1.24 in the city and 1.79 in the countryside). Life expectancy at birth in the region (63.0 years) is lower than the Russian average (65.1 years). The life expectancy of men in the region is 13.1 years less than that of women due to the high mortality rate of men of working age. Declining birth rate and high mortality rate working-age population have influenced the current age composition of residents in the region. In the Krasnoyarsk Territory, a regressive type of population has developed, when the proportion of people over 50 years of age (27%) exceeds the proportion of people from 0–14 years of age (17%). In 2005, the overall morbidity rate in the adult population of the region was 1,274.1 cases per 1,000 population, which is 22.8 percent higher than the 2001 level. The incidence of diseases has also increased. This figure was 553.4 cases per 1,000 population and exceeded the 2001 level by 16.8 percent.

Technogenic factors affecting humans. The main man-made factors that have a negative impact on health are chemical and physical pollution of the environment.

Chemical pollution of the environment and human health. Human society is constantly exposed to obvious, and most often hidden, influences of a variety of potentially harmful factors, including numerous chemicals. The threat to human health and well-being associated with such adverse effects is a growing concern today, increasing responsibility in disseminating information about the true extent and levels of environmental hazards.

When considering the negative effects that harmful chemicals can cause to humans, one should distinguish between substances that cause a direct toxic effect on the human body (acute, chronic toxicity, etc.), as well as an indirect effect on living organisms associated with humans through trophic or other means.

Among toxicants, there are rarely compounds that have acute toxicity, i.e., causing severe damage (poisoning) to the body, even fatal, after a single high dose enters the body. Such situations usually arise during emergencies or other rapidly occurring critical situations, which, according to the geographical situation, are classified as infection zones.

More often we have to deal with the so-called chronic toxic effect, which manifests itself gradually, with prolonged exposure to small doses of toxicants that have a cumulative effect on the body. The cumulative effect is insidious, since after a latent period of unnoticed accumulation of the toxic dose, irreversible damage can occur. Toxicants that have a cumulative toxic effect include heavy metal compounds (lead, mercury, cadmium, etc.), arsenic compounds, fluorine, halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (polychlorinated biphenyls, DDT, polychlorodibenzodioxins, etc.). If during the accumulation process the total dose is lower than the lethal dose, then toxic effects will be mild or will manifest nonspecific symptoms.

Chronic poisonings are quite common, but they are rarely reported. Statistically reliable dependence on chemical pollution atmospheric air established for diseases of bronchitis, pneumonia, emphysema, as well as for acute respiratory diseases. Atmospheric air pollution affects the body's resistance, which manifests itself in the growth of infectious diseases. In the nai to a greater extent Ambient air pollution affects health outcomes in urban centers, particularly in cities with developed metallurgical, processing and coal industries. The territories of such cities are affected by both nonspecific pollutants (dust, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, soot, nitrogen dioxide) and specific ones (fluorine, phenol, metals, etc.). IN total volume Non-specific pollutants account for over 95% of atmospheric air pollution.

According to a sample survey of 33 Russian cities, in cities with high levels of pollution, the average number of respiratory diseases increases by 41%, cardiovascular diseases by 132%, skin diseases by 176% and the number of malignant neoplasms by 35%. Numerous studies conducted in last years, indicate that children living in areas with high levels of air pollution have low level physical development, which is often assessed as disharmonious. The observed lag in the level of biological development from the passport age indicates a very unfavorable effect of air pollution on the health of the younger generation.

Compared to other sources chemical pollution(food, drinking water, soil) atmospheric air is particularly dangerous because there is no chemical barrier in its path. Atmospheric pollution primarily affects the body's resistance, the reduction of which results in increased morbidity, as well as other physiological changes in the body.

By the nature of the effect on the human body chemical substances(harmful and dangerous) are divided into: general toxic, causing poisoning of the whole body (mercury, carbon monoxide, toluene, aniline); sensitizing, acting as allergens (aldehydes, solvents and varnishes based on nitro compounds); neuro- and psychotropic acting on the nervous system (nicotine); mutagenic, leading to changes in hereditary information in reproductive and somatic cells (lead, radioactive substances, formaldehyde, DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane)); carcinogenic that cause cancer (benzidine, aromatic hydrocarbons, amino compounds, asbestos, DDT); fibrogens, causing benign tumors (titanium dioxide, food coloring, xenobiotics); teratogens causing, when exposed to the body (embryo, growing organism), the occurrence of deformities and other developmental anomalies (nicotine, alcohol-containing products, drugs, thalidomide, antibiotics, etc.); embryotoxins, poisonous to embryos and poisoning them (DDT, zinc salts, copper, a number of drugs); substances affecting reproductive (reproduction of offspring) function (benzene, lead, manganese, nicotine).

The mechanisms of action of chemical pollutants on the body are also different. They release irritating substances that affect the mucous membrane, nerve endings (hydrogen sulfide, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, ammonia, chlorine, acid and alkali vapors); substances that change the ratio of oxidative and reduction reactions in the body (ozone, ionizing radiation, dioxins); substances that irreversibly bind to organic or inorganic compounds of the body (heavy metals, arsenic, nicotine, selenium); fat-soluble substances that disrupt the function of biological membranes (benzene, turpentine, dichloroethane, acetone, etc.); substances that replace chemical elements or compounds in the cell (strontium, cesium, beryllium, etc.).

In this case, the same substance or factor can affect several organs and tissues.

Physical pollution of the environment and human health. To the main physical factors environment that have a negative impact on human health include acoustic vibrations, vibration, electromagnetic radiation, electrical current .

Acoustic vibrations include noise, infrasound, ultrasound and their effects on humans.

The physical concept of acoustic vibrations covers both audible and inaudible vibrations of elastic media. Acoustic vibrations in the range of 16–20 kHz, perceived by a person with normal hearing, are called sound. Acoustic vibrations with a frequency of less than 16 Hz are called infrasonic, and those above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic. Propagating in space, sound vibrations create an acoustic field. Acoustic vibrations are audible and inaudible vibrations of elastic media.

Noise is a disordered combination of sounds of varying frequencies and intensities (strengths), arising from mechanical vibrations in media. From a physiological point of view, noise is any sound that is unfavorably perceived.

The main sources of noise include transport, primarily automobile, aviation and railway, as well as various industrial and agricultural enterprises. Sources of noise in production: machines, presses, intra-plant transport, ventilation systems, electrified tools, etc.

Noise with a sound pressure level of up to 30–35 dB is familiar to a person and does not bother him. An increase in this level to 40–70 dB in environmental conditions creates a significant load on the nervous system, causing deterioration in well-being, and with prolonged exposure can cause neuroses. Exposure to noise levels above 75 dB can cause hearing loss. When exposed to high levels of noise (more than 140 dB), rupture of the eardrums, contusion, and at even higher levels (more than 160 dB) and death are possible.

In most large industrial cities, there is noise pollution that significantly exceeds acceptable standards. For example, in cities such as Yekaterinburg and Krasnoyarsk, on urban highways, sound levels are 73–95 dB; in residential buildings located on large highways, noise levels reach 62–77 dB, i.e. 1.5–2 times higher than the maximum permissible noise level (40–50 dB).

Biologically, the noise is noticeable stress factor for a person, capable of causing disruption of adaptive reactions. Acoustic stress can lead to various manifestations: changes in breathing rate and heart rate, disturbances in the regulation of the central nervous system and metabolism, the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and also the occurrence of occupational diseases. The degree of noise pathology depends on the intensity and duration of exposure and, very importantly, on the individual sensitivity of the body to the acoustic stimulus. Long-term exposure to noise causes changes in physiological reactions, sleep disturbance, mental and physical health, performance and auditory perception. Individual human sensitivity to noise is 4–17%. It is believed that 30% of people have increased sensitivity to noise pollution, 60% have normal sensitivity and only 10% are insensitive to noise. Women's and children's bodies are especially sensitive to noise exposure. High individual sensitivity can be one of the reasons for increased fatigue and the development of various neuroses.

Infrasonic vibrations- these are invisible and inaudible waves that cause a person to feel deeply depressed. Sources of infrasound in industrial enterprises are fans, compressor units, and all slowly rotating machines and mechanisms. The most powerful sources of infrasound are jet engines. Under normal urban and industrial conditions, infrasound levels are low, but even weak infrasound from urban transport is included in the general noise background of the city and is one of the reasons for the nervous fatigue of residents.

Infrasound – vibrations with a frequency below 20 Hz. The overwhelming majority of modern people do not hear acoustic vibrations with a frequency below 40 Hz. The maximum levels of low-frequency acoustic vibrations from industrial and transport sources reach 100-110 dB. At levels from 110 to 150 dB or more, it can cause unpleasant subjective sensations and numerous reactive changes in people, which include changes in the central nervous, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and the vestibular analyzer.

Infrasound is harmful to humans in all cases - weak infrasound affects the inner ear and causes symptoms of seasickness, strong infrasound causes damage internal organs due to their strong vibration. Infrasonic impact medium strength can cause blindness. Infrasound can “shift” the tuning frequencies of internal organs, instilling in a person a feeling of melancholy, panic fear, a feeling of cold, anxiety, and trembling in the spine. When in resonance with human biorhythms, infrasound of particularly high intensity can cause instant death.

Ultrasound. Powerful ultrasonic vibrations of low frequency and high intensity are used in production for technological purposes: cleaning parts, welding, drilling, soldering metals. Weaker ultrasonic vibrations are used in diagnostics and for research purposes.

In the field of ultrasonic vibrations in living tissues, ultrasound has mechanical, thermal, physicochemical effects (micromassage of cells and tissues). At the same time, metabolic processes are activated and the immune properties of the body are increased. Ultrasound has a pronounced analgesic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory and general tonic effect, stimulates blood and lymph circulation, accelerates regenerative processes, and improves tissue trophism.

Ultrasound has a mainly local effect on the body, since it is transmitted through direct contact with the source of ultrasonic vibrations. Ultrasonic vibrations generated by low-frequency industrial equipment have an adverse effect on the human body. Long-term systematic exposure to airborne ultrasound causes changes in the nervous, cardiovascular and endocrine systems, auditory and vestibular analyzers. The most characteristic is the presence of vegetative-vascular dystonia and asthenic syndrome. The degree of severity of changes in the human body depends on the intensity and duration of exposure to ultrasound and increases in the presence of high-frequency noise in the spectrum, with a pronounced hearing loss. If contact with ultrasound continues, these disorders become more persistent. Under the influence of local ultrasound, phenomena of vegetative polyneuritis of the hands (less often of the legs) of varying degrees of severity occur, up to the development of paresis of the hands and forearms, and vegetative-vascular dysfunction. Ultrasonic vibrations, penetrating the body, can cause inflammation, hemorrhage, and necrosis (death of cells and tissues) in tissues.

The nature of changes in the body depends on the dose of ultrasound exposure. Small doses - sound level 80-90 dB - give a stimulating effect - micromassage, acceleration of metabolic processes. Large doses - sound levels of 120 dB or more - have a damaging effect.

Vibration is a complex oscillatory process with a wide range of frequencies that occurs in elastic bodies or bodies as a result of the transfer of oscillatory energy from some mechanical source. In cities, sources of vibration are primarily transport, as well as some industries.

Vibration is one of the factors with high biological activity. The severity of the body's responses is determined mainly by the force of mechanical action on it and the biomechanical properties of the human body. The effect of vibration depends on the frequency and amplitude of vibrations, duration of exposure, location of application, etc.

The impact of vibration on a person is classified: according to the method of transmission of vibrations to a person (general vibration is transmitted through supporting surfaces to the body of a sitting or standing person; local - through the hands); in the direction of action (vertical, horizontal from the right shoulder to the left, from the back to the chest); according to the time characteristic (constant, non-constant).

Power oscillatory process in the contact zone and the time of this contact are the main parameters that determine the development of human vibration pathologies. Currently, vibration pathology ranks second (after dust) among occupational diseases.

There are three types of vibration pathology from the effects of general, local and jerky vibrations. When general vibrations affect the body, the nervous system, the musculoskeletal system, and the analyzers: vestibular, visual, and tactile are the first to suffer. General low-frequency vibration affects metabolic processes, manifested by changes in carbohydrate, protein, enzyme, vitamin and cholesterol metabolism, and biochemical blood parameters. Local vibration causes spasms of the blood vessels of the hand and forearms, disrupting the blood supply to the limbs, deforms and reduces the mobility of the joints. Jerky vibration is especially dangerous, causing microtrauma of various tissues with subsequent reactive changes. Vibration disease can develop after 8–15 years.

People exposed to environmental vibration are more likely to suffer from cardiovascular and nervous diseases and usually complain of poor health.

Electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic fields (EMF) in the environment are created by power lines, electrical equipment, electrical appliances - all technical systems that generate, transmit and use electromagnetic energy. Long-term exposure of a person to industrial frequency EMF (50 Hz) causes headaches, lethargy, memory loss, sleep disturbances, increased irritability, heart pain, etc. The effect of EMF on the human body is determined by the frequency of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), its intensity, duration, individual characteristics of the organism. The majority of the spectrum of non-ionizing EMR is made up of radio waves, the smaller part is made up of vibrations in the optical range: infrared radiation (IR), visible ultraviolet radiation (UV).

Electromagnetic radiation of radio frequencies is widely used in communications, television and radio broadcasting, medicine, radar, flaw detection, etc.

The impact of EMR radio frequencies on the body is determined by the energy flux density, frequency of radiation, duration of exposure, size of the irradiated surface, individual characteristics of the body, etc. The consequence of absorption of EMR energy by the human body is an increase in the temperature of the organs. Exposure to EMR is particularly harmful to the eyes and skin. Thus, eye irradiation can lead to clouding of the lens (cataract), and possible burns to the cornea. With prolonged exposure to EMR, disorders in the central nervous system, cardiovascular and endocrine systems are possible; changes in metabolism and blood composition; Hair loss, brittle nails, and weight loss may occur. In case of emergency situations, exposure to EMR is accompanied by cardiovascular disorders with fainting, increased heart rate and decreased blood pressure.

The impact of EMR of the optical range: infrared, visible (light), ultraviolet radiation on humans is not fundamentally different. When exposed to infrared radiation (chronic irradiation), a sharp expansion of capillaries occurs, increasing skin pigmentation - a red complexion. In case of acute injury, skin burns and eye damage are possible. UV radiation is a vital factor that has a beneficial stimulating effect on the body. Optimal doses of UVR activate the activity of the heart and metabolism. The eye is most vulnerable to UV radiation. The effect on the skin is expressed in inflammation with redness, blistering, fever, chills, and headache.

Laser radiation (LR) is a special type of EMR. The degree of exposure to radiation on the body depends on the intensity of the radiation and the time of exposure. When the eyes are irradiated, the cornea and lens are easily damaged (heating the lens leads to the formation of cataracts). Skin damage can range from redness to charring.

Electric field industrial frequency is a biologically active environmental factor. When systematically exposed to an electric field whose intensity exceeds the maximum permissible level, a person may experience changes in the functional state of the nervous, cardiovascular and endocrine systems, as well as some metabolic processes, the immunological reactivity of the body and its reproductive function.

The effect of electric current on living tissue is multifaceted. Passing through the human body, electric current produces thermal, electrolytic, mechanical and biological effects. The thermal effect is manifested by burns of individual parts of the body, heating to a high temperature of organs located in the path of the current. The electrolytic effect is expressed in a violation of the physico-chemical composition and properties of various body fluids (blood, lymph). The mechanical action of the current leads to rupture of body tissues as a result of the electrodynamic effect. The biological effect is manifested by convulsive muscle contractions, as well as disruption of internal biological processes. A person receives electrical injuries (local and general) from electric shock. General disturbances from electric shock - convulsions, respiratory arrest, cardiac arrest. Local injuries include: burns, metallization of the skin (penetration of various metal particles into it when it melts), mechanical damage, electrical signs (densified areas of gray or pale yellow color, painless and quickly disappear).

The outcome of an electric shock to a person depends on many factors: the strength of the current, the time it passes through the body, etc. The body’s resistance to the effects of electric current is also influenced by the physical and mental state of the person: ill health, fatigue, hunger, intoxication, emotional arousal, leading to a decrease in resistance. Unfavorable climate (high temperature and humidity) increases the risk of electric shock.

A current at which a person can independently free himself from the electrical circuit is considered acceptable.

Environmental factors and health of the population of the Krasnoyarsk Territory. The state of health of the population of the Krasnoyarsk Territory over the past decade has caused justifiable concern not only among specialists, but also among government institutions and the general public. By the beginning of the XXI century. the indicators by which the health status of the population is traditionally assessed (medical and demographic indicators, morbidity, disability, physical development) have sharply deteriorated. The demographic situation with which we entered the new century poses a threat to national security. The problems of maintaining the health of the region's population urgently require the development of a development strategy for our region. The ongoing public health crisis is driven not only by biological and environmental factors, but also by socio-economic factors.

In the Krasnoyarsk Territory, the sources of atmospheric air pollution are diverse, the composition of emissions is multicomponent, and this causes a deterioration in the quality of the air environment in populated areas. Dynamics of emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air in the Krasnoyarsk Territory during 2005–2009. characterized by a high chemical load (2,446.4 thousand tons/year). A significant share in the total volume of gross emissions of pollutants from all sources of anthropogenic air pollution in populated areas of the Krasnoyarsk Territory is made up of emissions from motor vehicles, and in certain cities and regions they are decisive.

The level of air pollution according to the air pollution index in large industrial cities of the Krasnoyarsk Territory in 2009 was characterized as “high” and “very high” and ranged from 7.2 in Kansk to 18.56 in Krasnoyarsk. The main substances that create “very high” and “high” levels of pollution are: in Krasnoyarsk - benz(a)pyrene, formaldehyde, suspended solids, dioxide and nitrogen oxide, in Minusinsk and Nazarovo - benzene ( a) pyrene, formaldehyde; in Lesosibirsk – benzo(a)pyrene, formaldehyde, phenol, suspended substances; in Achinsk – formaldehyde, benz(a)pyrene, suspended substances; in Kansk – benz(a)pyrene, nitrogen dioxide; in Norilsk - copper and nickel oxides, sulfur dioxide, suspended substances.

A necessary element of life support for the population is drinking water, the state of people’s health, the level of their sanitary and epidemiological well-being, and the degree of improvement of the housing stock depend on its quality, quantity and uninterrupted supply. Providing the population with drinking water that is safe for health is an urgent hygienic problem.

The population of certain territories of the Krasnoyarsk Territory uses drinking water characterized by high levels of sanitary-chemical and microbial contamination. A high proportion of water samples that did not meet hygienic standards for sanitary and chemical indicators was recorded in the water supply network: Tyukhtetsky (85.7%), Pirovsky (84.0%), Kozulsky (78.9%), Bolsheuluisky (68.9 %), Dzerzhinsky (46.7%), Nizhneingashsky (46.1%), Achinsky (42.6%), Karatuzsky (40.0%) districts.

The unfavorable territories in terms of microbiological indicators of drinking water quality are: Motyginsky (73.6% of samples do not meet hygienic standards); Evenki (47.5%); Idrinsky (29.3%); Ermakovsky (27.3%); Krasnoturansky (26.8%); Boguchansky (20.3%); Balakhtinsky (17.5%); Uzhursky (16.7%); Rybinsky (16.6%); Sayan (16.3%) districts.

The combination of environmental factors (natural, socio-economic, household, anthropogenic) can affect the entire population, its individual groups and each person, both unidirectionally and multidirectionally. Therefore, the quality of the environment can be judged by such a complex criterion as public health.

During 2005–2009 The level of incidence of the population of the Krasnoyarsk Territory as a whole with newly diagnosed diseases caused by the influence of environmental factors tends to increase in the class of diseases of the nervous system, circulatory system, respiratory system, complications of pregnancy and childbirth, and malignant neoplasms. Dynamics of growth in the population's incidence of diseases of the blood, blood-forming organs, and endocrine system from 2005 to 2008. was replaced in 2009 by a decrease in morbidity rates.

In 2009, three outbreaks of enterovirus infection were registered in the region among the population of Achinsk; outbreaks of acute intestinal infections caused by opportunistic flora among children of the Bolsheungutskaya Secondary School in the Mansky District and among rotation workers at SMP-2 of the STPS-Gazification JSC in the Turukhansky District.

Ranking of the territories of the Krasnoyarsk Territory according to the average long-term morbidity level of the population (1992–2009), caused by the influence of environmental factors, showed that the morbidity level is significantly higher for malignant neoplasms in 17 territories of the region; in the class “Diseases of the nervous system” - at 16; “Diseases of the blood and hematopoietic organs” - in 15; “Diseases of the circulatory system” - at 16; “Diseases of the endocrine system” - in 6; “Respiratory diseases” - in 11; “Complications of pregnancy and childbirth” – in 9 territories of the region.

Assessment and comparison of the level of health risk for the population of urban districts and municipal districts of the Krasnoyarsk Territory based on the calculated integral indicator indicates that if in 2009 in 12 territories (4 cities - Krasnoyarsk, Norilsk, Divnogorsk, Lesosibirsk and 8 districts: Tyukhtetsky, Uzhursky , Shushensky, Sharypovsky, Turukhansky, Dzerzhinsky, Taseevsky, Berezovsky), and this is 51.7% of the region’s population (1,492,589 people), an “increased” degree of health risk was noted, then in 2010, according to forecast data, the population is decreasing with both “minimal” and “increased” degrees of health risk. At the same time, an increase in the proportion of residents of the region who fall into the group with a “moderate” degree of risk is expected, and the emergence of municipalities with “high” (Birilyussky, Tyukhtetsky, Uzhursky, Shushensky districts) levels of health risk on the territory of the region.

The negative impact on people's health of an unfavorable environmental situation, measures to improve which should be an integral part of territorial development programs, can be mitigated or completely neutralized by good socio-ecological conditions.

Human health largely depends on the state of the environment in which he lives. Chemical composition and the quality of food, water, air, determine not only well-being, but the nature of human diseases. The expansion of society's influence on nature predetermines a sharp aggravation of the pollution problem surrounding a person environment. In analyzing it we must distinguish between two main forms of pollution.

The first of them - let's call it quantitative - should be understood as industrial and household emissions into nature of those substances and chemical compounds that, although found in nature, natural state, but in much smaller quantities. Take air pollution, for example. In its natural state it contains many fine particles in the form of dust and gaseous compounds. However, according to reference data, 9-10 billion tons of standard fuel are burned annually in the world, resulting in an additional 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere, which is 1.5 times more than as a result of the respiration of all humanity. In addition, factories, power plants, and vehicles emit tens and hundreds of millions of tons of other environmental pollutants. But, perhaps, an even greater threat is posed by the second form of pollution - let's call it qualitative - associated with the entry into nature of completely new substances and compounds created by modern industry. Man-made products of this kind, spreading in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, lead to serious disruptions of natural environmental situation. A person often turns out to be physiologically unprepared for them. This is associated with an increase in the number of cancer, endocrine, allergic and other diseases.

Among the environmental factors affecting human health, the first to be noted is pollution of atmospheric air, water and food.

Sources of air pollution can be divided into two: large groups- natural and artificial. Natural, or natural, pollutants do not affect the quality of air as much as artificial or anthropogenic pollutants. The former include volcanic eruptions, forest and steppe fires, salt-rich sea spray and fog, plant pollen, dust storms, animal excretions, and cosmic dust.

Artificial pollutants can be divided into several groups:

1) physical (mechanical) pollutants - various emissions industrial enterprises, smoke and soot from the combustion of oil and coal, worn-out tire rubber, etc.;

2) chemical pollutants – dust, water or gaseous substances that can enter into chemical reactions;

3) biological pollutants – bacteria, viruses, some types of plants and animals;

4) radioactive pollutants - releases of radionuclides as a result of accidents at nuclear facilities, radioactive contamination from weapons mass destruction and nuclear waste.

The main source of mechanical and chemical pollution of the atmosphere is industry and, above all, thermal power plants and industrial enterprises.

For example, a thermal power plant with a capacity of 700 MW, operating on coal, consumes about 1 million tons of coal per year with a sulfur content of 1%, per hour of operation at full power emits 500 tons of carbon dioxide, 0.15 tons of carbon monoxide, 7 tons of sulfur dioxide into the air. 1.7 tons of nitrogen oxide, 0.05 tons of hydrocarbons and 0.7 tons of dust.

Major problems in maintaining air purity arose with the development of metallurgy. During ore processing, dust containing metal particles is released into the air as a by-product, causing permanent health problems.

For example, in the non-ferrous metallurgy industry, the greatest danger is dust generated in copper smelters (See Table).

These components, when exposed to moisture in the air, can form extremely toxic volatile substances.

A significant portion of sulfur dioxide (SO2) is formed in the atmosphere due to the combustion of various types of fuel containing large amounts of sulfur. Brown coals contain up to 14% sulfur. In humans, SO2 first causes spasms of the bronchial walls; then inflammation of the bronchial mucosa occurs, chronic bronchitis develops and can contribute to the occurrence of cancer.

When burning solid fuel At thermal power plants, sulfur oxides that are harmful to the environment are formed, and when using fuel oil, oxides of vanadium, lead, and nickel are formed. To reduce the amount of harmful substances, open-loop dust collection systems have been developed, which significantly reduces the amount harmful emissions in atmosphere. In addition, scientists have invented an electric precipitator capable of precipitating 98-99% of the dust contained in smoke emissions. Such devices are increasingly used in the chemical industry.

The problem of clean water is that a person needs not just any, but fresh water of a certain quality to live. We should not forget that out of every 100 liters of water on earth, 97 liters are salty. In other words, the total reserves of all fresh water land - rivers, lakes, underground and snow-glacial resources account for less than 3% of the total amount of water on earth. Water reserves in rivers and lakes are estimated at 95 thousand km 3, i.e. only 0.26% of total freshwater resources, or 0.007% of total reserves water on Earth.

How great the water needs of industry and agriculture can be judged by the following figures. To produce sugar from 1 ton of sugar beets, 0.5-0.6 m 3 of water is required, to tan 1 ton of raw leather - 20-50 m 3, etc.

In the pollution of underground and surface waters chemical pollutants predominate. Water pollution with heavy metals, acids, alkalis, cyanides and other mineral and organic substances occurs under the influence of predominantly industrial and agricultural wastewater. Pollutants of this type directly affect certain components of living nature.

Other chemical pollutants act slowly and relatively stealthily. These are petroleum hydrocarbons, phenol production products, halogen-derived insecticides, herbicides, synthetic detergents (cleaning agents used in industry and at home). For example, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), every year about half a million people in the world get sick, and over 5 thousand die from poisoning with pesticides - drugs used to protect plants from pests and diseases, and to control weeds.

Another type of water pollutant is biological pollutants. This includes organic substances capable of fermentation. Such pollution can arise as a result of sewage runoff into rivers, insufficient treatment and discharge of waste from pulp and paper, textile and other enterprises.

A separate group consists of mechanical pollutants, the danger of which was also downplayed until recently. These are solid inert substances: clay, sand, slag, waste from the salt mining and coal industries, discharge of industrial and waste water directly into the sea or with river flow, flushing of various toxic substances used in agriculture, forestry and other types of economic activity, deliberate burial at the bottom of the seas and oceans of various toxic, including radioactive, waste. The greatest danger is thermal pollution, mainly discharges of heated water from thermal or nuclear power plants. This pollution, when combined with other types of pollutants, represents serious problem for the future.

In addition to the rivers and lakes of the planet, seas and oceans are heavily polluted. The paths of their pollution can be very different: leakage of pollutants as a result of ship operations, accidental releases from ships and from underwater pipelines, leakage during mining on the seabed, transport of pollutants through the atmosphere, natural leakage of oil through cracks in the earth's crust, etc. d.

However, most dangerous pollution the environment should be recognized as radioactive contamination. Currently, nuclear power plants operate in many countries around the world. Each 1,000-megawatt reactor contains as much radioactive material as would fall out from a thousand bombs like the one dropped on Hiroshima. Each reactor produces tons of radioactive waste every year, some of which remains hazardous for more than 500,000 years. To date, no safe methods have been found for the disposal and storage of such substances.

Until 1986 (accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant) Nuclear pollution was considered as indirect pollution, affecting mainly human biology. The Chernobyl accident forced us to reconsider this point of view and recognize the enormous danger posed by radioactive pollutants, not only for humans, but for the entire biosphere as a whole.

All of the above types of pollution are the causes of a wide variety of human diseases.

Impact of pollutants on human health

polluter	Types of diseases
Arsenic	Lung cancer, various skin diseases, hematological effects including anemia
Beryllium	Dermatitis, ulcers, inflammation of mucous membranes
Cadmium	Malignant neoplasms, acute and chronic respiratory diseases; renal dysfunction
Mercury	Impact on nervous system. Including short-term memory loss, impairment sensory functions and coordination, renal failure
Lead	Disruption of hematopoietic processes, liver and kidney damage, neurological effects
Chromium	Lung cancer, malignant tumors in gastrointestinal tract. Dermatitis
Nickel	Respiratory diseases (asthma, respiratory system disorders), birth defects and deformities, cancer of the nose and lungs

According to WHO, approximately 80% of illnesses and deaths worldwide are associated with water and food contamination. On beginning of XXI V. In some European countries diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis are again becoming real threat for public health. Outbreaks of these diseases were recorded in Albania, Great Britain, Italy, Romania, Sweden, which was associated not only with microbes and viruses, but also with contamination of drinking water with lead, arsenic, nitrates, and fluoride compounds (see table).

The most famous and widespread environmental diseases in the world include the so-called Minamata, Itai-Itai and Chernobyl diseases.

Minamata disease is a human disease caused by mercury compounds. This disease was first described in the 50s. XX century in Japan, among fishermen in Minamata Bay, the waters of which were polluted by industrial effluents from a local chemical plant containing mercury. Thus, fish caught in this bay contained up to 50 mg/kg of mercury. The disease manifests itself as a nerve disorder.

Itai-itai disease resulted from eating rice containing cadmium compounds. The disease has been known since the 50s. 20th century, when waste water from the Mitsui concern (Japan), containing cadmium, ended up in the irrigation system of rice fields. This poisoning causes apathy, kidney damage, and softening of bones in people.

Chernobyl disease is caused by exposure to radionuclides, especially radioactive iodine-131. The total release of radioactive substances into the atmosphere as a result of the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant amounted to 77 kg. For comparison, the explosion of an atomic bomb over Hiroshima in 1945 released 740 g of radionuclides. Symptoms of the “Chernobyl disease” are headache, dry mouth, swollen lymph nodes, and cancer of the larynx. Signs of “Chernobyl disease” in people are also observed near radioactive waste treatment sites. For example, in the Mayak PA area (Chelyabinsk region), the level of cancer diseases has almost doubled in recent years.

Instructions

See how the position of the continent compares with other continents, the equator, the northern and south poles, in which hemisphere the continent is located, for example, North America in the northern hemisphere, and Africa crosses the equator. Describe this in as much detail as possible.

Study carefully coordinate grid and find the coordinates of the continent: the northernmost (upper), southern (lowest), western (right) and eastern (left) points. To find the coordinates of a point, find the latitude and longitude.

Count the latitude from the equator; if you go up from the equator, then the latitude value will be positive, if you go down, it will be negative. It is impossible to determine the exact value on paper; estimate approximately from the drawn parallels ( horizontal lines). That is, if your point (for example, Cape Agulhas - the southernmost point of Africa) lies between the parallels of 30° and 45°, divide this distance by eye and determine about 34° - 35°. For a more accurate determination, use an electronic map or geographical atlases.

Count longitude from prime meridian(this is the line passing through London). If your point lies to the east of this line, put a “+” sign in front of the value, if to the west, put a “-”. In the same way as latitude, determine longitude, only not by horizontal, but by vertical lines(meridians). Exact value can only be found out by electronic map or using a sextant.

Write down the coordinates of all the extreme points of the continent in the form (latitude from -90° to +90°, from -180° to +180°). For example, the coordinates of Cape Agulhas will be (34.49° south latitude and 20.00° east longitude). Modern notation of a coordinate system involves notation in degrees and decimals, but previously the measurement in degrees and minutes was popular; you can use either one or the other recording system.

At the globes and geographical maps There is own system coordinates Thanks to this, any object on our planet can be applied to them and found. Geographic coordinates are longitude and latitude, these angular values measured in degrees. With their help, you can determine the position of an object on the surface of our planet relative to the prime meridian and equator.

Instructions

Determine whether a river flows in a part of the continent. IN northern regions atmospheric precipitation quickly accumulates into ice, so there are no rivers with rapid currents there. In the south, on the contrary, rain moisture quickly evaporates, so there are no rivers there either. The deepest rivers with fast and turbulent currents are observed in the middle part of the country.

Find out where the river flows. All rivers flow into seas or oceans. The junction of the river and the sea is called the mouth.

Determine in which direction the river flows. There will be no problems with this, since the direction of river flow is from source to mouth.

Also for complete geographical research determine how the river flows (i.e., what kind of flow it has: fast, slow, turbulent flow), depending on the topography.

Determine the type of river. All rivers are divided into mountain and lowland. In the mountains the current is fast and stormy; in the lowlands it is slow, and the valleys are wide and terraced.

Explain the economic and historical meaning rivers. Indeed, throughout the development of mankind, rivers have played a significant role in the development of the area. Since ancient times they have been used as trade routes, for fish farming and fishing, timber rafting, water supply and field irrigation. Since ancient times, people have settled on the banks of rivers. Now the river is the main source of hydroelectric power and the most important transport route.

Video on the topic

What is tundra?

The natural area is located in the northern hemisphere and covers the northern part of Russia and Canada. Nature here is very sparse, and the climate is considered harsh. Summer is practically absent - it lasts only a few weeks, and the temperature, as a rule, stays at 10-15 degrees Celsius. Precipitation occurs frequently, but the total amount is small.

The tundra extends along the entire coast of the North Arctic Ocean. Due to constant low temperatures, winter lasts here for about nine months (temperatures can reach -50°C), and the rest of the time the temperature does not rise above +15°C. Low temperatures also mean that the ground is frozen all the time and does not have time to thaw.

There are no forests here and tall trees. In this area there are only swamps, small rivers, mosses, lichens, low plants and shrubs that are able to survive in such a harsh climate. Their flexible stems and short height allow them to adapt to cold winds.
However, the tundra is still a nice place. This can be especially noticeable in the summer, when it sparkles with different colors thanks to the many delicious berries that spread in a beautiful carpet.

In addition to berries and mushrooms, in the summer you can find herds of reindeer in the tundra. At this time of year they feed on whatever they find: lichens, leaves, etc. And in winter, deer feed on plants that they take out from under the snow, and can even break it with their hoofs. These animals are very sensitive, have great charm, and also know how to swim - reindeer can freely swim across a river or lake.

Flora and fauna

The flora in the tundra is very poor. The soil of this zone can hardly be called fertile, since most time she is frozen. Few plant species can survive in such difficult conditions, where there is little heat and sun rays. Mosses, lichens, snow buttercups, saxifrage grow here, and some berries appear in the summer. All plants here are of dwarf growth. The “forest”, as a rule, grows only to the knee, and the local “trees” are no taller than an ordinary mushroom. The geographical location is completely unsuitable for forests, since the temperature here remains low for many years in a row.

As for animals, the tundra is most suitable for those that prefer the sea. Due to the large amount of water in these places, many waterfowl live here - ducks, geese, loons. Animal world the tundra is rich in hares, foxes, wolves, brown and

Northernmost point of Africa

Extreme point African continent has the following: 37° 20′ 28″ northern latitude and 9° 44′ 48″ east longitude. Thus, we can state that this point is located on the territory of one of the small states in North Africa - Tunisia.

A closer look at the characteristics of this point shows that it is a cape projecting quite far into the Mediterranean Sea. The Arabic name of this world-famous point is pronounced “Ras al-Abyad”, but quite often you can find a shortened version of this phrase - “El Abyad”.

From a substantive point of view, both of these options are legitimate. The fact is that “ras” translated from Arabic in Russian it means “cape”, so the use of the Russian analogue in this situation is quite acceptable. In turn, the word “abyad” can be translated from the original language as “white”, and “el” is just an untranslatable article in this situation. Thus, the name of the extreme northern point of Africa translated into Russian means “white cape”.

However, according to geographers, it is unlikely that this name was assigned to it in connection with its northern position. Most likely, this name reflects the special color of the sand on this Mediterranean coast.

Other names

At the same time, the cape, which represents the northernmost point of the African continent, has other names. So, at a time when Tunisia was French colony, in European countries the name was quite common, representing a translation of the Arabic original into French: it was called “Cap Blanc”, which French also meant "white cape". However, the original source of this name was the Arabic name of this geographical point.

Another name common in those days was the name “Ras Engela”, which, by analogy with the modern name, was often shortened to the version “Engel”: in fact, such a name can be translated into modern Russian as “Cape Engel”. Researchers suggest that this African cape could have received its name in honor of the once quite famous German traveler Franz Engel, who accomplished several significant geographical discoveries on turn of XIX-XX centuries, although his activities were more associated with South America than with Africa.

Not just studying natural features The science of geography deals with different regions. Description of the country, its climate, population, economy and government system- is also among the subjects of research in this discipline. How are states studied? What does a country description plan look like? You will learn about this from our article.

How to describe a country?

Geographers describe countries in approximately the same way. It includes characteristics of nature, population, economy and government. The country description plan assumes the following items:

geographical location (territory area, length of borders, coordinates of extreme points, access to the sea, number of neighboring countries and overall rating advantageous geopolitical position of the state);
natural features of the territory (climate, relief, inland waters, organic world and so on.);
capital and administrative-territorial structure of the state;
population of the country (total number, density, distribution, ethnic, religious and linguistic composition);
the country's economy (main specialization, leading industries, level of agricultural development, volume and other economic indicators);
features of the political structure (parliament, president, government).

The country description plan may also contain information about cultural characteristics, tourist attractions, currency, official symbols of the state.

Geographical location of the country

Any plan for describing a country must begin with where that country is located. That is, it is necessary to provide information about in which hemisphere and on which continent the state is located, what its area is and the total length of the border. Country coordinates are determined by extreme points: northern, southern, western and eastern. Based on this information, it is possible to determine total length territory of the state from west to east, or from north to south, as well as assess its overall configuration (compact or elongated in a certain direction).

It is important not only to describe the geographical location of the country, but also to evaluate its economic benefits. Therefore, it is extremely important to indicate which states the country borders with, whether it has access to the sea, major navigable rivers, and whether it is located at the intersection of important transport corridors. Each of these aspects greatly affects the economy and overall well-being of the country.

Natural conditions and resources

The second point of the country description plan is the natural features of a particular territory (geomorphological, climatic, etc.).

The climate of the country is extremely important for its economic development. Thus, the location of the state in a temperate climate zone (between 45 and 65 degrees) is considered ideal. In this zone there are the most optimal conditions for human life and agriculture.

The topography of a country also affects its well-being. It is no secret that on flat terrain it is much easier to build cities, lay roads, create large industrial complexes. By the way, the most ancient and famous cities the world arose precisely on the plains, near the shores of the seas or large rivers.

Population of the country

The population of a country is also an important aspect for its comprehensive study. When describing it, it is necessary to indicate total number residents, population density, characterize the demographic situation, and so on.

Important indicators are mortality, life expectancy in the country, and the infant mortality rate. Most economically developed countries are characterized by low birth rates, low mortality rates and significant life expectancy. In contrast, developing countries in Asia, Africa and America experience high birth rates, high mortality rates and low total duration life.

An important aspect in the characteristics of any country is ethnic, linguistic and religious composition its population. All states of the world are divided into two groups: mono-ethnic (in which one nation predominates) and multi-ethnic (which are a kind of “mix” of ethnic groups and nationalities).

State Economy

The main indicators of economic development include the following:

volumes of GDP and GNP per capita;
income level of the population;
competitiveness of goods and services produced in the country;
cost and quality of labor;
level of corruption;
level of production modernization, etc.

According to these indicators, all countries of the world are divided into several groups. There are economically developed countries (Japan, USA, Canada, Australia, South Korea, Germany, France and others), developing countries(Myanmar, Chad, Bolivia, Bangladesh and others), as well as (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, etc.).

According to the structure of industrial production, all states are also divided into:

industrial;
agricultural;
industrial-agrarian;
post-industrial.

Political structure of the country

The state is a special organization with complex structure, which is designed to govern society. All countries of the world are usually divided into three groups:

unitary - those that are controlled from one center (examples: Romania, Ukraine, France, Norway, etc.);
federal, consisting of several separate entities - states, lands, republics (examples: Russia, USA, Germany);
confederations are temporary unions of two or more states.

According to the form of government, countries are distinguished as monarchies (in which all power belongs to one person and is inherited) and republics (in which the main source of power is the majority). Monarchies can also be absolute (the monarch's power is unlimited), parliamentary (the monarch's power is limited by parliament) and theocratic (the supreme power belongs to the Church). The only example The modern city on the planet is the Vatican.

A country's policy is determined by the system of methods and techniques with the help of which it realizes the fullness of its power. Based on this thesis, political regime A given state can be legal (democratic), totalitarian or authoritarian.

Countries and their capitals

The capital is the main (not necessarily the largest) city of the country, where the government and other important bodies are located state power. The word itself comes from the Old Russian “(pre)stol”, which means “throne”. The popular expression “capital city of Kyiv” is associated with this etymology.

Choosing a capital is always a dilemma for the state. After all, two or more large centers can lay claim to the role of the main city. IN Austro-Hungarian Empire, for example, this problem could not be solved. Therefore, there were two capitals there at once - Vienna and Budapest. In some states, the capital was created and built practically from scratch (an example of such a state would be the United States of America with its capital in Washington).

Countries and their capitals are often perceived as one whole. However, we should not forget that the title of “main city” in the state may change. So, in 1997, the Kazakh authorities moved the capital from Almaty to the city of Astana.

Another one interesting capital on the world map this is Jerusalem. This city is the capital of two countries at the same time - Israel and Palestine.

Flag - as the main symbol of the state

The flags of the countries of the world differ from each other not only in color or design, but also in their proportions (width and length of the flag). All flags of world states have traditional form rectangle (less often - square), with the exception of only one - Nepalese. The banner of this country is presented in the form of two equal triangles.

Flags of countries around the world vary in color. Moreover, each of the colors has its own symbolic meaning for a specific state. White typically symbolizes peace and prosperity, while green symbolizes significant natural resources.

The color black is quite interesting in heraldry. It would seem that it should be mournful. However, it is not. Black color is quite often present on the flags of African states. And there, as a rule, he symbolizes the black population of a particular country.

Designation of currencies of different countries

Everyone, of course, has their own money. How is it carried out in different countries?

This or that state currency is designated using a special sign (symbol). This can be a letter index (abbreviation), a digital code, or a special grapheme. These signs are intended to denote certain currencies in an abbreviated form, concisely and originally.

Monetary units began to be depicted with special symbols back in antiquity. Below are the graphemes of the world's most famous banknotes:

Finally...

One of the tasks of geography is an objective, comprehensive and reliable study of world states. The country description plan should contain the following points: geographical location, natural conditions and resources, population, capital, administrative and political system, economy, currency and state symbols (flag, coat of arms and anthem).

The main differences between these courses and the previous ones are as follows:

Here, for the first time, a scientific definition of the concept of “geographical location” is given. Textbooks fully disclose its content, including signs of position relative to other objects and mathematical lines.
At the same time, two interrelated concepts are being formed - “geographical location” in general and “geographical location” of a specific territory - Africa, Australia, the Urals, West Siberian Plain etc. This approach increases the awareness of knowledge provided that the teacher repeats the content of the Concept throughout the courses.
In grades VI-VII it is carried out mainly education self-description geographical location territories. It occurs simultaneously with the formation of the corresponding concept. —
Starting from grade VI, students use special plans for describing the position on the map. They gradually change along with the complication of the concept: new objects are added that affect the nature of the territory, in relation to which the position should be determined!

At the same time, the independence of schoolchildren increases. The acquired technique acquires greater flexibility. Thus, when describing the geographical location of the West Siberian Plain in the 7th grade, many students determined its position relative to the Central Siberian Plateau.

Thus, the new learning conditions require:

more purposeful formation the concept of “geographical location”;
learning how to describe a geographic location on a map based on the concept being formed;
more detailed and independent descriptions of the map;
the widespread use of knowledge about the peculiarities of the geographical location to explain the natural conditions of the territories being studied, i.e., transferring the technique to new material.

Description of the geographical location in grade VI.

The concept of “geographical location of the continent” is introduced deductively, like a number of others general concepts in VI grade. The learning process in the “Africa” section follows the following plan:

Goals of studying the geographical location of the continent.
Disclosure of the content of this concept.
Setting lesson goals:
- a) find out the main features of the geographical location of Africa;
- b) learn to independently describe the position of the continent using a physical map.
Study of the Geographical Situation of Africa: Reporting and Recording a Plan for Describing the Geographical Situation of the Continent. Conversation based on plan and physical map.
Exploring the African coastline. (Information about it is not included in the concept of “geographical location”, but is studied together.)

This sequence is largely preserved when considering subsequent continents, as well as in the course of the physical geography of the USSR.

Information about the significance of studying geographic location and the content of this concept ensures the awareness of the technique being formed. In the textbook on continental geography, the content of the concept is presented by describing the actions that must be performed in order to find out the geographical location of the continent. For an example of the dependence of natural conditions on the position of the territory on earth's surface teacher reminds about known to schoolchildren the relationship between the amount of heat received by the Earth and geographic latitude, and the amount of precipitation often depends on proximity or distance from the oceans.

Setting lesson goals for students helps them understand the direction cognitive activity students, the result that should be obtained in the learning process.

A typical plan for describing the geographical location of the continent has the following content:

The size of the continent.
The position of the continent relative to the equator (tropics, Arctic Circle), prime meridian.
Extreme points of the continent and their coordinates. Length from north to south and from west to east in degrees and kilometers.
Oceans and seas washing the continent.
Proximity to other continents or distance from them.

Information about the size of the territory is not included in the content of the concept, but educational purposes considered together (not necessarily first).

Based on the recorded plan and map, the conversation begins:

Look at the map of the hemispheres. Which continents does Africa surpass in territory, and which is inferior?
Open with 6 textbook. Using the diagram, determine the area of Africa.
How many times is the area of Africa larger than the area of Antarctica?
In what part of Africa does the equator lie? Northern and Southern tropics? Draw a conclusion about the possible climate of Africa:
Where is Africa located in relation to the prime meridian?

Then the teacher shows the extreme northern and southern points of Africa and asks them to determine their latitude. He emphasizes that this is necessary to determine the extent of the continent in degrees and kilometers. Next, students will learn the extent of Africa between the extreme western and eastern points, taking into account the data from the atlas map of the hemispheres about the value of one degree of longitude at latitude 10 and 20°. Such data is placed at the output of the parallels on the map frame.

It must be taken into account that in school geography Two methods have been adopted for measuring the extent of continents. Their use depends on the learning conditions.

The extent of the continent can be determined by the difference in latitude or longitude between the extreme points. It's more the hard way, since the extreme northern and southern point usually lie on different meridians, and the extreme western and eastern point- on different parallels. Taking this into account, the length of the continent is often measured not by its extreme points, but by some meridian or parallel. Provided that students are well prepared, it is useful to determine the extent of the continent between its extreme points.Next, students name oceans and seas; washing the continent, while orienting maritime boundaries on the sides of the horizon, indicate the proximity of Africa to Eurasia and distance from other continents.

At the beginning of grade VI, students cannot simultaneously master both the content of actions and their sequence. They pay attention only to the content of actions. Therefore, at the end of the conversation it is useful to ask: according to what plan did we describe the geographical position of Africa? Students also do not see the peculiarities of the geographical location of the continent that affect its natural conditions. The teacher emphasizes that Special attention you need to pay attention to those features of the geographical location on which the natural conditions of the continent depend, and then names these features. They have not yet been considered in the “Africa” section, so the teacher makes the appropriate conclusion. In the future, students cope with this task more successfully. And in the course of physical geography of the USSR, identifying the features of a geographical location becomes the main content of work on the map.

To develop a technique for describing the geographical location of any territory, not just the mainland, it is useful to complete the textbook task - to describe the geographical location of Madagascar. The teacher indicates how to change the plan written down by the students and suggests finding out the position of the island in relation to Africa. In the conditions of the first lesson on Africa, which is rich in material, students can complete this task at home or during testing homework in the next lesson. This is how learning to transfer the developed technique to new material begins.

The following exercise in describing the geographical position of a continent is performed when studying Australia. The textbook contains questions for such a description, but it is more advisable for the teacher to use his own plan written in a notebook, because it is the same for all continents. Depending on the level of readiness of the class, students can describe the geographical location of Australia as a whole or. grouping: plan items for two tasks.

A good way to identify the characteristics of a geographical location is comparison. It is possible, for example, when studying Australia and Africa, South America and Africa, continents northern hemisphere. Considering that at this stage detailed comparisons are very difficult, it is necessary to compare the continents not as a whole, but according to individual elements of their position. Thus, a comparison of the geographical position of Africa and South America is possible on the following issues:

What is the difference in the position of Africa and South America in relation to the equator and the North and South Tropics?
Which continent is located further north? further south? Prove your conclusion with geographical coordinates extreme points.
Which continent is most elongated from north to south?
How should differences in geographical location affect climate and natural areas South America?
What do the geographical locations of both continents have in common?

As you can see, the comparison covers the most essential aspects geographical location, affecting the natural conditions of the continents.

Learning to describe a geographical location continues when considering the natural areas of the continents. Depending on the school time, these descriptions have various details and sometimes quite compressed. In the same time assignments needed requiring to associate geographic location with various components nature, for example:

What is the relationship between the geographical location of Northern Australia and its temperatures, amount and rainfall patterns?
Which continent - South America or Africa - has a more diverse climate? What are the reasons for diversity?

As learning progresses, students gain cognitive independence. increases. Increasingly, schoolchildren are using the technique as a means of educational cognition. By the end of grade VI, students can name the significant aspects of a geographical location without relying on a written plan.