Classifications of reflexive verbs
reflexive verb French
As mentioned above, reflexive verbs motivated by intransitive verbs are not distributed into more or less clear lexico-grammatical categories. Therefore, it is more appropriate, in our opinion, to focus on describing the classifications of reflexive verbs, which are correlative in meaning with transitive ones. The issue of classification of reflexive verbs has been studied by many Russian linguists, such as V.V. Vinogradov, V.A. Yanko-Trinitskaya, L.A. Novikov, V.A. Beloshapkova, O.V. Chagina. and many others. Their classifications are essentially similar to each other and differ only in a more general or more detailed division of verbs into classes. The classification presented below is a kind of synthesis of already existing classifications. In it we tried, if possible, to include all the subgroups of reflexive verbs ever identified by Russian linguists in order to make it as complete and detailed as possible.
So, all reflexive verbs, correlative in meaning with transitive verbs, are grouped into semantic types, in which the meaning of intransitivity, expressed by the postfix - Xia, is added additional meaning, created by semantics verb stems s and postfix - Xia.
In all classifications of reflexive verbs of the modern Russian language, reflexive verbs of proper reflexive meaning are certainly distinguished as a special category. Determining the meaning of verbs included in this category in general outline similar among all researchers and in all manuals. The differences in wording are quite minor.
In sentences with self-returnable verbs usually act as the subject animate noun. This noun most often denotes a person who performs an action on himself. Thus, the subject of the action simultaneously acts as an object.
TO self-returnable verbs include verbs:
Denoting the actions of the subject in relation to himself or to his belongings: shave, bathe, wash, dress, put on shoes, fasten, belt, etc.; move, move, return, etc.; sit down, lie down, spin around, etc.; hide, lock yourself, etc.; defend yourself, evade a blow, etc.; to enslave, to free oneself, to pay off, etc.; shoot yourself, drown yourself, etc.; restrain, calm down, exercise, etc.; adapt, join, land, etc.; get involved, intervene, run for office, etc.; give up, obey, obey and etc.:
Verbs with the meaning of a coercive action, in which the subject of coercion and the object of the forced action coincide, the producer of the action is another subject; take pictures, get treatment, shave at a barbershop, go to school and etc.
The object of the action is the subject's belonging spend money, get ready for the trip, pay. unload and etc.; actions on an object that is used in the interests of the subject stock up on firewood, read the documents and etc.;
Actions of one's own consent, promises, opinions to blame, to confess, to confess, to apologize and etc.; agree, renounce, pledge, swear and etc.;
Expressing your own thoughts, requests, words, name express oneself, introduce oneself, explain oneself, pray, name oneself and etc.;
Actions of “selecting from oneself” one’s own objects to bear fruit, to bud, to fledge, to sprout and etc.;
Verbs with the meaning “show yourself”, “stand out” in your own behavior: to be conceited, to show off, to show off, to show off, to show off, to be proud, to be proud, to pretend, to boast and etc.
It is worth noting that proper reflexive verbs are characterized by weak connection with the instrumental case of a noun that names the instrument of action: shave with a razor, wash with water. However, the instrumental case of the complement with the meaning of instrument, means is not characteristic feature only proper reflexive verbs, but is possible with reflexive verbs of other meanings. The possibility of using the instrumental case of a tool or means with various categories of reflexive verbs is determined primarily not by the meaning of a given category of reflexive verbs, but by the peculiarities of the control of producing irreflexive verbs, for example: tie yourself with a rope - tie yourself with a rope, but if at to take care the instrumental case is not used, then it cannot be used when beware.
A direct relationship is established between return forms and basic forms without - xia (wash, whiten, blush etc.), at least in general circle meaning. in many verbs that previously had a pronounced direct return value, in the process of their semantic evolution this meaning fades (for example: prepare, join, gather and so on.). With a reflexive meaning for verbs ending in - Xia a person or in general is assumed to be the subject of the action Living being. In combination with a subject expressing not a person, but an object, these verbs usually have a passive or neuter reflexive meaning (for example: the face is washed: the cheeks are flushed from the frost and so on.). Wed: escape persecution"love everything bought, All is saved"(Dostoevsky).
There are two shades of proper reflexive meaning. A reflexive verb can mean:
a) the subject performs an action on himself (wash; cat licks and so on.);
b) the subject performs the action himself ( boast, change and others like that). But it is easy to notice that this second shade of reflexive voice is transitional from the proper reflexive meaning to the mean reflexive meaning (for example; deepen thought, change morally) and general return. In addition, simple ones (with the affix -) can be considered grammatically homogeneous xia) and reinforced by replacement - Xia through myself and adding a pronoun myself refundable deposit forms. For example: he was defending himself And he defended himself; I was suffering And I tormented myself
Reciprocal verbs call an action occurring between two or more persons, each of whom is both the subject and the object of the action; eg: quarrel, kiss, hug. These verbs can be correlated with transitive verbs in combination with a pronominal group each other: kiss, hug each other.
The meaning of reciprocity is expressed not only by the combination of verbal stems with a postfix - Xia, but also by simultaneous addition to the base of the prefix re-, morph - willow-/-yva- or - va- and postfix - Xia(correspond, exchange glances), compounding ( mutually destroy) or a combination of a verb with a pronoun or pronominal group ( love each other, talk to each other)
It has been noted more than once in the scientific literature that mutual significance - Xia originally developed among reflexive verbs precisely in plural forms. The concept of reciprocity primarily contains a sign of the transition of an action from one subject to another or other subjects, a sign of the interaction of two or more subjects. In this case - Xia means: each other. For example: they grabbed hands and kissed(cf. they made peace with each other). But to the shade of interaction or mutual action of subjects on each other, so that each subject of the action is at the same time its object, is adjacent another shade - the shade of the joint action of two or more persons or their joint participation in the action (cf. comrades had a fight). For example: They whispered in the bushes; They shared their feelings; Having dispersed in different sides, they called each other for a long time and so on. From this follows a new connotation associated with the use of the same verbs (especially often in singular forms) in combination with an indirect object denoting a person and attached using a preposition With, For example: I hugged him in a friendly manner and so on. It is believed that the use of the same verbs with the preposition with (cf.: advise someone what I consult with someone). For example: “Who did not curse stationmasters who's with them didn’t you swear?”(Pushkin).
In essence, there is a syntactic “transfer” of the same kind as in the constructions: Polkan and Barbos - Polkan with Barbos. Therefore, the following objections to such an association on the part of Prof. seem unconvincing. A.B. Shapiro: “A verb has the meaning of a mutual subvoice only when the action is performed not by one person, but by two or more, and this side of the meaning of the verb is expressed by the plural of the subject and, accordingly, the predicate. In sentences:, I met him: She always scolds everyone and so on. : in verbs Meets And swears there is no meaning of mutual subvoice, since here the number form of the subject does not support the meaning of the reciprocity of the action: in these sentences, of the persons mentioned in connection with the action, only one acts as the subject , the rest - only as an indirect object.” We can only say that in these constructions the meaning of sociability and reciprocity is syntactically scattered throughout the entire phrase.
All of the listed verbs contain special formal grammatical indicators that serve to indicate the category of reciprocity. Based on formal word-formation characteristics, we can distinguish the following groups verbs:
1) Reciprocal verbs that correlate with transitive verbs and are formed from them using the postfix - xia. These transitive verbs denote an action that can be performed with the simultaneous participation of a subject and an object: meet-meet, hug-hug, kiss-kiss, reconcile-make up
2) Reciprocal verbs that are incomparable with transitive verbs and are not used without - xia: greet, communicate, fight
3) Reciprocal verbs, which correspond to transitive verbs, but the transitive and reflexive verbs are not identical in meaning: share, fight, negotiate
4) Verbs in which the meaning of reciprocity is determined by the presence of - sya in combination with prefixes. The most commonly used prefixes With- in the meaning of connection and its antonymous prefix once- in the meaning of disconnection: converge-diverge, fly-scatter, as well as the prefix re- talk, call back
5) Verbs that do not have special formal grammatical indicators of the meaning of reciprocity, but express this meaning lexically : argue, be friends, quarrel
Sentences with reciprocal verbs have their own syntactic features. The specificity of these sentences is manifested in the ways of expressing the subject. Since mutual action can be carried out in the presence of at least two participants in the situation, then names in the subject position (usually animate names) always have the meaning of plurality, collectivity. This value can be passed:
1) By name in plural form: Friends met after the holidays;
2) The combination of spirit nouns in the nominative case with a conjunction And: Andrey and Victor met after the holidays;
3) A combination of a noun or personal pronoun in the nominative case in the subject position with a name in the instrumental case with a preposition With: Andrey met with Victor after the holidays;
4) Noun with quantification (two friends, several people): Two friends met after vacation;
5) A noun with a collective meaning: public, youth, group: Our group met after the holidays.
In sentences with reciprocal verbs, in addition to an inanimate subject in the subject position, in some cases a non-person subject can also be used: Leninsky Prospect intersects with Lomonosovsky. Verbs in such sentences convey the meaning of the juxtaposition of two objects in space. They are relatively few in number : intersect, close, merge, disconnect.
Average-return value. In this case - xia means that the action is not directed at a foreign object, but is concentrated in the sphere of the subject and is reduced to external changes in the state of the subject.
As Shakhmatov believes, “the subject, while remaining the actual producer of the action, is not conceived as such; he is only an object.” However, a direct understanding of the direction of the action of the subject (producers of the action) towards himself as a direct object is either completely absent or difficult. This meaning comes out clearly in the group of verbs that mean external, physical changes and changes in the state and position of the subject, its movement in space, and the subject can be an animate being, and inanimate object: return, get out, stop, go, move away, move, add : (in weight), walk, roll, stagger, rush, bend, rise, lean, slide, fall, spin, shake and so on. All verbs of this type are correlative with verbs without - Xia and sometimes can also have a passive meaning (mostly in the imperfect form).
Return Value. In this case - xia, closing: action in the sphere of the subject, forms reflexive verbs expressing changes in the internal state of the subject (angry- be angry; please- rejoice; hurry, have fun, be afraid, be surprised, be satisfied, obey, admire, confess, worry, be comforted and so on.). Obviously, this meaning can only arise in the lexical circle of verbs with the meaning of feeling, internal mental experience. Reflexive verbs internal states cannot have a passive meaning. The relationship between subject and object meanings in them is different than in the verbs “ physical changes"(type shake, throw). Here - Xia indicates that the subject himself is captured by the action-state (i.e., experience, feeling). This meaning is related to the lexical meaning of the so-called “ common verbs", which have no correspondence among forms without - xia: try, be afraid, be wary, be proud, smile, grin and so on.
Verbs of indirect reflexive meaning call an action performed by a subject in his own interests; this means that the subject performs an action for himself, but this meaning is not specifically expressed either in the verb itself or in its syntactic connections. A name with the meaning of a person in whose favor the action is performed takes the position of subject in sentences with indirect reflexive verbs. These are the verbs tidy up, get ready, register, apply, agree to pack up, build up, line up, stock up, settle down
Active-objectless value. This meaning is especially pronounced in reflexive verbs, correlative with transitive verbs without - Xia and denoting the action of the subject, actually moving on to some object, directed at others, but conceived in abstraction from the object as a characteristic, distinctive feature of the subject himself. For example: The dog bites; Why are you pushing! Nettle stings; The cow butts; This wall has just been painted and is therefore getting dirty;“And the leopard is only ready to cut himself” (Krylov, “Education of a Lion”).
Reflexive verbs of emotions: among verbs, a large group consists of verbs of emotional state. Their number is more than 100. They control different case forms.
M.L. Kryuchkova identifies classes of verbs, grouping them according to common semantic feature. This classification can be expanded to include new semantic classes, in particular verbs of “inflated self-esteem” and verbs of “doubt and regret.” Let us present this classification of reflexive verbs of emotions.
1) verbs “hobbies” ( to get carried away, to be interested, to admire, to admire, to enjoy). Management model - name, etc. without preposition: He reveled in his unhappy love and loneliness. He has been interested in painting since childhood
2) verbs of “surprise” ( to be surprised, to marvel, to be amazed, to be amazed, to smile, to be touched) Control model - name in d.p. without preposition: Father was happy to see us. I'm amazed at your naivety.
3) verbs of “admiration and self-abasement” ( to bow, to be lost, to be extinguished, to humiliate, to grovel before +t. P.: I bow to your talent.
4) verbs of “inflated self-esteem” ( to show off, boast, be conceited, boast, be brave, show off, show off) Control model - prepositional case form before+t. P.: Nikolai likes to show off to his friends.
5) verbs “ridicule and mockery” ( laugh, mock, make fun of, mock, mock) Control model - prepositional case form over+t. P.:Are you kidding me?
6) verbs of “discontent” ( cry, complain, be offended, sulk, get angry, swear) Control model - prepositional case form on + v.p.: She complains about everyone all the time.
7) verbs of “fear” ( to be afraid, to be wary, to beware, to be frightened, to be afraid, to be horrified, to be ashamed, to be embarrassed)
Management model - name in p.p.: I stopped being shy about simple things. She was afraid of her mother until her knees trembled.
8) verbs of “worry” ( worry, worry, worry, be afraid, fear, be afraid, be frightened) Control model - prepositional case form for + v.p.: I'm terribly worried about you.
9) verbs “care, excitement and sadness”: a) care, care, worry, worry, worry o + p.p.: Father worries about his daughter b) verbs of “sad” semantics: to be sad, to be sad, to be bored. Control model - prepositional case form o + p.p or by + d.p.: Tanya misses home.
10) verbs “doubts and regrets” ( to doubt, to be disappointed, to lose faith, to disbelieve, to be deceived, to repent) Control model - prepositional case form in + p.p.: He was disappointed in his work
Reflexive verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes (decausative verbs): A large group of verbs in the Russian language consists of reflexive verbs with the meaning of quantitative and qualitative changes like increase - decrease, etc. Reflexive verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes are used in all spheres of speech - everyday, journalistic, official business Interest in this problem is constantly increasing. The air temperature will drop in the evening; Cooperation between our universities is constantly expanding.
Reflexive verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes characterize an action, phenomenon, object from different sides.
Verbs of quantitative change indicate a change in size in general (increase, decrease, multiply, contract), and changes in individual parameters - height (increase, decrease, decrease), length (lengthen, shorten) width (expand, contract) depths (deepen), speed (speed up, speed up, slow down): This year the magazine's circulation has increased; Scientists note with alarm that in recent decades the temperature on the planet has been rising;
Verbs of qualitative changes can also characterize an object in terms of overall assessment(“good” or “bad”, positive or negative changes) improve, worsen, and from the side of specific changes (strength, strength, accuracy, price, complexity, weight, etc.) - strengthen, intensify, become stronger, weaken, become more precise, become more expensive, become cheaper, become more complex, become simpler, become larger, become heavier, lighten, become richer, become poorer, purify etc. : During the discussion, disagreements between the speakers intensified; Relations between our countries have improved significantly; By the end of the day the wind will increase.
In sentences with verbs of this semantics, the subject is most often an abstract noun with the meaning of phenomenon, action or process: Conflicts between factions are deepening; The population in the area is declining; The artist's skill has increased; The patient's recovery process has slowed down,
Reflexive verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes correspond to transitive ones deteriorate-worsen, expand-expand, rise-increase, decrease-reduce, decrease-reduce etc.: The bus route has been extended.- The bus route has been extended; The subject matter of the magazine has expanded.- The magazine expanded its topics; Students' stipends have increased.-The students' stipends were increased.
Verbs with the meaning of quantitative and qualitative changes can be divided into two groups in accordance with the expressed meaning: “to do what” raise - do higher; reduce - do below; worsen - make things worse; expand- make it wider increase - do more) and “become what” rise - get taller decline- become lower deteriorate - to get worse, expand- become wider, increase - get bigger). Verbs that convey the meaning “to do what,” the so-called causative verbs, have the form of a transitive verb: Moscow University is expanding cooperation with other universities; The state is increasing assistance to large families.
In the formation of verbs with the meaning “to become what,” or decausative verbs [Nedyalkov, Silnitsky, 1969], different word-formation models are used.
Most often, decausative verbs are formed by adding - Xia to a transitive verb: Cooperation between Moscow University and other universities is expanding; State assistance to large families is increasing. This method of forming verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes, which have a component of the meaning “to become what,” is the most common. That's why most of them have a postfix - Xia. However, this word-formation method does not cover all verbs with the meaning “to become what.” There are other ways to form them.
The ratio “do what” / “become what” can also be conveyed by suppletive stems, the root morphemes of which are deprived of formal proximity (raise-increase, decrease-fall). Wed: Application
new technology has increased labor productivity,-As a result of the use of new technology, labor productivity has increased; The development of television and video reduces interest in visiting cinemas,-As a result of the development of television and video, interest in visiting cinemas is falling,
3) Another way to form decausative verbs is to attach them to the base of an adjective formant - eat (to become pale, weaken, lose weight, become cheaper) And - at (to become more expensive): Vegetables have fallen in price, and fish has risen in price;
I need to lose some weight.
Reflexive causative verbs: Reflexive-causative can be classified as a stable lexical-semantic group of verbs that denote an action performed for a person by another person. Most of them relate to the so-called professional verbs used in the situation of “ordering at a customer service point” [Nedyalkov, 1977: 36]. These can be verbs with the meaning: a) “health care” (to consult, to be treated, to be observed, to be examined, to be operated on, to be checked): My grandmother is being treated by a homeopath; b) « training, education » (educate, consult, train, study, exam): Levitan studied painting with the famous Savrasov; c) “caring about one’s own appearance” (shave, comb one's hair, have a haircut, dress, put on make-up, makeup): This actress dresses from the famous fashion designer Vyacheslav Zaitsev; I always get my hair cut by this barber; d) “obtaining and fixing a certain status” (sign up, register, register) obtaining a portrait likeness" (to be photographed, to be photographed): Many famous artists take pictures with this photographer.
In sentences of this structure, both nominal components denote a person. In this case, the name in the subject position denotes the person for whom the action is performed. The true agent, the performer of the action, is the person expressed by the name in the form y + p. n. With this method of representing the relations between the participants in the situation, it is semantically compressed and appears as undivided. At the level of meaning, it can be interpreted as follows: person A makes person B perform an action on him, called a reflexive verb. In other words, person A becomes the causer of this action. This leads to an important point for teaching RCP: in a construction with a reflexive verb “the name of a person who is unable to initiate the situation cannot be the subject: * A one-year-old child got his hair cut at the barber's(Geniusenie, 1981: 177).
As for the real performer of the action, he can be implicitly expressed in a construction with the meaning of adverbial place: The patient is observed in the district clinic; Tourists eat in the hotel restaurant; Take a photo in our studio; In our hairdressing salon you can be served by appointment or on a first-come, first-served basis (from the advertisement).
Often the name with the meaning of the actual performer of the action is additionally mentioned in the context. For example: I have a son-he wrote so many books! What is he writing about? About agriculture-how and what to do. He used to give lectures at the Knowledge Society. All collective farm directors consulted him. He tells them what needs to be done, and then they go to the places and do it. He received so many thanks! After all, you understand, no one knows anything, no one knows how. And he will explain everything, and everyone knows what’s what (according to L. Kohl).
From reflexive causative verbs combined general meaning“not oneself” [Kozintseva, 1981:83], one should distinguish between proper reflexive verbs with the meaning “oneself.” Whether a verb belongs to one category or another is established in the context. Wed: (1) dialogue between a guy and a girl |: - Is it true that you cut your own hair?-Is it true. So what?-Nothing. There is only this sign: whoever cuts his own hair will never marry (film “Meet me at the fountain”). AND 2) When we walked between the Sixth and Fifth lines past the hairdresser, I said to Margarita:-This is where I go to get my hair cut. There is an old hairdresser here... (V. Shefner).
Collateral reflexive verbs: Side-reflexive verbs include verbs denoting contact of the subject with an object, usually motionless or fixed: While on the escalator, hold on to the handrails; Yane noticed a stone in the grass and hit it painfully. In sentences with such verbs, the object, by the very fact of its existence, stimulates the named action: if there had not been a stone in the grass, the speaker would not have tripped; If there were no handrails on the stairs, there would be nothing to hold on to.
IN in sentences with such verbs, the subject occupying the syntactic position of the subject, usually you (gazhen animated name with the meaning of a person, less often an animal. Object, as a rule, is an inanimate noun denoting an object or part of the body of a living being: The child buried his head in the pillow and slept soundly
The most common secondary reflexive verbs are: hold on (for what?), take hold (for what?), grab hold of (for what?), cling (for what?), hit (about what?), thicken (colloquially) (about what?), stumble (about what ?), lean (about/on what?), bury (in what?), rest against what?).
All secondary reflexive verbs require an object in the accusative case with prepositions for, about (about), in. The choice of a specific preposition depends on the nature of the contact between the subject and the object.
Addition to the form for + in. P. usually used when we are talking about a mechanical connection, coupling of a subject and an object - hold on to the railings, hold hands,
Addition in the form about + V. P. is usually used when the subject is just in contact with the object and when their interaction is in the nature of a relationship between a larger and smaller area, a point and an area.
Classification based on the principle of correlating the form of the verb with- Xia with verb form without-Xia.
In addition to the generally accepted classifications of reflexive verbs, where verbs are divided into groups depending on their semantics, some linguists also propose a classification of reflexive verbs, built on the principle of correlating the form of the verb with - Xia with verb form without - Xia.
So, the first group consists of those verbs whose reflexive form is equal to the meaning of the verb itself in combination with the pronoun myself. That is, these two forms are correlated with each other. Such verbs indicate that the subject’s action is performed in relation to himself, that is, it is directed towards himself. It turns out that the subject of an action is at the same time its object. These are, for example, verbs open-open, wash - wash, shave-shave, take pictures-take pictures, treat-to be treated, to dress - to dress, to hide - to hide, to lock - to lock, to protect - to defend, to teach - to learn, to move - to move, to save - to be saved, to praise - to boast, to stop - to stop,
The second group of reflexive verbs includes those reflexive verbs that are not equal in meaning to the producing non-reflexive verb in combination with reflexive pronoun myself. As a result of the strong difference in lexical meanings, the correlation of verbs with - Xia and without - Xia lost. This group includes verbs to consist - to take place, to intercede - to intercede, to fight, to find - to be, to forgive - to say goodbye, to occupy - to engage, to distribute - to be distributed, to finish off - to achieve, to rewrite - to correspond, to torture - to try, to trade-to bargain etc.
There are also reflexive verbs that do not have corresponding non-reflexives at all. I decided to separate them into a separate, third group. There are approximately 150 such verbs in the Russian language:
fear, say hello, doubt, fight, lie down, admire, admire, hope, enjoy, like, be lazy, succeed, smile, laugh, be proud, swear, try, need, get dark, feel unwell, lie down, sit down, touch, bow, intend, break up, stay, wake up, climb, see etc.
Adjective
An adjective is a significant part of speech that expresses a tramme of attribute in the inflectional categories of gender, number and case.
Quality is understood as a stable distinctive aspect of an object, with the disappearance of which the object loses its identity with itself.
The concept of quality has a predicative function, with adjectives and adverbs acting as second-order predicates and representing potential (collapsed) sentences.
In sentences with IP, a transformation of deployment is possible, in which the adjective is transferred to the rank of a predicate: a thoughtful girl was sitting on a bench. A girl was sitting on a bench. She was thoughtful and sad.
Predicate nature of IP: according to E.M. Wolf, IP belongs to predicate words, since it does not indicate an object, but ascribes a sign to it. The predicate nature of the IP determines their meaning; they have a significative, but do not have a denotation. Adjectives only mean constant sign(skillful, dexterous). The signs must be constant.
Participation in the expression of the mode of utterance
Some short IPs directly express the mode: obligated, must, much, glad. IP easily acquires an evaluative character when metaphorized (golden). Evaluation is also part of the mode.
High-quality individual entrepreneurs, methods:
1. Form forms of degrees of comparison (exceptions - green, dead, barefoot, furious).
2. Combine with words expressing the intensity of the attribute
3. Form short forms.
High-quality IPs do not have degrees of comparison. High-quality individual entrepreneurs can have short forms.
Expressive properties of high-quality IP:
1. The man sat down on the grass
2. A tall, narrow-chested, average-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass, already crushed by pedestrians, sat down silently, timidly and fearfully looking around.
Forms of subjective assessment of qualitative IP indicate the degree of manifestation of the characteristic without comparing objects (whitish, thin or skinny, hefty, cunning, daring). In such adjectives, the meaning of the measure interacts with various shades of subjective assessment (usually reduced).
Relative IPs:
1. They replenish the class of high-quality individual entrepreneurs through metaphorization ((marble, white, pale, cold, strict, imperturbable)
2. I. Golub: it is the relative PNs that create the inexhaustible expressive possibilities of this part of speech
3. Dominate in quantitative terms, formed from almost every noun (due to the possibility of figurative use - metaphor).
Possessive IPs:
1. V.V. Vinogradov: “devoid of any shade of quality, and their very adjective is conditional.”
2. Possess own declension(the queen's dress, grandmother's house), which is loosened in modern language
3. Closed class of words (about 200 units)
4. Adjectives with –j- combine possessive (squirrel mink) and relative meaning (squirrel coat), and can also develop qualitative meaning (child’s squirrel teeth).
Degrees of comparison
Comparative, synthetic forms: ee, e, she: more beautiful, lower, less
Comparative, analytical forms: more or less + zero degree of comparison
Superlative, synthetic form: eish, aish (suffixes), nai (as a prefix)
Superlative, analytical form: most + zero comparative + all.
Elative indicates a greater degree of quality, but without comparison: dearest, kindest, most respectable, most courteous
Actively used in book styles: the latest achievements, the lowest bow, in the closest possible way.
1. They do not name a permanent feature as inherent in an object or as an abstract category, but a temporary, intense feature
2. They are bookish in nature
3. According to A. M. Leshkovsky, they are dryer, more abstract and categorical compared to overweight ones (stupid - stupid)
4. More than full forms, tend to open the right valence (capable of what, to what).
Learned forms:
1. They are formed not only from qualitative PNs, but also from relative ones (bacchanalian for the first time), from participles (trembling hands)
2. Were active in the 19th century
3. They are used to create a certain stylistic affect, give the speech a pathetic character (or ironic), and also create folklore stylization (in the pure field of goodness of a well done crow horse).
Word formation IP:
1. Affixation
2. Suffixal (glass, silent, double)
3. Prefixal (extraordinary, inhuman, super-powerful)
4. Prefix-suffix (desktop, trans-river)
5. Composition, coordinating: marble-white
6. Formulation, subordinating: Western European, railway.
Verb
Status of the verb in the morphological and syntactic system of the Russian language:
1. The verb represents linguistic universal
2. “collapsed sentence”
3. Complex combinations grammatical categories allows the verb not only to name an action, but also to relate it to the moment of speech
4. Verb - the center of the sentence, a first-order predicate
5. Describes actions as having or not having an internal limit
The grammatical meaning of a verb includes action (to run), state (to sleep) and relation (to belong, to neighbor).
The volume of the “verb word”.
The complete verb paradigm includes:
1. Conjugated, or personal forms
2. Infinitive
3. Participles
4. Participle
Lecture No. 3
Lexico-grammatical categories of verbs
... - ways verb action, are studied together with the species category.
Transitivity and intransitivity - a category, but not a category, is associated with the category of voice, affects the ability of the verb to express the meaning of voice.
Type category– a system of rows of forms opposed to each other: a number of forms of verbs denoting a holistic action limited by a limit (SV verbs), and a number of forms of verbs that do not have the attribute limited by limit holistic action (NSV verbs).
Aspectology as a science deals with the semantics of aspect and methods of verbal action, that is, it studies any opposition in the area of expressing the nature of the course of an action (duration, instantaneity, repeatability, and so on).
The concept of internal (abstract) limit
The meaning of SV as opposed to NSV has been described as
Completed versus ongoing
Resulting action
Holistic action, representing the unity of all phases
Jacobson and Vinogradov proposed the concept of an internal limit. In SV verbs, this limit is conceptualized as a certain critical point, upon reaching which the action, having exhausted itself, stops.
NSV verbs mean the desire to reach the limit.
Species pair
Most verbs are opposed to each other and form aspectual pairs. Aspect pair is a pair of lexically identical verbs SV and NSV, differing only in aspect semantics. Maslov's criterion for checking the truth of the aspectual pair: to determine whether two verbs form SV and NSV species pair, we need to check them in two diagnostic contexts: 1. The context of the present historical and 2. The context of repeated actions. If, within these contexts, the verbs SV and NSV are able to replace each other, they form an aspectual pair. For example: I was walking down the street yesterday and suddenly saw that the stop was moved - I was walking down the street yesterday and I see. Returning home, he opened the window - every time, returning home, he opened the window.
It should be taken into account that the verb is included in the aspect pair not in all of its meanings, but in one LSV: wither - wither(about flowers); wither - wither(about a woman); get dark - get dark about the approach (twilight), darken - darken(become dark).
SV - NSV - imperfectification (most often using a suffix)
NSV - SV - perfectification (most often using a prefix).
Imperfectification is more regular and consistent than perfectification: NSV forms regularly acquire all the lexical meanings of SV forms and easily duplicate them.
Perfection
A purely specific prefix must be consistent in meaning with the meaning of the original verb: uproot - uproot, remove the root, connected with the semantics of the prefix “you”.
The total number of such prefixes is from 14 to 16: car, you, for, on, by, under, at, about, times, with, at. The most productive is “po” (more than 300 species pairs). The prefixes in, before, above, below, pre, before, with, de do not participate in the formation of species pairs.
Secondary imperfection:
Imperfection can be primary or secondary. As a result of the primary, a small number of verbs are formed. Secondary in language is natural. For example, write - rewrite (not a pair), rewrite (pure specific meaning).
As a result of perfectification and secondary imperfectification, a species “troika” can be formed: wither - wither, wither.
Bispecies pairs:
Some verbs do not have a formal form; each time they are restored from the context: the patient was hospitalized due to a serious illness And He was often hospitalized as a child– two-aspect verbs.
Sometimes this situation can be overcome by prefixation (marry - marry, inherit - inherit) or suffixation (arrest - arrest). This active process in Russian grammar.
Conveys modality: describes the process of carrying out an action as real (indicative mood), possible, expected or desirable (subjunctive mood), process required by the speaker (imperative mood). The imperative and subjunctive are unreal, they do not have the form of time, the action has not been carried out and it is unknown whether it will be carried out.
The subjunctive and imperative have specific indicators: the subjunctive has “would”, the imperative has the suffixes “and” and zero suffixes.
The indicative mood describes the meaning of the action actually being carried out; additional modal shades (intention, determination, reluctance) may be superimposed on it. He has no restrictions. The indicative form can be used to convey the sense of command or presumption.
Secondary use of the indicative mood: go and ask (imperative) - you will go and ask (indicative).
Imperative mood: read (zero suffix), moly (suffix “and” - formative).
There are facial shapes for the imperative mood.
Impersonal verbs do not have imperative forms.
First person form: let's go - a form of joint action.
Let's have an imperfect look.
Forms of the third person imperative mood: let, let them sit, think, study; let there be light (yes).
For verbs not perfect form the imperative mood will be a more categorical impulse. If “not” + imperfect form, then there will be advice: never talk to strangers. Perfect form + “not” - a warning: don’t fall, don’t get knocked. Some forms of the imperative mood can turn into interjections: Look How brave he was!
Speech enantiosemy: talk to me again (that is, shut up). These forms have a whole list of modal shades.
The imperative mood can also have a secondary use: cases when the imperative mood loses the meaning of motivation - no one knew about my misfortune, and Tell I'm talking about her, no one would believe it. The imperative mood as a subjunctive. “And he just take it straight and run” - take it and run means an action that has already actually happened, meaning surprises.
The subjunctive mood denotes an action that is not real, but can occur under certain conditions. The meaning of the desirability of an action, the incentive to action and the possible action. Inspiration: “so that I don’t see you here again.” If I studied well, everyone would be happy - the “would” is included. Some uses of the subjunctive mood are synonymous with the present tense: would like = want.
Time category. Within the category of time, four forms are contrasted: past, present, simple future and complex future. The perfect form has only the forms of the past tense and the future simple (the same is true for participles). U imperfect form three forms: past, present and future complex. The specific indicator only for the past tense is the suffix “l”. In some forms, "l" may be zero: taken away, wiped, but is in female forms- died, wiped it off.
The suffix “well” has two parallel forms: merznu – frozen. The general trend– use a shorter form without “well”.
Categorical meaning forms of time. The meaning of the present tense can include more in a broad sense present time. Using the present tense, typical, repeating, timeless events are also described: the city is surrounded by a river - the river surrounds it all the time, a constant event. The problem has been studied for three decades - it can be as long as you like.
The past tense feature is related to the type of verb. The imperfect form in the past tense means an action that is entirely attributed to the past. The perfect form means the past perfect: the action took place in the past, but the result exists now.
The future complex is a form of imperfect form, entirely included in the future plan. The future simple can serve as the present repeater.
IN scientific style common present tense: describes objective reality that does not change over time.
IN formal business style preference is given to the present tense because situations of a timeless nature are described.
IN journalistic style present time is also very common. Present reporting tense: “yesterday I went into the dean’s office and I see." To give readers the illusion that he is involved in the events.
The present tense is used instead of the past tense when some unexpected action is described that disrupted the natural course of events. “They came, made themselves comfortable, and suddenly this one comes and says».
The present can be used to mean the future. “Tomorrow afternoon I’m sending things, leaving, starting new life" The future is seen as happening now.
There was also long past tense. The remnants in modern language are “once upon a time.” “I wanted to say something, but changed my mind,” “I started to do something, but changed my mind.” In fact, these are also analytical word forms.
There is a class of verbs ultra-instant action. They are typical only for oral speech: jump, bang, bam, boom. Verb-interjective form.
The category of face is formed by the opposition of forms: 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons. There is a third person - an objective-personal form: the subject of conversation. “I’m telling you about something (something – third person).” Verbs of the indicative and imperative moods have a person. A number of verbs cannot form the first and second person forms. This is due to the fact that the very meaning of the verb contradicts the first person. Cacophony is the second reason for the impossibility of some verbs to form the first person form: to win, to convince, to travel around - it is impossible to say in the first person. Homonymous forms: wake up and buzz – “I wake up”; dare and hold - “I hold.” Proper personal form, generalized personal form, indefinite personal form, impersonal form.
Impersonal meaning of a personal verb. Believe is a personal verb. Freshness blows from the window - impersonal use personal verb. Impersonal verbs- a pronounced feature of Russian syntax. Impersonal verb - impossible to highlight nominative case: no subject. I don’t want to - the subject is not expressed in the nominative case, but it’s still “I”. The impersonal sentence is the main feature of Russian syntax.
Groups of impersonal verbs:
1. Which describe the state of nature: it’s getting dark, it’s getting dark, it’s getting dark - 0 valence verbs.
2. Describe mental and physical state person: chills, itchy, tempting to say something, impatient to do something, managed to get somewhere
3. Impersonal verbs that mean the amount of something: you don’t have enough courage, you don’t have enough perseverance, stop bickering, you’ll be fine.
4. Ought: follows, ought, must.
5. Desire and possibility: if you want, you have to - only with “sya”.
Impersonal verbs are the main members of an impersonal sentence.
Participles
A verb can have four participles: two active and two passive participles. For a verb to have all four forms, it must be imperfective and transitive. The only participial form that all verbs will have is active participle present tense – suffix “vsh, sh”. Read – imperfect, transitional.
Active present: reading - using the suffix ush and yush for the first conjugation, from the base of the present tense. Ash, box for verbs of the second conjugation. Reading.
Active past: from the stem of the infinitive (two generating stems) + vsh, w. Reading. Sometimes “h”: to protect, to be able.
Passive present: from the stem of the present tense + “eat” for the 1st conjugation and “im” for the second conjugation: read eat y. Participial forms are often bookish.
Passive past: from the base of the infinitive + adding the suffixes “nn”, “enn”, “ann”, “t”. Cheat Ann oh, open T y.
To smell - there are only two forms (the verb is not transitive): the real present and the real past, there are no other forms.
If it is perfect, then there is no present tense.
The one who has achieved and the one who has achieved are the same form.
Passive forms can also be formed from a certain amount intransitive verbs.
Some forms are purely bookish, especially the passive forms of imperfective verbs.
Passive participles of perfective verbs are very popular.
Participles are a way to condense text.
Lecture No. 6
Unchangeable words, which denote the state (not only of the subject, but also environment), capable of being combined with a copula and used as the main member of an impersonal sentence. Vinogradov identified it as an independent part of speech. A motley class of words, the properties and meanings of the verb and name are intertwined in it. The main member of an impersonal sentence is main feature. Volume of words in the state category: homonymous words short adjective and adverbs that end in “o”: cold, sad, fun, boring. The second group of words that are not correlated with anything else: possible, impossible, necessary, necessary. An expression of the modality of an action, the intention to perform or not to perform an action. The third group of words: homonymous with some nouns - “it’s time for me to sleep”, “time to collect stones” - “time” will be a word of the state category: the meaning is “one should do this”; hunting, laziness are also categories of state. Fourth group: homonymous to the passive past participles of the neuter gender - smoked, heated, trampled, by instrumental case impossible to determine.
Syntactic position holds it together. It can only be associated with a connective, and with nothing else on an equal basis; in other cases, other words will depend on it.
Functional parts of speech.
Pretext
Constantly replenished. You need to determine what it is for in a sentence, then it is easy to understand whether the word is a conjunction, a particle or a preposition. The function of a preposition is to formalize the subordination of one significant word to another significant word and thereby express the relationship that arises between the main and dependent word in a phrase. The preposition works together with case ending. The preposition works together with the case ending. A preposition is capable of expressing all relationships except subjective ones.
All prepositions are divided into derivatives and non-derivatives. Non-derivatives are a small group of words that are not replenished; these words resemble prefixes and are distinguished by the fact that they are polysemantic. Derivative prepositions are those that have living word-formation connections with significant parts of speech. Unlike derivatives, they are always unambiguous and more narrowly specialized, always assigned to only one case. Adverbial, verbal, denominal. Denominative: meaning, verbal – including. Simple, complex compounds - both derivatives and non-derivatives. Simple - one word (relatively, among, excluding - simple derivatives), complex - because of, from under, compound - always derivatives, “in accordance with”, “in contrast to”, “in relation to”. Adverbial prepositions: always express adverbial relations and correspond in meaning to the adverbs from which they are derived. Simple - they simply coincide with adverbs: on the eve of something, towards someone. Compound - an adverbial word + preposition is taken: on par with, in relation to. Verbal - initially formed from gerunds: those gerunds that have lost procedural semantics - including that, thanks to which, judging by what, based on what - these are all verbal prepositions. Denominative prepositions, complexity: having passed from a noun to a preposition, it can return back to a noun. “Did not accept the visitor under the pretext of being busy” - “under the pretext” will be a denominate pretext, meaning reason. “Did not accept the visitor under the dubious pretext of being busy” is already a noun. As soon as the dependent word appears, the denominal preposition becomes a noun again.
Union and allied words
Words that formalize grammatical relationships in a sentence. The specificity of the conjunction is its complete grammatical autonomy. He only formalizes the connection, he does not enter into anything. Depending on their functions, conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating: connective (and/and, neither/nor, too, also), dividing (or, either, this/that, neither this/nor that), adversative (but, but, however, a), gradational (not only, but also ; not as much as; as, so and), explanatory (that is, namely), “yes and.” Subordinates: comparative (as if, as if, exactly, exactly, as), explanatory (formulate the connection - that, as if), temporary (when, while, before), causal (because, since, for), conditional (if, when ), concessionary (although, despite the fact that), target (so that, in order to), consequences (so that, as a result of which). “If not a hero, then at least a brave man.” “That” - the specifying part, is called “correlative”. Sometimes a conjunction works together with an introductory word.
Particle
Particles have many functions. Function words, which give the word in a sentence (or an entire sentence) all sorts of additional semantic shades, modal and emotionally expressive. Another function of particles is shaping. Classification of particles by value:
1. Semantic: demonstrative (there, here, this), defining-clarifying (exactly, just), excretory-restrictive (only, only, exclusively), intensifying (even, also, and).
2. Emotionally expressive
3. Modal: affirmative (yes, definitely, definitely), negative (not, nor, not at all, not at all, not at all), interrogative (is it really, really, only), comparative (like, as if, like, exactly, as if), indicate someone else’s speech (they say, supposedly), modal-painful (well, let it be, let it be).
4. Formative (would, yes, come on, let's, let, let).
Fourth semester
Valgina N. S. “Modern Russian language. Syntax".
Valgina. “Modern Russian language. Punctuation".
Fur coat. “Modern Russian language. Third volume."
Graudina, Itskovich, Katlinskaya “Grammatical correctness of Russian speech. Dictionary of options".
Three aspects of syntax
The syntax is “structure, composition.” The purpose of the study: to double-check yourself, to understand the relationship between words, to feel how words and sentences are linked together at the text level. The subject of the syntax is connection. Syntax studies the ability of words to combine. Syntagmatic possibilities of the word. Phrase and sentence.
My wet shoes rustling through the snow, I walked a few steps and kept looking at the dark house on the right.
The structural aspect is how the predicative center of the sentence is expressed. Predicative - the main members of the sentence.
Semantic syntax – modality: dictum (immediate situation) and mode (possible action that, theoretically, can happen).
The word as a syntactic unit should be considered, on the one hand, as independent, dominant, and the word in a position of dependence, subordination. New/old house – dominant. A holiday home, a cultural home, for the elderly, for guests, at a crossroads – dominant. Thinking about home, dreaming, getting bored, yearning - “about” is a mental action. Drive up to the house, approach, run up. Path to home, path to home, attachment to home. Syntax begins with a word, not a phrase. The syntax of a word is the syntax of all the potential uses of a word. Coordination is the connection between the subject and the predicate.
A phrase is a connection between two words based on subordination. Not all scientists distinguish syntax as a unit. The simplest extension of a word. The word performs a nominative function, and so does the phrase, but it already names something. The word represents nominative unit.
Offer
A simple sentence is the central unit of syntax; it is it that serves as the basis for a complex sentence and for a whole text; any sentence can be expanded into a whole text. A sentence is something through which a complete thought is expressed. A sentence is not a nominative unit. Offer - predicative unit . Predicativity – tense and modality. Within the framework of a sentence, we can talk about action as real and unreal, time. In any sentence you need to find traces of this tense and this modality - the verb (as a natural way of expressing tense and modality).
Difficult sentence. Associated with a simple sentence, you need to look for how they are connected and what kind of relationship they enter into (equal or not).
Super-one-time actions or a complex syntactic whole. All kinds of connections can be discovered (so it is believed). A unit of coherent text. The unit of an individual author's style is the author developing it.
Syntax is not something external, some kind of structure. The main thing is the meaning and meaning that a certain syntactic construction conveys. The meaning is in the word itself. Any linguistic unit is a sign. Syntactic connections - expression plan. Syntactic constructions can be synonymous.
There was no point in continuing the argument.
Continuing the argument was useless.
Continuing the argument was futile.
2 and 3 are options, the same synonymous construction. And 1 in relation to them is a one-part sentence, “useless” here is a word of the state category. 1 – synonymous construction.
(1) They tried to tell her, (2) that ( allied word) said the doctor, (3) but (conjunction) it turned out, (4) that although (conjunction) the doctor spoke very smoothly and for a long time, (5) it was impossible to convey what (correlative), (6) what he said.
[verb – question “about what?” to the subordinate explanatory part], (that...), [, (that, (although), that), (that).
1 Mom was worried and angry, 2 but my father said 3 that there was nothing wrong, 4 that it was difficult to spoil me, 5 and that he preferred 6 that I be friends with these disadvantaged people, and not with the sons of Kyiv merchants and officials.
But, (what...), (what...), (what...) and (what...), (to...).
1 Since the conversation 2 that the travelers had among themselves was not very interesting for the reader, 3 we will do better 4 if we say something about Nozdryov himself, 5 who, perhaps, will not have the chance to play at all last role in our poem.
(since, (which), ...), [ (question to the first part - “why?”) ], (if ... Nozdrev),
[Remember] (that writers (whom we call eternal or simply good), and who intoxicate us) have a common and very important sign: [they are going somewhere and they are calling you there], and [you feel not with your mind, but with your whole being], (that they have some kind of goal), (like the shadow of Hamlet’s father), (which recently came and disturbed the imagination).
1 Although Oblomov lived his life 2 in the circle of all-knowing youth who had long ago decided all life’s issues, who believed in nothing and coldly and wisely analyzed everything, 3 but in his soul there was a glimmer of faith in friendship, love, and human honor; 4 and no matter how much he made mistakes in people, no matter how many more mistakes he made, 5 his heart suffered, 6 but the foundation of goodness and faith in him never shook.
I think it's crazy pace and stress American life makes Dickens's books almost healing: they are delightfully leisurely, in them (determinants) even evil has its funny side, in them poverty is cozy, misfortune is surmountable and every little life is priceless.
Subordinating connection
The means of its expression will be the forms of the dependent component (ending + preposition). The subordinate relationship is described from two positions. Predictable and unpredictable. Predictable connection predetermines strictly a certain form dependent component. Most Russian verbs have predictable connections. Talking with passion and excitement is an unpredictable connection.
Obligatory and optional subordination. There are some words that have an obligatory connection; outside of this extension they are not able to highlight a thought. "The house is located." - “is” has an obligatory connection. In a mandatory link, the main component requires an extension. An optional extension may or may not require an extension.
Collocation
Formed as a result of word expansion. It is based on the subordination of one significant word to another. The base (core) component is the one that expands. A phrase exists only within a sentence. Component - part nominative unit. A word form can be a member of a sentence, but will not be a component of a phrase. General minor member- determinant, applies to all grammatical basis. The phrase can be complex and spread very widely. Famous painting – a well-known picture – a well-known painting by a popular + Renaissance artist. Grammatical device phrases – word + word form. The main word can appear in all its forms, and the dependent word can only appear in the one that the main word predicts. One-way dependency relationship.
Meaning is the semantic relationships that arise between units. Five types of grammatical relations:
1. Definitive. Reading boy, obedient student.
2. Circumstantial. Drive fast, get very tired. + time, place, reason, purpose.
3. Object. The dependent object always denotes the object towards which the action is directed. Subject of the attribute application. There may be two subtypes. Write a letter (there is an object). Application of the sign - ready for (what?) perception, full of (what?) hopes.
4. Subjective. The dependent word denotes the producer of the action or the bearer of the attribute. Rector's order, father's arrival. The blue of the sea is the blue sea.
5. Replenishing or comprehensive. The case when the dependent component makes up for the lack of information in the main component. When the main word is a numeral or a word with the meaning of quantity. Two students, two friends, two events, a lot of stuff, people; be considered an eccentric. If the relationship is complex, then management always strong.
6. Attributive relations: which, which.
Over five years of working behind enemy lines, she developed the habit of noticing little things that people wouldn’t normally attach importance to.
He walked surrounded by people clinging to him. Those who cling to him - strong control.
The square, or rather a vacant lot to be developed, seemed uninhabited.
Relationships may overlap. Objective and comprehensive; adverbial, attributive and complective.
What is not a phrase:
1. Subject and predicate
2. Word combinations based on coordinating connection (coordinating conjunction)
3. What is called the complicated form of a simple verbal predicate: I’ll go and talk.
4. Based on repetition: month after month, the bear stands bear.
5. Special connections arise when there is a main word and a participle attached to it or participial turnover: eyes full of sympathy. These connections are semi-predicative. Predicate - predicate. Semi-predicatives can be transformed into full predicates. Eyes were full of sympathy.
6. Determiners are not phrases.
7. Bidirectional communication. He remembered his father when he was young. It is unclear what “young” refers to: it could refer to two words.
I had never seen her confused before, much less crying. This is the determinant. I didn’t see her - the only phrase in this sentence.
An explanatory and connecting connection also cannot be a phrase.
Passive voice– the lawns are trampled by vacationers. It's also not a phrase.
Free and non-free phrases. Between them are alive syntactic connections. Sometimes the connection can be very limited - phraseological units (phraseologically non-free phrases). Syntactically non-free. Their main feature– inarticulateness of the sentence. We see a man of strong build. The dependent component is one member of the sentence: a person of strong physique.
Each main component belongs to some part of speech. Lexico-grammatical types of phrases:
1. Verbal. The main word is a verb; the dependent word can be a noun (or its form) or an adverb. Receive guests, conduct an orchestra, hide around the corner, come to get a diploma, study at the university. A preposition most often means that the connections are a little blurred. There may be an infinitive: can win, asked to help, instructed to check. The infinitive has an objective function. We sat down to rest and came to talk.
To describe the grammatical properties of a verb, it is important to distinguish between the following lexical grammatical categories: verbs full-nominal and incomplete-nominal, actional and non-actional, transitive and intransitive, reflexive and non-reflexive.
The system of lexico-grammatical categories of the verb also includes the opposition of verbs according to the methods of verbal action (and first of all, terminal and non-terminal verbs).
One of the most essential features is the role of the verb in the construction of a sentence; On this basis, full-nominal and incomplete-nominal verbs are contrasted.
Incomplete verbs are also called auxiliary verbs because they themselves are not parts of a sentence. Within the framework of this category, G. A. Zolotova is contrasted with: copular verbs that are used in the formation of a compound nominal predicate (to be, to appear, to become, to do); modal verbs(want, wish, be able); phase verbs denoting the phase of an action (begin / begin, continue / continue, finish / end); compensatory verbs that fill in the missing grammatical semantic elements in a sentence during syntactic derivation (in the examples below, the members of the word-formation pair are highlighted with discharge, and the compensatory verbs are in bold): Apples are being picked in the garden -> apples are being picked; The athletes carried the banner into the stadium -> carried out the removal of the banner; The girl is beautiful - “distinguished by beauty.
Full-nominal verbs are independent parts of the sentence: Oh, if only you
we saw how she suffered in the struggle with herself... but I know her... a few more days... and she will die! (M. Lermontov). The partial verbal meaning of the procedural feature of an object is realized for full-nominal verbs in several standard varieties, each of which is the basis for the identification of special lexical and grammatical groups, or subcategories: 'action' (work, walk, sing), 'state' (lying down, sleeping) , 'process* (grow, decrease), 'attitude' (to love, belong), 'procedural property' (the nettle stings; the angry dog grows thin; the machine does not work , i.e. 'spoiled'), 'being, or existence' (to exist, to be 'to exist', to exist, etc.).
Verbs with the meaning of action (run, build, explore, read, marry, fight) are called a-actional (from the Latin actio ‘activity, action, activity’), all other full-nominal verbs belong to the category of non-actional. Distinguishing between active and non-actional verbs is important, for example, when studying the category of verb aspect.
Verbal action modes (VAM) are lexicogrammatical categories of verbs that differ from each other in the nature of the representation of the procedural feature (actional or non-actional).
The classification of SRS is multifaceted; some SRS overlap with others. First of all, SGS are contrasted with their own nominative and expressive semantic characteristics. Within the framework of the SRS of the first group, it is especially important for the functioning of the verb, especially its aspectual system, to distinguish between limiting and non-finite verbs.
Limit verbs denote an action that strives to achieve its internal limit as a certain critical point; upon reaching the limit, the action stops, having exhausted itself: The teacher read Yesenin’s poems by heart throughout the lesson and read a lot of them; Water flowed from the broken can and after a few minutes it all drained out. At the same time, limit verbs of the imperfect form denote the desire to achieve a limit, and verbs of the perfect form denote the very achievement of this limit. Only terminal verbs are capable of forming aspectual pairs: do - make, tell - tell.
Unlimited verbs that are unable to express the desire to achieve a limit in the indicated sense (hang, have fun, sleep, etc.) do not form aspectual pairs.
The next basis for the classification of SRS is the distinction between temporary and quantitative (multiple) SRS.
Temporary SRS clarify the nature of the action over time:
1) the initial SRS contains an indication of the beginning of an action: to sing, to go, to hate, to flare up;
2) the final SRS expresses the meaning of completing an action: to do, to suffer, to finish eating, to thunder;
3) restrictive SRS is associated with the designation of limiting action by temporary limits: talk, visit, sit;
4) long-term restrictive SRS expresses the completion of a long-term action: lie down, overwinter;
5) long-distributive SRS contains an indication of a slowly occurring, unhurried action: thinking, walking.
Quantitative (multiple) SRS:
1) one-time SRS refers to a one-time, usually instantaneous action: jump, slash, fool, drive;
2) multiple SRS is associated with the designation of an action performed many times: walking, talking, singing;
3) distributive (distributive) SRS expresses an indication of an action emanating from many subjects or aimed at several objects: jump out, renumber, bite;
4) multiple-distributive SRS includes verbs indicating the mutual repeated action of many subjects: talk, laugh.
Expressive SGS express, in addition to nominative meanings, also the speaker’s subjective assessment of the intensity of the action:
1) the verbs of the diminutive SRS contain in their meaning an indication of low intensity, moderation of action: to get sick, to lie, to lie down, to sit down, to scare;
2) long-term emollient SHD is associated with the expression of the duration of a weakened (non-intensive) action: lie down, get sick, make fun;
3) intermittent softening SRS has a word-formative meaning ‘from time to time, with low intensity, perform an action called a producing verb’: whistle, joke;
4) the accompanying mitigating SRS expresses an indication of an action regarded as collateral in relation to another action: to sing along, to sentence;
5) intensive-effective SRS includes verbs united by the meaning of completeness and exhaustion of action: scrape, interrogate, pamper, beat, feed;
6) intensive-multiple SGS is associated with the designation of actions performed intensively and repeatedly: whipping, dancing.
Regardless of their assignment to the lexico-grammatical categories discussed above, all verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive, reflexive and non-reflexive.
Transitivity/intransitivity is a grammatical feature of verbs, which consists in the possibility or impossibility of subordinating the strongly controlled substantive non-prepositional form of the accusative case (and for verbs with negation - the form of the genitive case) with an objective meaning: to love milk, not to like milk; write a monograph, do not write a monograph. Verbs characterized by grammatical transitivity form the lexico-grammatical category of transitive verbs.
All verbs that do not have the property of transitivity constitute the category of intransitive verbs. These also include the so-called indirect transitive verbs, in which an objective extender is possible, expressed not by the accusative or genitive case form without a preposition, but by other case forms or prepositional case constructions: trust a friend, believe in a friend, head a department, work on a dissertation .
The same verb in its different meanings can be characterized either by grammatical transitivity or intransitivity; cf.: He writes stories, translates articles from French (transitive verbs). - He writes and translates nicely (A. Griboyedov); in the last example, the verbs write ‘engage in literary activity, create literary works’ and translate ‘transmit text, speech by means of another language’ do not imply an objective distributor, being intransitive verbs.
The transitivity/intransitivity of a verb not only characterizes lexical meaning and grammatical compatibility of the verb, but is also reflected in the peculiarities of its inflection. For transitive verbs, the possibility of forming passive voice forms is noted: The monograph was written by a famous scientist; a book loved by many. Intransitive verbs are monosyllable, passive forms Dont Have.
Reflexivity/non-reflexivity is another basis for classifying the lexico-grammatical categories of a verb.
Reflexive verbs are intransitive verbs, the stem of which includes the non-inflectional postfix -xia: learn, call back, pounce. All other verbs are non-reflexive: teach, call, sing.
Most reflexive verbs are formed by means of the postfix -sya from the corresponding non-reflexive verbs: prepare - prepare, take - take. Often, in the formation of reflexive verbs, along with postfixes, prefixes also participate: lie down - lie down, read - read a lot. Only some reflexive verbs do not have corresponding non-reflexive verbs: laugh, smile.
The reflexive derivational postfix -sya can indicate different relationships actions towards its subject or object. Based on the nature of such relationships within the lexico-grammatical category of reflexive verbs, the following semantic and word-forming groups have been identified:
1) proper reflexive verbs indicating the coincidence of the subject and object of the action: dress ‘dress yourself’, shave, wash, comb your hair, etc.; A variety of this group are the so-called collateral reflexive verbs such as take, take, cling (to the hand); hit, rub, hurt (against a tree); these verbs are actions with a partial coincidence of the subject and the object, suggesting the concretization of that part of the subject that is being affected: hold on (to what), hit (to what);
2) indirect reflexive verbs naming actions performed by the subject in his own interests: build ‘build a house for yourself’ (By spring, the neighbor began to build), colloquial. pack up ‘pack your things, usually for the road’, tidy up ‘clean up your home’, etc.;
3) general reflexive verbs, denoting the objectless state of the subject: worry, have fun, rejoice, get angry, worry, etc.;
4) reciprocal verbs that name the mutual actions of several subjects who are also the objects of these actions: meet, make up, hug, talk, quarrel, kiss, etc.;
5) potentially active reflexive verbs such as butt, bite, scratch, naming a potential active sign of the subject: nettle stings ‘can cause pain to anyone who comes into contact with it’;
6) reflexive verbs of qualitatively characterizing “passive” meaning: threads are torn ‘they can be easily torn’, glass is breaking.
The derivational postfix -sya in any of its meanings is an additional formal indicator of the intransitivity of the verb: smile, worry, etc. (there are no reflexive transitive verbs).
It is necessary to distinguish homonymous words from reflexive verbs as a special lexical-grammatical category of words. grammatical forms passive voice; cf.: The hotel is being built by Stroyinvest, where the word form build expresses the meaning of the passive voice and is included in the paradigm of the non-reflexive verb build.
The impersonal forms of non-reflexive verbs are not reflexive: I want - this is an impersonal form of the non-reflexive verb to want, I work - a similar form of the non-reflexive verb to work.
Each verb can be included simultaneously in several lexical and grammatical categories. Thus, to talk is a full-nominal, actional, intransitive and irreversible terminal verb of the restrictive mode of verbal action; appear ‘to be’ (Moscow is the capital of Russia) - a partial-nominal verb, copular, infinite, intransitive, reflexive; cf.: appear ‘to come’ (You appeared to me in dreams... - A. Pushkin) - a fully significant verb, actional, ultimate, intransitive, reflexive.
The most general meaning the verb is the meaning of the process, it includes private meanings: actions ( read), states ( turn pale), process ( melt), movements ( fly).
Permanent grammatical features: type, pledge, recurrence, transitivity (manifests in context). These features are characteristic of all forms of the verb and are actually verbal (as well as the categories of mood and tense). The type of verb conjugation is also constant.
Inconsistent grammatical features: mood, as well as (if any) tense, person, number, gender. These features are not present in all forms of the verb and manifest themselves differently in various forms. For example, in the past tense, personal forms of the verb do not have a person meaning, but have a gender category; Only participles have a case category. The categories of person, gender and number are not proper verbal.
All verbal forms (infinitive, personal forms, gerunds, participles) have the characteristics of aspect, voice, reflexivity, and transitivity. Personal forms can change according to moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and in the past tense according to gender. The participle (verb-nominal form) can also change according to cases and gender.
View– a grammatical category expressing the way an action occurs. Imperfect verbs denote actions that take place without indicating their completion: think, understand, swim, blush. Perfect Verbs indicate a limit, a limitation of an action to a beginning or an end. For example, an action with a start designation: sing, shout, start; actions indicating completion: decide, commit, turn green. Most perfective verbs have prefixes.
The category of type is related to the category of time. Imperfective verbs have three forms of tense: present, past and future complex: I am drawing, I have been drawing, I will draw. Perfective verbs have two forms of tense: future simple and past: I'll draw, drew.
Groups of verbs by aspect
Most verbs can form species pairs, differing not in the lexical, but only in the grammatical meaning of the form. Species pairs are formed using: 1) prefix: did - did; 2) suffixes -yva- / -iva-, -va-, -a-, -nu-, etc.: sow - sow, raise - raise, dry up - dry up; 3) moving the accent: narezat – rifling A t , diss.sfall - crumbleAt; 4) in a suppletive way: take - take, put - put, catch - catch.
Monotype verbs- these are verbs that form only one form, either perfect or only imperfect. They can be prefixed or non-prefixed. Verbs only imperfective form indicate repetition, duration, intermittency, etc.: touch, fight, regret, talk, row. Perfect verbs only denote actions that have mandatory completion, occur instantly and have a result: rise up, rush, wake up, pass, come to your senses. The reason for the inability to form a species pair is the semantics of verbs or morphological structure.
Bi-aspect verbs- verbs that, with the same graphic shell, can, in context, become either perfect verbs or imperfect verbs, without changing their form. Wed: The detachment attacked the heights for a long time and unsuccessfully (what did they do?). Yesterday the detachment (what did it do?) attacked and captured the heights. The following verbs are classified as two-type: wound, execute, marry, marry, say, promise, start, bestow, borrow, telegraph and etc.
Transitive verbs called an action directed at an object (subject, person). These are verbs of creation ( create, weave), destruction ( break, burn), perception ( see, feel), emotional attitude to the subject ( be in love, charm), verbs of speech and thought ( ask, ponder).
There are directly transitive (properly transitive) and indirectly transitive verbs. Straightforward have an addition in the form accusative case without preposition: read a book, build a house or genitive (when denoting a part or when negating, with verbs to want, to desire): drank tea, bring some water, didn't read new newspaper . Indirect-transitive verbs denote actions aimed at an object, but the object can be in the indirect case with a preposition: take care of your sister, help your neighbor, manage your business.
Intransitive verbs denote actions that do not transfer to the subject. Intransitive verbs include verbs denoting: 1) being, existence: to be, to be; 2) movement: walk, swim, ride; 3) physical and mental condition: get sick, get angry, stand; 4) type of activity: teach, carpenter; 5) behavior: to be brave, to be young; 6) auditory and visual perception: sparkle, knock etc. Additions to such verbs can be with or without prepositions and stand in indirect cases, except accusative: show off your knowledge, burn in the fire, take it off the shelf.
Verbs with the postfix -сь/-ся are intransitive.
Among intransitive verbs, a special type of verbs with the postfix -sya (-s) is distinguished. (Postfix -sya is used after a consonant, postfix -sya – after a vowel). Such verbs have a reflexive category, which conveys special semantic meanings. Depending on their meaning, reflexive verbs are presented in several groups:
1) self-reflexive: the subject’s action is directed towards himself: wash, comb your hair, tune in, humiliate yourself; these verbs can usually be restructured into a construction with a pronoun myself;
2) mutually reciprocal: actions of several subjects directed at each other, each of which is both the subject and the object of a similar action: make up, meet, kiss;
3) indirectly reciprocal: the action is performed by the subject in his own interests: be built(build a house for yourself) fit in(pack your things); possible to rebuild in a design with words for yourself, for yourself;
4) general return: the action of the subject, closed in the sphere of his state: worry, be happy, get angry, have fun; worry and some others.
Most reflexive verbs can form a correlative pair without the postfix -sya: knock - knock, smoke - smoke. However, in the Russian language there are verbs that do not have such correlative pairs, are “only reflexive” and are not used without the postfix -sya: be afraid, be proud, be lazy, hope, try and so on.
The category of voice expresses the relationship between the subject, the action and the object on which the action is performed. Active voice The verb indicates that the subject is named by the subject who himself performs the action. A student writes a note. I'll waste my time on you. Passive voice indicates that the subject names an object that is subject to action from another object or person: The abstract is written by the student. Time wasted on you.
The passive voice can be expressed: 1) by the postfix -сь/-ся: The consequences of the hurricane are being eliminated; 2) forms of passive participles: The problem is solved.
They do not have voice forms: 1) all intransitive verbs: go, run and so on.; 2) verbs with the postfix -sya that do not have a pair without this postfix: be afraid, wake up; 3) personal verbs in an impersonal meaning with the postfix -sya: I couldn’t sleep, I was breathing easily.
Indicative denotes a real action that has happened, is happening or will happen. Verbs in the indicative mood change according to tenses (they have forms of present, past and future tense).
Subjunctive (conditional) mood denotes an unreal action that can occur under certain conditions or is expected or desired. Forms of the subjunctive mood change only by gender and number: I would play in the yard, fix my car, read my memoirs.
Imperative mood expresses a request, wish, order and is expressed by verbs outside tense forms. Forms of the imperative mood are formed, as a rule, from the stem of the present tense (for imperfective verbs) or the future tense (for perfective verbs). There is no first person singular in imperative verbs; there is no plural form with a call to perform a joint action - we read or let's read- homonymous to present tense forms. The most common verbs are in the form of the 2nd and 3rd person, singular and plural. The 2nd person singular forms have two types of endings: -and or null ending:write and readØ. The 2nd person plural forms are formed by adding the postfix -te to the singular form: write and readØ-those. When forming forms of the imperative mood, some verbs exhibit alternation in the root: V And t - in e y, w And t - w e th. The 3rd person singular and plural forms are formed using the particles let, let: let him read, let him read. A special analytical form of the imperative mood is formed using the particle let's (let's) and the imperfective infinitive with the meaning of a call to joint action: let's read, let's decide.
A number of verbs in the formation of forms of the imperative mood have the following features: 1) alternation of i/e in the roots of verbs like beat, drink, sew – hit, drink, shake; 2) preservation of the suffix -va-, which is absent in the present tense form, but is in the infinitive: give - give - come on, get up - get up - get up; 3) at the verb lie down imperative form lie down; 4) at the verb drive suppletive form of the imperative mood go.
For some verbs, the forms of the imperative mood are either not formed at all or are not used: see, hear, want, feel ill.
In Russian, forms of some moods can be used to mean others: Would you like to work today?(subjunctive mood in the sense of imperative). Come back on time - nothing would have happened(imperative mood in the meaning of the subjunctive). In the meaning of the subjunctive mood, the infinitive can be used: You should study.
Time category – This is an inflectional category that denotes the correlation of an action to the moment of speech. Present tense is the action at the moment of speech, past tense is the action preceding the moment of speech, future tense is the action that will take place after the moment of speech. The forms of the present and future tenses do not have a special grammatical design; the forms of the past tense are expressed by the suffix -l- or a zero suffix with the same meaning: read-l , brought-Ø . Only imperfective verbs have the present tense. The future tense of imperfective verbs is formed using the auxiliary verb to be: I will read, you will read, will read(complex form). If there are several future tense verbs in a sentence, then the auxiliary verb is usually used once: I will sing and dance. For perfective verbs - simple form future tense: read, read, read.
In speech, verbs of one tense can be used to mean another : We're going to sea tomorrow(form of the present tense in the meaning of the future). So I believed you(form of the past tense in the meaning of the future).
Face category indicates the producer of the action in relation to the speaker. The first person singular (I) shows that the subject of the action is the speaker himself; first person plural (we) – speaker and others. The second person singular (you) shows that the subject of the action is the interlocutor; in the plural (you) – interlocutor and others. The third person singular (he, she, it) shows that the subject of the action is someone not participating in the dialogue; in the plural (they) – someone not participating in the dialogue, and others.
In addition to the indicated meanings of personal forms, in modern Russian the following are used: 1) forms of the 1st person plural in the meaning of “the author's we” instead of “I” in the scientific style: we consider this fact, we conducted an experiment; 2) forms of the 1st person plural in the meaning of the 2nd person to express complicity in emotionally expressive speech: how do we feel?; 3) 2nd person plural forms are used to express politeness: You told us.
Formal indicators of the category of a person are personal endings: -у (-у), -ем (-им), -еж (-ish), -ete (-ITE), -ut (-yut), -at (-yat).
The category of face is related to the categories of tense and inclination. Only verbs of the present and future tenses of the indicative and imperative mood have facial forms. The category of person is absent in past tense verbs and subjunctive verbs.
Some verbs in Russian do not have all forms of person, i.e. are insufficient. There are no 1st person forms for verbs to dare, to win, to find oneself, to be strange. Verbs lack 1st and 2nd person forms calve, foal, grow, bud off, get closer, appear. Along with “insufficient” verbs in the Russian language there are verbs that have not one, but two systems of finite forms, i.e. are redundant: splash - splash / splash, torment - torment / torment, coo - coo / coo. Between these forms there is usually either a semantic or stylistic difference. If you splash, you spew out splashes, you splash; you spray - you spray. They coo (colloquial); kurlychut (neutral).
Impersonal verbs
Verbs that do not have a person form and denote actions or states that occur on their own, without subjectivity, are called impersonal. Impersonal verbs do not change according to persons, numbers and genders. Can be used in the infinitive, indicative mood (past, present and future tense) and subjunctive mood. They can be with or without a postfix. With impersonal verbs it is impossible to use a subject: It will begin to get light soon. It's getting dark. It was getting dark. It would chill.
Some personal verbs in Russian can be used in the meaning of impersonal ones: The forest is getting dark(personal verb). It gets dark early in winter(personal verb in impersonal meaning). Impersonal verbs and personal verbs in an impersonal meaning mean: 1) natural phenomena: it will rain, it's getting dark; 2) human condition: has a fever, chills; 3) sensations, feelings: I'm unlucky; 4) being: there was no time; 5) obligation: do not be sad.
Genus category denotes a characteristic of the gender of a noun or pronoun with which the verb is coordinated or agreed. In the absence of a subject of action, the gender form indicates the gender of the possible subject of the action: The sun was shining. The grass was turning green. The cloud was floating. I would come today. Neuter gender may also indicate the impersonality of the verb: It was getting dark.
Not all verb forms have a gender category. The singular forms of the past tense of the indicative mood, the singular forms of the conditional mood, and all participial forms have meanings of masculine, feminine or neuter gender.
Number indicates the singularity or multiplicity of the subject performing the actions, while the meaning of the action does not change: The student has arrived. The students came. This morphological characteristic is inherent in all personal verb forms. The infinitive and the gerund have no number forms. Plural verb in a one-part sentence indicates the uncertainty of the subject: There's a knock on the door. Singular may indicate impersonality: I'm shivering.
Relationship between verb categories
1. Aspect and tense: perfective verbs have two tense forms (there are no present tense forms), the future tense form is simple. Imperfective verbs have three tense forms (there is a present tense form), the future tense form is complex.
2. Tense and mood: verbs change tenses only in the indicative mood, and in the imperative and conditional moods there is no morphological characteristic of time.
3. Person and gender: these categories of a verb are mutually exclusive and cannot be presented in the same form. The category of person is present in the forms of the verb in the present and future tense of the indicative mood and in the forms of the verb imperative mood, and gender - for verb forms in the past tense of the indicative mood and for forms of the conditional mood.
4. Transitivity and reflexivity: reflexive verbs are intransitive.
5. Transitivity and voice: passive constructions are formed only from directly transitive verbs. Transitive verbs are generally capable of forming passive forms.
Talk about grammatical properties the verb must begin with the characteristics of its lexical and grammatical categories.
Verb forms can be characterized by the following lexical and grammatical categories:
- full significant/incomplete significant;
- returnable/non-refundable;
- transitive/intransitive;
- category of verb action modes.
Incomplete (auxiliary) verbs express grammatical meaning, but cannot be an independent member of a sentence - they require a semantic extender. These include:
- linking verbs: included in the compound nominal predicate (SIS): to be, to become, to appear, to be done;
- modal: able, willing, wanting;
- phase: start, continue to finish.
- verbs denoting physical action (build, crumble, wash);
- verbs denoting a state (to be sad, to cry, to have fun);
- verbs denoting movement in space (get, go, arrive);
- verbs denoting the manifestation and change of a characteristic (lose weight, go bald, blush);
- verbs denoting perception (see, feel, listen);
- verbs denoting features of speech (say, whisper, meow);
- verbs denoting relationships between people (see, respect, care), etc.
- proper reflexive verbs express an action, the subject and direct object of which are one and the same person: [The daughters] will perfume themselves and put on lipstick, that the dolls will dress up. The affix -sya in these verbs means “oneself”.
- reciprocal verbs denote the action of several persons, of which each person is simultaneously both the subject and the object of the designated action. The affix -sya for such verbs means “each other”: And new friends, well, hug, well, kiss.
- general reflexive verbs express internal state subject, closed in the subject itself, or a change in the state, position, movement of the subject. Such verbs allow the addition of the words “most”, “self” - to be upset, to move (by yourself); was upset, moved (himself): Popadya can’t boast about Balda, the priest only grieves about Balda.
- indirect reflexive verbs denote an action performed by the subject in his own interests, for himself: He was a neat guy. Everyone was stocked up for the return trip.
- objectless-reflexive verbs denote an action outside of relation to the object, closed in the subject as its constant property: The sun is already burning. The mother darned the sheepskin coat, but it kept tearing and tearing.
More on the topic Lexico-grammatical categories of verbs:
- 16. Verb as part of speech; features of morphemic structure and verb inflection. System of lexical-grammatical categories and morphological categories of the verb