World wars of the first half of the 20th century. Major local wars and armed conflicts of the second half of the twentieth century

Wars are as old as humanity itself. The earliest documented evidence of war dates back to a Mesolithic battle in Egypt (Cemetery 117), which occurred approximately 14,000 years ago. Wars took place most of the time globe, leading to the death of hundreds of millions of people. In our review about the most bloody wars in the history of mankind, which must not be forgotten in any case, so as not to repeat this.

1. Biafran War of Independence

1 million dead dead
The conflict, also known as the Nigerian Civil War(July 1967 - January 1970), was caused by an attempt to secede the self-proclaimed state of Biafra (eastern provinces of Nigeria). The conflict arose as a result of political, economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions that preceded the formal decolonization of Nigeria in 1960 - 1963. Most people during the war died from hunger and various diseases.

2. Japanese invasions of Korea

1 million dead
The Japanese invasions of Korea (or the Imdin War) took place between 1592 and 1598: the initial invasion took place in 1592, and the second invasion took place in 1597, after brief truce. The conflict ended in 1598 with the withdrawal of Japanese troops. About 1 million Koreans died, and Japanese casualties are unknown.

3. Iran-Iraq War

1 million dead
The Iran–Iraq War was an armed conflict between Iran and Iraq that lasted from 1980 to 1988, making it the longest war of the 20th century. The war began when Iraq invaded Iran on September 22, 1980, and ended in a stalemate on August 20, 1988. In terms of tactics, the conflict was comparable to World War I, as it involved large-scale trench warfare, machine gun emplacements, bayonet charges, psychological pressure, and extensive use of chemical weapons.

4. Siege of Jerusalem

1.1 million dead
The oldest conflict on this list (it occurred in 73 AD) was the decisive event of the First Jewish War. The Roman army besieged and captured the city of Jerusalem, which was defended by the Jews. The siege ended with the sack of the city and its destruction famous Second Temple. According to historian Josephus, 1.1 million civilians died during the siege, mostly as a result of violence and starvation.

5. Korean War

1.2 million dead
Lasting from June 1950 to July 1953 Korean War was an armed conflict that began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, led by the United States, came to the rescue South Korea while China and Soviet Union supported North Korea. The war ended after an armistice was signed, a demilitarized zone was created and prisoners of war were exchanged. However, no peace treaty was signed and the two Koreas are technically still at war.

6. Mexican Revolution

2 million dead
The Mexican Revolution, which lasted from 1910 to 1920, radically changed the entire Mexican culture. Given that the country's population was then only 15 million, the losses were appallingly high, but estimates vary widely. Most historians agree that 1.5 million people died and nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad. The Mexican Revolution is often categorized as the most important socio-political event in Mexico and one of the greatest social upheavals of the 20th century.

7. Chuck's conquests

2 million dead
Chaka's conquests is a term used for a series of massive and brutal conquests in South Africa, which were led by Chaka, the famous monarch of the Zulu Kingdom. In the first half of the 19th century, Chaka, at the head of a large army, invaded and plundered a number of regions in South Africa. It is estimated that up to 2 million people from indigenous tribes died.

8. Goguryeo-Sui Wars

2 million dead
Another violent conflict in Korea was the Goguryeo-Sui Wars, a series of military campaigns waged by the Chinese Sui dynasty against Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, from 598 to 614. These wars (which the Koreans ultimately won) were responsible for the deaths of 2 million people, and the total death toll is likely much higher because Korean civilian casualties were not counted.

9. Religious wars in France

4 million dead
Also known as the Huguenot Wars, the French Wars of Religion, fought between 1562 and 1598, were a period of civil strife and military confrontations between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The exact number of wars and their respective dates are still debated by historians, but it is estimated that up to 4 million people died.

10. Second Congo War

5.4 million million dead
Also known by several other names such as the Great African War or the African World War, the Second Congo War was the deadliest in history. modern history Africa. Nine were directly involved African countries, as well as about 20 separate armed groups.

The war lasted five years (1998 to 2003) and resulted in 5.4 million deaths, mainly due to disease and starvation. This makes the Congo War the world's deadliest conflict since World War II.

11. Napoleonic Wars

6 million dead
Lasting between 1803 and 1815, the Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts waged by the French Empire, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, against a variety of European powers formed in various coalitions. During his military career, Napoleon fought about 60 battles and lost only seven, mostly towards the end of his reign. In Europe, approximately 5 million people died, including due to disease.

12. Thirty Years' War

11.5 million million dead
Thirty Years' War, which was fought between 1618 and 1648, was a series of conflicts for hegemony in Central Europe. This war became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, and it originally began as a conflict between Protestant and Catholic states in the divided Holy Roman Empire. Gradually the war escalated into a much larger conflict involving most of the great powers of Europe. Estimates of the death toll vary widely, but the most likely estimate is that about 8 million people, including civilians, died.

13. Chinese Civil War

8 million dead
The Chinese Civil War was fought between forces loyal to the Kuomintang ( political party Republic of China) and forces loyal to the Communist Party of China. The war began in 1927, and it essentially ended only in 1950, when major active fighting ceased. The conflict eventually led to the de facto formation of two states: the Republic of China (now known as Taiwan) and the People's Republic of China (mainland China). The war is remembered for its atrocities on both sides: millions of civilians were deliberately killed.

14. Civil war in Russia

12 million dead
The Russian Civil War, which lasted from 1917 to 1922, broke out as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, when many factions began to fight for power. The two largest groups were the Bolshevik Red Army and allied forces, known as the White Army. During the 5 years of war in the country, from 7 to 12 million victims were recorded, who were mainly civilians. The Russian Civil War has even been described as the greatest national disaster Europe has ever faced.

15. Tamerlane's conquests

20 million dead
Also known as Timur, Tamerlane was a famous Turko-Mongol conqueror and military leader. In the second half of the 14th century he waged brutal military campaigns in Western, South and Central Asia, the Caucasus and southern Russia. Tamerlane became the most influential ruler in the Muslim world after his victories over the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire and the crushing defeat of the Delhi Sultanate. Scholars estimate that his military campaigns resulted in the deaths of 17 million people, about 5% of the then world population.

16. Dungan uprising

20.8 million dead
The Dungan Rebellion was mainly an ethnic and religious war that was fought between the Han Chinese (Chinese ethnic group native to East Asia) and Huizu (Chinese Muslims) in 19th century China. The riot arose due to a price dispute (when a Han merchant was not paid the required amount by a Huizu buyer for bamboo sticks). Ultimately, more than 20 million people died during the uprising, mostly due to natural disasters and conditions caused by the war, such as drought and famine.

17. Conquest of North and South America

138 million dead
European colonization of the Americas technically began in the 10th century, when Norse sailors briefly settled on the shores of what is now Canada. However, mostly we're talking about about the period between 1492 and 1691. During these 200 years, tens of millions of people were killed in battles between colonizers and Native Americans, but estimates of the total death toll vary greatly due to a lack of consensus on demographic size indigenous people of the pre-Columbian period.

18. Rebellion of An Lushan

36 million dead
During the Tang Dynasty, China experienced another devastating war - the An Lushan Rebellion, which lasted from 755 to 763. There is no doubt that the rebellion caused a huge number of deaths and significantly reduced the population of the Tang Empire, but the exact number of deaths is difficult to estimate even in approximate terms. Some scholars estimate that up to 36 million people died during the revolt, approximately two-thirds of the empire's population and approximately 1/6 of the world's population.

19. First World War

18 million dead
The First World War (July 1914 - November 1918) was a global conflict that arose in Europe and gradually involved all the economically developed powers of the world, which united into two opposing alliances: the Entente and the Central Powers. Total number the death toll was about 11 million military personnel and about 7 million civilians. About two-thirds of the deaths during the First World War occurred directly in battle, in contrast to the conflicts that took place in the 19th century, when most deaths were due to disease.

20. Taiping Rebellion

30 million dead
This rebellion, also known as the Taiping Civil War, lasted in China from 1850 to 1864. The war was fought between the ruling Manchu Qing dynasty and the Christian movement" Heavenly Kingdom Peace." Although no census was kept at the time, the most reliable estimates put the total number of deaths during the rebellion at about 20 - 30 million civilians and soldiers. Most deaths were attributed to plague and famine.

21. Conquest of the Ming Dynasty by the Qing Dynasty

25 million dead
The Manchu Conquest of China was a period of conflict between the Qing dynasty (the Manchu dynasty ruling northeast China) and the Ming dynasty (the Chinese dynasty ruling the south of the country). The war that ultimately led to the fall of the Ming was responsible for the deaths of approximately 25 million people.

22. Second Sino-Japanese War

30 million dead
The war, fought between 1937 and 1945, was an armed conflict between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. After the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor (1941), the war effectively became World War II. It became the largest Asian war of the 20th century, killing up to 25 million Chinese and more than 4 million Chinese and Japanese troops.

23. Wars of the Three Kingdoms

40 million dead
The Wars of the Three Kingdoms were a series of armed conflicts in ancient China (220-280). During these wars, three states - Wei, Shu and Wu competed for power in the country, trying to unite the peoples and take control of them. One of the bloodiest periods in Chinese history was marked by a series of brutal battles that could lead to the deaths of up to 40 million people.

24. Mongol conquests

70 million dead
Mongol conquests progressed throughout the 13th century, resulting in a huge Mongol Empire conquered most of Asia and Eastern Europe. Historians consider the period of Mongol raids and invasions to be one of the deadliest conflicts in human history. Additionally, the bubonic plague spread throughout much of Asia and Europe during this time. The total number of deaths during the conquests is estimated at 40 - 70 million people.

25. World War II

85 million dead
The Second World War (1939 - 1945) was global: the vast majority of countries in the world took part in it, including all the great powers. It was the most massive war in history, with more than 100 million people from more than 30 countries taking direct part in it.

It was marked by mass civilian deaths, including due to the Holocaust and strategic bombing of industrial and population centers, resulting in (according to various estimates) the deaths of between 60 million and 85 million people. As a result, World War II became the deadliest conflict in human history.

However, as history shows, man harms himself throughout his existence. What are they worth?

Table of the Russian war of the first half of the 18th century

Allies	Opponents		Main battles	Russian commanders	Peaceful agreement
Northern War 1700-1721 (+)
Denmark, Saxony, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth		Access to the Baltic Sea, increased foreign policy status	11/19/1700 - defeat near Narva	S. De Croix	Nystadt Peace
			1701 - 1704 - Dorpat, Narva, Ivangorod, Nyenschanz, Koporye were taken 05/16/1703 - St. Petersburg was founded	Peter I, B.P. Sheremetev
			09/28/1708 - victory at the village of Lesnoy
			06/27/1709 - defeat of the Swedes at Poltava	Peter I, A.D. Menshikov and others.
			07/27/1714 - victory of the Russian fleet at Cape Gangug	F.M. Apraksin
			07/27/1720 - victory of the Russian fleet near the island of Grengam	MM. Golitsyn
Prut campaign 1710-1711
	Ottoman Empire	Repel the onslaught Turkish Sultan, incited to war by France, unfriendly to Russia.	07/09/1711 - the Russian army is surrounded at Stanilesti		Prut World
Russian-Persian War 1722-1732 (+)
		Strengthening positions in the Middle East. Maybe infiltrating India.	08/23/1722 - capture of Derbent. In 1732, Anna Ioannovna interrupted the war, not considering its goals important for Russia and returning all her conquests.		Treaty of Rasht
War of the Polish Succession 1733 - 1735 (+)
Augustus III of Saxony Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (Austria)	Stanislav Leshchinsky (protégé of France)	Control of Poland	23.02 - 8.07.1734 - siege of Danzig	B.K. Minich
Russian-Turkish War 1735-1739 (+/-)
	Ottoman Empire	Revision of the Prut Treaty and access to the Black Sea	08/17/1739 - victory near the village of Stavuchany 19.08 - Khotyn fortress taken	B.K. Minich	Belgrade Peace
Russian-Swedish War 1741 - 1743 (+)
		Repel the attack of the Swedish revanchists, who secretly supported France and demanded a revision of the Nystadt decisions	08/26/1741 - victory at the Vilmanstrand fortress	P.P. Lassi	Abo peace

Table of the Russian war of the second half of the 18th century

Allies	Opponents		Main battles	Russian commanders	Peaceful agreement
Seven Years' War 1756-1762 (+)
Austria, France, Spain, Sweden, Saxony	Prussia, Great Britain, Portugal, Hanover	Prevent the further strengthening of the aggressive Prussian King Frederick II	08/19/1756 - success in the battle of the village of Gross-Jägersdorf.	S.F.Apraksin, P.A.Rumyantsev	The war was interrupted by the absurd decision of Peter 3 to make a truce with Prussia, return the conquered territories to it, and even provide military assistance
			08/14/1758 - equality of forces in the fierce battle of the village of Zorndorf.	V.V.Fermor
			07/12/1759 - victory at the city of Palzig. 19.07 - Frankfurt am Main is busy. 1.08 - victory at the village of Kunersdorf.	P.A. Saltykov
			09/28/1760 - demonstrative robbery of Berlin	3. G. Chernyshev
First Polish War 1768-1772
	Bar Confederation	Defeat the anti-Russian gentry opposition in Poland	1768 - 69 - Confederates are defeated in Podolia and flee across the Dniester.	N.V.Repnin	Petersburg Convention
			05/10/1771 - victory at Landskrona 13.09 - Hetman Oginsky defeated at Stolovichi 25.01 - 12.04 - successful siege of Krakow	A.V. Suvorov
Russian-Turkish War 1768 - 1774 (+)
	Ottoman Empire, Crimean Khanate	Repel Turkish aggression provoked by France in order to force Russia to fight on two fronts	07/07/1770 - victory on the Larga River 07/21 - defeat of the 150,000-strong army of Khalil Pasha on the Cahul River	P.A.Rumyantsev	Kuchuk-Kainardzhi world
			November 1770 - Bucharest and Iasi taken	P.I.Panin
			06.24-26.1770 - victory of the Russian fleet in the Chios Strait and the Battle of Chesme	A.G. Orlov, G.A. Spiridov, S.K. Greig
			06/09/1774 - enchanting victory near the town of Kozludzha	A.V. Suvorov
Russian - Turkish War 1787-1791 (+)
	Ottoman Empire	Repel Turkish aggression, defend the annexation of Crimea to Russia and protectorate over Georgia	10/1/1787 - during an attempt to land on the Kinburn Spit, a Turkish landing force was defeated	A.V. Suvorov	Iasi world
			07/3/1788 - defeat of the Turkish squadron by ships of the Black Sea Fleet	M.I.Voinovich, F.F.Ushakov
			12/6/1788 - Ochakov fortress was taken	G.A.Potemkin
			07/21/1789 - victory near the village of Focsani. 11.09 - victory on the Rymnik River. 12/11/1790 - the impregnable fortress of Izmail was taken	A.V. Suvorov
			07/31/1791 - the Turkish squadron was defeated at Cape Kaliakria	F.F. Ushakov
Russian-Swedish war 1788-1790 (+)
		Repel King Gustav III's revanchist attempt to reclaim Sweden's former Baltic possessions	Already from 07/26/1788 ground forces The Swedes began to retreat. 07/06/1788 - victory in the Gogland naval battle	S.K. Greig	Verel Peace
Second Polish War 1794-1795 (+)
	Polish patriots under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko	Prevent Poland from strengthening its political regime and preparing the third partition of Poland	09/28/1795 - inflicted on the rebels crushing defeat at Majcestowice, Kościuszko captured	I.E. Fersen	Petersburg Convention
			12.10 - victory at Kobylka. 24.10 - rebel camp in Prague captured 25.10 - Warsaw fell	A.V. Suvorov
Russian- french war 1798- 1799 (+/-)
England, Austria		Conducted by Russia as part of the 11th anti-French coalition	17-18.04.1798 - Milan was captured. 15.05 - Turin. All of Northern Italy is cleared of French forces. 7 - 8.06 - General MacDonald's army arrived in time and was defeated on the Trebbia River. 4.08 - in the Battle of Novi, the same fate awaited the reinforcements of General Joubert.	A.V. Suvorov	War interrupted due to the unreliability of the allies and due to a foreign policy thaw in relations with France
			02/18-20/1799 assault and capture of the island fortress of Corfu	F.F. Ushakov
			September - October - an unforgettable transition of Russian troops through the Alps to Switzerland	A.V. Suvorov

Table of Russian wars of the 19th - early 20th centuries

Opponents		Main battles	Russian commanders	Peaceful agreement
Russian-Iranian War 1804-1813 (+)
	To defend and strengthen Russia’s position in Transcaucasia	Protracted struggle in Northern Azerbaijan	P.D. Tsitsianov, I.I. Zavalishin, I.V. Gudovich, A.P. Tormasov, F.O. Paulucci, P.S. Kotlyarevsky	Gulistan Peace Treaty
Russian-Turkish War 1806-1812 (+)
Ottoman Empire	To defend and strengthen Russia’s position in Transcaucasia. Help strengthen Russian influence in the Balkan region	13.11 - 12.12.1806 - Russian forces captured the fortresses of Khotyn, Iasi, Bendery, and the city of Bucharest. 06/2/1807 - victory over the troops of Alipasha at Obilesti.	I.I. Mikhelson, M.A. Miloradovich	Treaty of Bucharest
		05/10/11/1807 - the Turkish fleet was defeated in the Dardanelles naval battle. 19.06 - in the naval battle of Mount Athos, the Turkish fleet is put to flight.	D.N. Senyavin
		September - October 1810 - Russian forces take Rushchuk, Zhurzha, Turno, Nikopol, Plevna.	N.M. Kamensky 2nd
		06/22/1811 - the army of Ahmed Pasha was defeated at Rushchuk. 8-11.10 - Turtukai and Silistria were taken. 25.10 - surrender of the Turkish army.	M.I. Kutuzov
Russian-Swedish War 1808-1809 (+)
	Establishment full control over the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia. Territorial increments.	03/1/1809 - Åland Islands taken 6-7.03 - a Cossack detachment crosses the ice to the Scandinavian coast and occupies the city of Grisselgam, close to Stockholm	P.I. Bagration, M.B. Barclay de Tolly, J.P. Kulnev.	Treaty of Fredericksburg
Patriotic War of 1812 (+)
France (Bonaparte)		1812-klyastitsy, battle of Kobrin, Gorodcheny, Smolensk operation: battle of Krasny, battle of Smolensk, battle of Valutina Gora, Tarutino maneuver, Borodino, battle of Chernishna, battle of Maloyaroslavets, battle of Polotsk, Vyazma, Krasny, battle of the Berezina	Russians: Kutuzov, Bagration, Barclay de Tolly, Paskevich, Tormasov, Gorchakov, Ermolov, Benningsen, Dokhturov, Miloradovich, Platov French: Murat, Ney, Rainier, Schwarzenberg, Victor, Saint-Cyr	25 Dec 1812 - Manifesto on the expulsion of the enemy and the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812
Russian-Iranian War 1826-1828 (+)
	Repel Iranian aggression provoked by England	09/13/1826 - the troops of Abbas Mirza and Allayar Khan were defeated near Elizavetpol. 06/26/1827 Nakhichevan was occupied, 07/07 - Abbas-Abad fortress. 4.09-10.10 - successful siege of Erivan. January 1828 - Russian troops are sent to Tehran, which forces the Shah to urgently ask for peace.	I.F. Paskevich	Turkmanchay Peace Treaty
Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829 (+)
Ottoman Empire	Russia sought to strengthen its position in the Balkans and establish control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.	06/23/1828 - the Transcaucasian fortress of Kare fell. 23.07 - Akhalkalaki fortress was taken. 16.08 - Akhaltsikhi fortress. 06/27/1829 - Erzurum was captured.	I.F. Paskevich	Adriano-Polish Peace Treaty
		05/30/1829 - crushing defeat of the Turks at the village of Kulevchi in Bulgaria. 13.07 - the first Turkish army is defeated near the city of Aidos. 07/31 - the second army is defeated near the city of Slivno. 7.08 - Adrianople is occupied.	I.I. Dibich, F.V. Ridiger
Crimean War 1853-1856
Ottoman Empire, England, France, Sardinian Kingdom	Nicholas I sought to seize the “legacy of a sick man” (the possessions of the decrepit Turkish Empire): the Mediterranean straits, the territory of the Balkan Peninsula	5.11.1853 - in the first in the history of mankind naval battle steam ships, the Turkish frigate Pervaz-Bahri was defeated	G.I. Butakov.	Treaty of Paris
		11/18 - Turkish sailing ships are completely defeated in Sinop Bay	P.S. Nakhimov.
		09/01/1854 - Anglo-French troops land near Yevpatoria. 8.09 - the Allies defeat the Russians in the Battle of the Alma River. 13.10 - victory over the English cavalry near Balaklava. 24.10 - defeat of Russian forces in the battle on the Akkerman plateau.	A.S. Mentikov.
		09/15/1854 - 08/27/1855 - heroic defense of Sevastopol, which ended with its forced surrender.	P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, E.I. Totleben, V.A. Kornilov
		11/16/1855 - taken Turkish fortress Kare	YES. Muravyov
Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (+)
Ottoman Empire	The desire to restore Russian influence on Turkey and support the national liberation movement of the Slavic population of Balkans	August - December 1877 - Russian troops were able to defend the positions occupied in the Shipka Pass area 28.11 - the garrison of the Plevna fortress capitulates 23.12 - Sofia is busy	I.V. Gurko	The San Stefano Preliminary Peace, subsequently adjusted (not in favor of Russia) by the decisions of the Berlin Congress
		27-28.12 - brilliant victory over the Turks in the battle of Shey-novo.	F.F. Radetsky, M.D. Skobelev, N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky
		01/14-16/1878 - Russian forces approach Adrianople	I.V. Gurko, F.F. Radetzky
Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
	The need for a “small victorious war” to strengthen tsarism. The importance of maintaining Russia's protectorate over Korea, the concession for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway and the lease of the Liaodong Peninsula. The Japanese were pushed towards war with Russia by England and the USA	01/26/1904 - the death of the cruiser "Varyag" and the gunboat "Koreets" in the port of Chemulpo. 27.01 - attack Japanese ships to the Port Arthur squadron.	The death of the commander of the Pacific Fleet, the outstanding naval commander Admiral SO. Makarova.	Treaty of Portsmouth
		11-21.08 - the battle of Liaoyang brought defeat to the Russian ground army. 22.09 - 04.10 - battle on the Shahe River, which did not bring victory to either side.	A.N. Kuropatkin
		17.07 - 23.12 - heroic defense of the Port Arthur fortress, which ended with its surrender.	R. I. Kondratenko, A. M. Stessel
		02/6-02/25/1905 - the battle of Mukden, in which the Russian army was defeated.	A. N. Kuropat-kin
		14-15.05 - defeat of the 2nd (and detachment of the 3rd) Pacific squadron Russian fleet by the Japanese in the Korea Strait (Tsushima naval battle).	3. P. Rozhdestvensky
First World War 1914-1918 (-)
Germany and others		1914 - East Prussian operation, Battle of Galicia, Warsaw-Ivagorod operation, August operation, capture of Przemysl, Lodz operation, battle at Cape Sarych, 1914 - 1915 – Sarykamysh operation, 1915 - Battle of the Carpathians, Prasnysh operation, Gorlitsky breakthrough, Prasnysh and Narevo battles, Vilna retreat, great retreat, Alashkert operation, Hamadan operation, campaign to the Bosphorus, Gotland battle, Irben operation; 1916 - Naroch operation, Brusilovsky breakthrough, offensive at Baranovichi, Erzurum, Trebizond, Erzincan, Ognot operations;		1917 - Brest-Litovsk Armistice with Germany. 1918 - Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany: significant territories were torn away from Russia (the Baltic states and part of Belarus). Kars, Ardahan and Batum were transferred to Turkey. Soviet Russia had to pay an indemnity of 6 billion marks. Germany also demanded the demobilization of the army and navy, as well as the unhindered import of raw materials into the territory of the state. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant a severe defeat for Russia. At the cost of unprecedented concessions, the Bolsheviks retained power in their hands.

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A source of information: History in tables and diagrams./ Edition 2e, St. Petersburg: 2013.

World War I

The birth of fascism. The world on the eve of World War II

The Second World War

The world wars of the 20th century brought us to the brink of death world civilization, were a difficult test for humanity, the humanistic values ​​​​developed throughout its entire previous history. At the same time, they were a reflection of the fundamental changes that had taken place in the world, one of dire consequences the very process of development of civilization.

causes of world wars

Since wars in our century have acquired a global scale, it is more logical to start with an analysis of causes that are global in nature, and first of all, with a characterization of the state of Western civilization, the values ​​of which have dominated and continue to play the same role in the modern world, determining the general direction of human development.

By the beginning of our century, the crisis phenomena that accompanied the industrial stage of development of the West throughout the 19th century resulted in a global crisis, which actually lasted throughout the first half of the 20th century. The material basis of the crisis was the rapid development of market relations on the basis of industrial production and technological progress in general, which, on the one hand, allowed Western society to make a sharp leap forward compared to other countries, and on the other, gave rise to phenomena that threatened Western civilization with degeneration. Indeed, the filling of markets with goods and services more and more fully satisfied the needs of people, but the price for this was the transformation of the overwhelming mass of workers into an appendage of machines and mechanisms, conveyors, technological process, increasingly gave work a collective character, etc. This led to the depersonalization of man, which was clearly manifested in the emergence of the phenomenon of mass consciousness, which supplanted individualism and personal interests of people, i.e. values ​​on the basis of which humanistic Western civilization actually arose and developed.

As industrial progress developed, humanistic values ​​increasingly gave way to corporate, technocratic, and finally totalitarian consciousness with all its known attributes. This trend clearly manifested itself not only in the spiritual sphere in the form of a reorientation of people towards new values, but contributed to an unprecedented strengthening of the role of the state, which turned into the bearer of a national idea, replacing the ideas of democracy.

This most general characteristic of the historical and psychological changes underlying the phenomenon of world wars we are considering can be a kind of background when considering their geohistoric, socio-economic, demographic, military-political and other reasons.

The First World War, which began in 1914, affected 38 countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. It was carried out over a vast territory, which amounted to 4 million square meters. km and involved more than 1.5 billion people, i.e. more than 3/4 of the world's population.

The reason for the war was the tragic shot in Sarajevo, but its true causes were rooted in complex contradictions between the participating countries.

Above we talked about the growing global crisis of civilization as a result of industrial progress. By the beginning of the 20th century. the logic of socio-economic development led to the establishment of a monopolistic regime in the economies of industrial countries, which affected the internal political climate of countries (the growth of totalitarian tendencies, the growth of militarization), as well as world relations (increased struggle between countries for markets, for political influence). The basis of these trends was the policy of monopolies with their exclusively expansionist, aggressive nature. At the same time, monopolies merged with the state, the formation state monopoly capitalism, what gave public policy increasingly expansionist

character. This was, in particular, evidenced by: the widespread growth of militarization, the emergence of military-political alliances, the increasing frequency of military conflicts, which until then were of a local nature, the strengthening of colonial oppression, etc. The aggravation of rivalry between countries was also determined to a large extent by the relative unevenness of their socio-economic development, which influenced the degree and forms of their external expansion.

15.1. First World War

The situation on the eve of the war

At the beginning of the 20th century. blocs of countries participating in the First World War took place. On the one hand, these were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, which formed into Triple Alliance (1882), and on the other - England, France and Russia, who created Entente(1904-1907). The leading role in the Austro-German and Romano-British blocs was played by Germany and England, respectively. The conflict between these two states lay at the heart of the future world war. At the same time, Germany sought to win a worthy place in the sun, England defended the existing world hierarchy.

At the beginning of the century, Germany took second place in the world in terms of industrial production (after the USA) and first place in Europe (in 1913, Germany smelted 16.8 million tons of pig iron, 15.7 million tons of steel;

England, respectively - 10.4 million tons and 9 million tons (for comparison, France - 5.2 million and 4.7 million tons, respectively, and Russia - 4.6 million tons and 4.9 million tons) . Other areas of the German national economy, science, education, etc., developed at a fairly rapid pace.

In the same time geopolitical situation Germany did not correspond to the growing power of its monopolies and the ambitions of the strengthening state. In particular, Germany's colonial holdings were very modest compared to other industrial countries. Out of 65 million sq. km of the total colonial possessions of England, France, Russia, Germany, the USA and Japan, in which 526 million natives lived, Germany accounted for 2.9 million square meters at the beginning of the First World War. km (or 3.5%) with a population of 12.3 million people (or 2.3%). It should be borne in mind that the population of Germany itself was the largest of all Western European countries.

Already at the beginning of the 20th century. Germany's expansion in the Middle East is intensifying due to the construction of the Baghdad Railway; in China - in connection with the annexation of the port of Jiaozhou (1897) and the establishment of its protectorate over the Shandong Peninsula. Germany also establishes a protectorate over Samoa, the Caroline and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and acquires the colonies of Togo and Cameroon in East Africa. This gradually aggravated Anglo-German, German-French and German-Russian contradictions. In addition, German-French relations were complicated by the problem of Alsace, Lorraine and the Ruhr; German-Russian - by Germany's intervention in the Balkan issue, its support there for the policies of Austria-Hungary and Turkey. German-American trade relations in the field of exports of engineering products in Latin America have also worsened. South-East Asia and the Middle East (at the beginning of the century, Germany exported 29.1% of world exports of cars, while the US share was 26.8%. The harbingers of the First World War were the Moroccan crises (1905, 1911), the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905 ), Italian capture of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), Balkan Wars (1912-1913 and 1913).

On the eve of the First World War, the propaganda of militarism and chauvinism sharply intensified in almost all countries. She lay down on the fertilized soil. Developed industrial states, which have achieved tangible superiority in economic development in comparison with other peoples, began to feel their racial and national superiority, the ideas of which began to emerge from the middle of the 19th century. were cultivated by individual politicians, and by the beginning of the 20th century. become an essential component of the official state ideology. Thus, the Pan-German Union, created in 1891, openly declared England to be the main enemy of the peoples included in it, calling for the seizure of the territories belonging to it, as well as Russia, France, Belgium, and Holland. The ideological basis for this was the concept of the superiority of the German nation. In Italy there was propaganda for expanding dominance in the Mediterranean; In Turkey, the ideas of pan-Turkism were cultivated, pointing to the main enemy - Russia and pan-Slavism. At the other pole, the preaching of colonialism flourished in England, the cult of the army in France, and the doctrine of the protection of all Slavs and pan-Slavism under the auspices of the empire in Russia.

Preparing for war

At the same time, military-economic preparations for world slaughter were underway. So, since the 90s. by 1913, the military budgets of leading countries grew by more than 80%. The military-defense industry developed rapidly: in Germany it employed 115 thousand workers, in Austria-Hungary - 40 thousand, in France - 100 thousand, in England - 100 thousand, in Russia - 80 thousand people. By the beginning of the war, military production in Germany and Austria-Hungary was only slightly inferior to similar indicators in the Entente countries. However, the Entente received a clear advantage in the event of a protracted war or expansion of its coalition.

Taking into account the latter circumstance, German strategists have long been developing a blitzkrieg plan (A. Schliefen(1839-1913), X Moltke (1848-1916), 3. Schlichging, F. Bernardi and etc.). The German plan provided for a lightning-fast victorious strike in the West with simultaneous deterrent, defensive battles on the eastern front, followed by the defeat of Russia; The Austro-Hungarian headquarters planned a war on two fronts (against Russia and in the Balkans). The plans of the opposing side included an offensive by the Russian army in two directions at once (northwest - against Germany and southwest - against Austria-Hungary) with a force of 800 thousand bayonets, with the passive wait-and-see tactics of the French troops. German politicians and military strategists pinned their hopes on England’s neutrality at the beginning of the war, for which purpose in the summer of 1914 they pushed Austria-Hungary into a conflict with Serbia.

Beginning of the war

In response to the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke, on June 28, 1914 Franz Ferdinand In Sarajevo, Austria-Hungary immediately opened military operations against Serbia, in support of which on July 31, Nicholas II announced general mobilization in Russia. Russia refused Germany's demand to stop mobilization. On August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia, and on August 3, on France. Germany's hopes for the neutrality of England did not materialize; it issued an ultimatum in defense of Belgium, after which it began military operations against Germany at sea, officially declaring war on it on August 4.

At the beginning of the war, many states declared neutrality, including Holland, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Romania, the USA, and Sweden.

Military operations in 1915-1918.

Military operations in 1914 on the Western European Front were offensive from Germany, whose troops, having passed Belgium from the north, entered French territory. At the beginning of September, a grandiose battle took place between the cities of Verdun and Paris (about 2 million people took part), which was lost " by German troops. The Russian army was advancing in the Eastern European direction: troops of the Northwestern and Western fronts (under the command of General Raninkampf and the general Samsonova) were stopped by the Germans; The troops of the Southwestern Front achieved success by occupying the city of Lvov. At the same time, hostilities unfolded on the Caucasian and Balkan fronts. In general, the Entente managed to thwart the blitzkrieg plans, as a result of which the war acquired a protracted, positional character, and the scales began to tip in its direction.

In 1915, there were no major changes on the Western European Front. Russia as a whole lost the 1915 campaign, surrendering Lviv to the Austrians, and Liepaja, Warsaw, and Novogeorgievsk to the Germans.

Contrary to pre-war obligations, in 1915 Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, as a result of which a new Italian front opened, where military operations did not reveal a clear advantage of the parties. This advantage in favor of the Entente in southern Europe was neutralized by the registration in September 1915. Fourth Ausgro-German-Bulgaro-Turkish Union. One of the results of its formation was the defeat of Serbia with the subsequent evacuation of its army (120 thousand people) to the island of Corfu.

In the same year actions on Caucasian Front were transferred to the territory of Iran with the participation of not only Russia and Turkey, but also England; After the landing of the Anglo-French troops in Thessaloniki, the Thessaloniki Front took shape, and the British occupied the territory of South-West Africa. The most significant naval battle of 1915 was the battle for the capture of the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

1916 on the Western European Front was marked by two major battles: near the city. Verdun and on the river Somme, where 1 million 300 thousand people were killed, wounded and captured on both sides. This year, the Russian army carried out offensive operations on the Northwestern and Western fronts in support of the Allies during the Battle of Verdun. In addition, a breakthrough was made on the Southwestern Front that went down in history.

Military operations on the Eastern and Western Fronts (1914-1918)gg.)

Military operations on Eastern Front in 1914-1917

Military operations on the Western Front in 1914

named after the general A, Brusilova(1853-1926), as a result of which 409 thousand Austrian soldiers and officers were captured and an area of ​​25 thousand square meters was occupied. km.

In the Caucasus, units of the Russian army occupied the cities of Erzurum, Trebizond, Ruvanduz, Mush, and Bitlis. England was victorious in the North Sea in the largest naval battle of the First World War (Battle of Jutland).

IN In general, the successes of the Entente provided a turning point in the course of military operations. German command(generals Ludendorff(1865-1937) and Hindenburg) From the end of 1916 it switched to defense on all fronts.

However, the following year Russian troops left Riga. The weakened positions of the Entente were strengthened by the entry into the war on its side of the United States, China, Greece, Brazil, Cuba, Panama, Liberia and Siam. On the Western Front, the Entente failed to gain a decisive advantage, while on the new Iranian front the British occupied Baghdad, and in Africa they consolidated victory in Togo and Cameroon.

In 1918, a unified allied command of the Entente countries was created. Despite the absence of the Russian Front, the Germans and Austrians still kept up to 75 divisions in Russia, leading challenging game in the current conditions after the October Revolution. The German command launched a major offensive on the river. Somme, which ended in failure. The Allied counteroffensive forced the German General base request a truce. It was signed on November 11, 1918 in Compiegne, and on January 18, 1919. A conference of 27 allied countries opened at the Palace of Versailles, which determined the nature of the peace treaty with Germany. The treaty was signed on June 28, 1919; Soviet Russia, which concluded a separate peace with Germany in March 1918, did not participate in the development of the Versailles system.

Results of the war

By Treaty of Versailles The territory of Germany decreased by 70 thousand square meters. km, it lost all its few colonies; military articles obliged Germany not to introduce military service, dissolve all military organizations, not have modern species weapons, pay reparations. The map of Europe was completely redrawn. With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian dualist monarchy, the statehood of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia was formalized, and the independence and borders of Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania were confirmed. Belgium, Denmark, Poland, France and Czechoslovakia returned to themselves the lands seized by Germany, receiving under their control part of the original German territories. Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and Palestine were separated from Turkey and transferred as mandated territories to England and France. The new western border of Soviet Russia was also determined at the Paris Peace Conference (Curzon Line), while the statehood of parts of the former empire was consolidated:

Consequences of the First World War

Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Finland and Estonia. The First World War demonstrated the crisis state of civilization. Indeed, in all the warring countries, democracy was curtailed, the sphere of market relations was narrowed, giving way to strict state regulation of the sphere of production and distribution in its extreme statist form. These trends contradicted the economic foundations of Western civilization.

No less striking evidence of the deep crisis were the cardinal political changes in a number of countries. Thus, following the October Revolution in Russia, revolutions of a socialist nature took place in Finland, Germany, and Hungary; in other countries there was an unprecedented rise in the revolutionary movement, and in the colonies - in the anti-colonial movement. This seemed to confirm the prediction of the founders of communist theory about the inevitable death of capitalism, which was also evidenced by the emergence of the Communist 3rd International, the arrival Socialist International, coming to power in many countries socialist parties and, finally, the lasting conquest of power in Russia by the Bolshevik Party.

The First World War was a catalyst for industrial development. During the war years, 28 million rifles, about 1 million machine guns, 150 thousand guns, 9,200 tanks, thousands of aircraft were produced, a submarine fleet was created (more than 450 submarines were built in Germany alone over these years). Military orientation industrial progress became obvious, the next step was the creation of equipment and technologies for the mass destruction of people. However, already during the First World War, monstrous experiments were carried out, for example, the first use of chemical weapons by the Germans in 1915 in Belgium near Ypres.

1 Statism - active participation of the state in economic life society, mainly using direct intervention methods.

The consequences of the war were catastrophic for National economy most countries. They resulted in widespread long-term economic crises, which were based on the gigantic economic imbalances that arose during the war years. Direct military expenditures of the warring countries alone amounted to $208 billion. Against the background of a widespread decline in civilian production and living standards of the population, monopolies associated with military production were strengthened and enriched. Thus, by the beginning of 1918, the German monopolists had accumulated 10 billion gold marks as profits, the American ones - 35 billion gold dollars, etc. Having strengthened during the war years, the monopolies increasingly began to determine the paths of further development, leading to the disaster of Western civilization . This thesis is confirmed by the emergence and spread of fascism.

15.2. The birth of fascism. The world on the eve of World War II

Fascism was a reflection and result of the development of the main contradictions of Western civilization. His ideology absorbed (to the point of grotesquery) the ideas of racism and social equality, technocratic and statist concepts. Eclectic Weave different ideas and theories resulted in the form of accessible populist doctrine and demagogic politics. The National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany grew out of the Free Workers' Committee for the Achievement of a Good World, a circle founded in 1915 by workers Anton Drexler. At the beginning of 1919, other National Socialist organizations were created in Germany. In November 1921, a fascist party was created in Italy, numbering 300 thousand members, of which 40% were workers. Recognizing this political force, the King of Italy instructed the leader of this party in 1922 Benito Mussolini(1883-1945) form a cabinet of ministers, which from 1925 becomes fascist.

According to the same scenario, the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933. Party leader Adolf Gitler(1889-1945) receives the position of Reich Chancellor from the hands of the President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934).

From the first steps, the fascists established themselves as irreconcilable anti-communists, anti-Semites, good organizers capable of reaching all segments of the population, and revanchists. Their activities could hardly have been so rapidly successful without the support of the revanchist monopolistic circles of their countries. The existence of their direct connections with the fascists is beyond doubt, if only because the leaders of the criminal regime and the largest economic magnates of fascist Germany (G. Schacht, G. Krupp) were nearby in the dock at Nuremberg in 1945. It can be argued that financial resources monopolies contributed to the fascisation of countries, the strengthening of fascism, designed not only to destroy the communist regime in the USSR (anti-communist idea), inferior peoples (the idea of ​​racism), but also to redraw the map of the world, destroying the Versailles system of the post-war system (revanchist idea).

the phenomenon of fascisation in a number of European countries even more clearly demonstrated the critical state of the entire Western civilization. Essentially, this political and ideological movement represented an alternative to its foundations by curtailing democracy, market relations and replacing them with the politics of statism, building a society of social equality for selected peoples, cultivating collectivist forms of life, inhumane attitude towards non-Aryans, etc. True, fascism did not imply complete destruction of Western civilization. Perhaps this to some extent explains the relatively loyal attitude of the ruling circles for a long time democratic countries to this formidable phenomenon. In addition, fascism can be classified as one of the varieties of totalitarianism. Western political scientists have proposed a definition of totalitarianism based on several criteria that have received recognition and further development in political science. Totalitarianism characterized by: 1) the presence of an official ideology covering the most vital spheres of human life and society and supported by the overwhelming majority of citizens. This ideology is based on rejection of the previously existing order and pursues the task of uniting society to create a new way of life, not excluding the use of violent methods; 2) the dominance of a mass party, built on a strictly hierarchical principle of management, usually with a leader at its head. Party - performing the functions of control over the bureaucratic state apparatus or dissolving in it; 3) the presence of a developed system of police control that permeates all public aspects of the country’s life; 4) almost complete party control over the media; 5) full control of the party over security forces, above all by the army; 6) management central government economic life of the country.

A similar characteristic of totalitarianism is applicable both to the regime that developed in Germany, Italy and other fascist countries, and in many ways to the Stalinist regime that developed in the 30s in the USSR. It is also possible that such similarity in the various faces of totalitarianism made it difficult for politicians who were at the head of democratic countries to understand the danger posed by this monstrous phenomenon in that dramatic period of modern history.

Already in 1935, Germany refused to implement the military articles of the Versailles Treaty, which was followed by the occupation of the Rhineland demilitarized zone, withdrawal from the League of Nations, Italian assistance in the occupation of Ethiopia (1935-1936), intervention in Spain (1936-1939), the Anschluss (or annexation) of Austria (1938), dismemberment of Czechoslovakia (1938-1939) in accordance with Munich Agreement etc. Finally, in April 1939, Germany unilaterally terminated the Anglo-German naval agreement and the non-aggression pact with Poland, and thus the casus belli (cause for war) arose.

15.3. The Second World War

Foreign policies of countries before the war

The Versailles system finally fell with the outbreak of World War II, for which Germany was quite thoroughly prepared. Thus, from 1934 to 1939, military production in the country increased 22 times, the number of troops - 35 times, Germany took second place in the world in terms of industrial production, etc.

Currently, researchers do not have a common view on the geopolitical state of the world on the eve of World War II. Some historians (Marxists) continue to insist on two polis characteristics. In their opinion, there were two socio-political systems in the world (socialism and capitalism), and within the framework of the capitalist system of world relations, there were two centers of a future war (Germany in Europe and Japan in Asia). A significant part of historians believe that on the eve of World War II, there were three political systems: bourgeois-democratic, socialist and fascist-militarist. The interaction of these systems, the balance of power between them could ensure peace or disrupt it. A possible bloc of bourgeois-democratic and socialist systems was a real alternative to World War II. However, the peace alliance did not work out. “The bourgeois-democratic countries did not agree to create a bloc before the start of the war, because their leadership continued to view Soviet totalitarianism as the greatest threat to the foundations of civilization (the result of revolutionary changes in the USSR, including the 30s) than its fascist antipode, which openly proclaimed a crusade against communism. The USSR's attempt to create a system of collective security in Europe ended with the signing of treaties with France and Czechoslovakia in 1935. But these treaties were not put into effect during the period of German occupation of Czechoslovakia due to the “policy of appeasement” opposed to them, pursued by the majority at that time European countries in relation to Germany.

Germany, in October 1936, formalized a military-political alliance with Italy (“Berlin-Rome Axis”), and a month later the Anti-Comintern Pact was signed between Japan and Germany, to which Italy joined a year later (November 6, 1937). The creation of a revanchist alliance forced the countries of the bourgeois-democratic camp to become more active. However, only in March 1939 did England and France begin negotiations with the USSR on joint actions against Germany. But the agreement was never signed. Despite the polarity of interpretations of the reasons for the failed union of anti-fascist states, some of which shift the blame for the unbridled aggressor onto capitalist countries, others attribute it to the policies of the leadership of the USSR, etc., one thing is obvious - the skillful use by fascist politicians of contradictions between anti-fascist countries, which led to grave consequences for the whole world.

USSR politics on the eve of the war

The consolidation of the fascist camp against the backdrop of a policy of appeasement of the aggressor pushed the USSR into an open fight against the spreading aggressor: 1936 - Spain, 1938 - small war with Japan at Lake Khasan, 1939 - Soviet-Japanese war at Khalkin Gol. However, quite unexpectedly, on August 23, 1939 (eight days before the outbreak of World War II, the Non-Aggression Pact between Germany and the USSR (called the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) was signed. The secret protocols to this pact on delimiting the spheres of influence of Germany and the USSR in the north became known to the world community and the south of Europe, as well as the division of Poland, forced a new look (especially domestic researchers) at the role of the USSR in the anti-fascist struggle on the eve of the war, as well as its activities from September 1939 to June 1941, at the history of the opening of the second front and much more.

There is no doubt that the signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact dramatically changed the balance of forces in Europe:

The USSR avoided a seemingly inevitable collision with Germany, while the countries of Western Europe found themselves face to face with the aggressor, whom they continued to pacify by inertia (an attempt by England and France from August 23 to September 1, 1939 to negotiate with Germany in Polish question similar to the Munich Agreement).

Beginning of World War II

The immediate pretext for the attack on Poland was a fairly open provocation of Germany on their common border (Gliwice), after which on September 1, 1939, 57 German divisions (1.5 million people), about 2,500 tanks, 2,000 aircraft invaded the territory Poland. The Second World War began.

England and France declared war on Germany on September 3, without, however, real help Poland. From September 3 to 10, Australia, New Zealand, India, and Canada entered the war against Germany; The United States declared neutrality, Japan declared non-intervention in the European War.

Thus, World War II began as a war between the bourgeois-democratic and fascist-militarist blocs. The first stage of the war dates from September 1, 1939 - June 21, 1941, at the beginning of which the German army up to

First stage of the war

On September 17, it occupied part of Poland, reaching the line (the cities of Lvov, Vladimir-Volynsky, Brest-Litovsk), designated by one of the mentioned secret protocols of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.

Until May 10, 1940, England and France conducted virtually no military operations with the enemy, so this period was called the “Phantom War.” Germany took advantage of the passivity of the Allies, expanding its aggression, occupying Denmark and Norway in April 1940 and going on the offensive from the shores of the North Sea to the Maginot Line on May 10 of the same year. During May, the governments of Luxembourg, Belgium, and Holland capitulated. And already on June 22, 1940, France was forced to sign an armistice with Germany in Compiegne. As a result of the actual surrender of France, a collaborationist state was created in its south, led by Marshal A. Pétain(1856-1951) and the administrative center in Vichy (the so-called “Vichy regime”). France's resistance was led by a general Charles de Gaulle ( 1890-1970).

On May 10, changes occurred in the leadership of Great Britain; Winston Churchill(1874-1965), whose anti-German, anti-fascist and, of course, anti-Soviet sentiments were well known. The period of the "strange warrior" is over.

From August 1940 to May 1941, the German command organized systematic air raids on English cities, trying to force its leadership to withdraw from the war. As a result, during this time, about 190 thousand high-explosive and incendiary bombs were dropped on England, and by June 1941, a third of the tonnage of its merchant fleet was sunk at sea. Germany also intensified its pressure on the countries of South-Eastern Europe. The accession of the Bulgarian pro-fascist government to the Berlin Pact (an agreement between Germany, Italy and Japan of September 27, 1940) ensured the success of the aggression against Greece and Yugoslavia in April 1941.

Italy in 1940 developed military operations in Africa, attacking the colonial possessions of England and France (East Africa, Sudan, Somalia, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia). However, in December 1940, the British forced the Italian troops to surrender. Germany rushed to the aid of its ally.

The policy of the USSR at the first stage of the war did not receive unified assessment. A significant part of Russian and foreign researchers are inclined to interpret it as complicit in relation to Germany, which is supported by the agreement between the USSR and Germany within the framework of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, as well as fairly close military-political and trade cooperation between the two countries until the start of German aggression against the USSR. In our opinion, in such an assessment, a more strategic approach on a pan-European level prevails, global level. At the same time, a point of view that draws attention to the benefits received by the USSR from cooperation with Germany at the first stage of World War II somewhat corrects this unambiguous assessment, allowing us to talk about a certain strengthening of the USSR within the framework of the time it gained to prepare to repel the inevitable aggression, which ultimately ensured the subsequent Great Victory over fascism of the entire anti-fascist camp.

In this chapter we will limit ourselves to only this preliminary assessment participation of the USSR in the Second World War, since its remaining stages are discussed in more detail in Chapter. 16. Here it is advisable to dwell only on some of the most important episodes of the subsequent stages.

The second stage of the war (June 22, 1941 - November 1942) was characterized by the entry of the USSR into the war, the retreat of the Red Army and its first victory (the battle for Moscow), as well as the beginning of the intensive formation of the anti-Hitler coalition. Thus, on June 22, 1941, England declared full support for the USSR, and the United States almost simultaneously (June 23) expressed its readiness to provide it economic assistance. As a result, on July 12, a Soviet-British agreement on joint actions against Germany was signed in Moscow, and on August 16, trade turnover between the two countries was signed. In the same month, as a result of the meeting of F. Roosevelt(1882-1945) and W. Churchill was signed Atlantic Charter, to which the USSR joined in September. However, the United States entered the war on December 7, 1941 after the tragedy at the Pacific Naval Base Pearl Harbor. Developing an offensive from December 1941 to June 1942, Japan occupied Thailand, Singapore, Burma, Indonesia, New Guinea, Philippines. On January 1, 1942, in Washington, 27 states that were at war with the countries of the so-called “fascist axis” signed the United Nations Declaration, which completed the difficult process of creating an anti-Hitler coalition.

Second stage of the war

The Second World War. Military operations from 1.1X 1939 to 22.VI. 1941

Third stage of the war

The third stage of the war (mid-November 1942 - end of 1943) was marked by a radical change in its course, which meant the loss of strategic initiative by the countries of the fascist coalition at the fronts, the superiority of the anti-Hitler coalition in the economic, political and moral aspects. On the Eastern Front the Soviet Army won biggest victories near Stalingrad and Kursk. English American troops successfully attacked in Africa, liberating Egypt, Cyrenaica, and Tunisia from German-Italian forces. In Europe, as a result of successful actions in Sicily, the Allies forced Italy to capitulate. In 1943, the allied relations of the countries of the anti-fascist bloc were strengthened: at the Moscow Conference (October 1943), England, the USSR and the USA adopted declarations on Italy, Austria and universal security (also signed by China), on the responsibility of the Nazis for the crimes committed.

On Tehran Conference(November 28 - December 1, 1943), where f. met for the first time. Roosevelt, I. Stalin and W. Churchill, it was decided to open a Second Front in Europe in May 1944 and the Declaration on joint actions in the war against Germany and post-war cooperation was adopted. At the end of 1943, at a conference of leaders of England, China and the United States, the Japanese issue was resolved in a similar way.

Fourth stage

At the fourth stage of the war (from the end of 1943 to May 9, 1945) there was active process liberation by the Soviet Army of the western regions of the USSR, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, etc. In Western Europe, with some delay (June 6, 1944), the Second Front was opened, the liberation of the countries of Western Europe was underway. In 1945, 18 million people, about 260 thousand guns and mortars, up to 40 thousand tanks and self-propelled guns simultaneously participated on the battlefields in Europe artillery installations, over 38 thousand aircraft.

On Yalta Conference (February 1945) the leaders of England, the USSR and the USA decided the fate of Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia, discussed the issue of creating United Nations(established on April 25, 1945), concluded an agreement on the USSR's entry into the war against Japan.

The result of joint efforts was the complete and unconditional surrender of Germany on May 8, 1945, signed in the Berlin suburb of Karl-Horst.

Fifth stage of the war

The final, fifth stage of the Second World War took place in the Far East and Southeast Asia (from May 9 to September 2, 1945). By the summer of 1945, allied troops and national resistance forces liberated all the lands captured by Japan, and American troops occupied the strategically important islands of Irojima and Okinawa, carrying out massive bombing attacks on the cities of the island state. For the first time in world practice, the Americans produced two barbaric atomic bombings the cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945).

After the lightning defeat of the USSR Kwantung Army (August 1945), Japan signed an act of surrender (September 2, 1945).

Results of World War II

The Second World War, planned by the aggressors as a series of small lightning wars, turned into a global armed conflict. At its various stages, from 8 to 12.8 million people, from 84 to 163 thousand guns, from 6.5 to 18.8 thousand aircraft simultaneously participated on both sides. The total theater of military operations was 5.5 times larger than the territories covered by the First World War. In total, during the war of 1939-1945. 64 states with a total population of 1.7 billion people were involved. The losses suffered as a result of the war are striking in their scale. More than 50 million people died, and if we take into account the constantly updated data on the losses of the USSR (they range from 21.78 million to about 30 million), this figure cannot be called final. 11 million lives were destroyed in the death camps alone. The economies of most of the countries at war were undermined.

It was these terrible results of the Second World War, which brought civilization to the brink of destruction, that forced its vital forces to become more active. This is evidenced, in particular, by the fact of the formation of an effective structure of the world community - the United Nations (UN), which opposes totalitarian trends in development and the imperial ambitions of individual states; the act of the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials, which condemned fascism, totalitarianism, and punished the leaders of criminal regimes; a broad anti-war movement that contributed to the adoption of international treaties banning the production, distribution and use of weapons mass destruction etc.

By the time the war began, only England, Canada and the United States remained, perhaps, centers of reservation for the foundations of Western civilization. The rest of the world was increasingly sliding into the abyss of totalitarianism, which, as we tried to show by analyzing the causes and consequences of world wars, led to the inevitable destruction of humanity. The victory over fascism strengthened the position of democracy and provided the path to the slow recovery of civilization. However, this path was very difficult and lengthy. Suffice it to say that only from the end of the Second World War until 1982, 255 wars and military conflicts took place; until recently, the destructive confrontation between political camps, the so-called “Cold War,” lasted; humanity more than once stood on the brink of nuclear war etc. Even today we can see in the world the same military conflicts, bloc feuds, remaining islands of totalitarian regimes, etc. However, as it seems to us, they no longer determine the face of modern civilization.

Self-test questions

What were the causes of the First World War? What stages are distinguished during the First World War, what groupings of countries participated in it? How did the First World War end, what consequences did it have?

Reveal the reasons for the emergence and spread of fascism in the 20th century, characterize it, and compare it with totalitarianism. What caused the Second World War, what was the alignment of the countries participating in it, what stages did it go through and how did it end? Compare the size of human and material losses in the First and Second World Wars.

Since early XIX century until the beginning of the 20th century, many important events took place in the Russian Empire. In particular, several emperors were replaced, serfdom was abolished, and the authority of the monarchy fell below its possible limit, which led to the rise of communist ideals.

During this century, the Russian Empire fought many wars, trying to maintain and expand its own borders. Relations with Turkey, with which Russia managed to fight three times, looked especially tense.

Against the backdrop of constant international conflicts There was also an increase in the country's authority. The Russian Empire became one of the leaders in the international arena, which forced European states to closely monitor the ups and downs of foreign policy in the country.

By tracking the main military events of a given century, it is possible not only to identify the most problematic aspects of international relations, but also to determine the views of the world of the ruler himself who is in power in a particular period.

The table below names not only the main military events that occurred over the century, but also presents the names of the main commanders with a list of the results of military operations.

What a war	Opponents		Main battles	Russian commanders	Peaceful agreement
Russian-Iranian war. 1804-1813. +		To defend and strengthen Russia’s position in Transcaucasia.	Protracted struggle in Northern Azerbaijan.	P.D. Tsitsianov, I.I. Zavalishin, I.V. Gudovich, A.P. Tormasov, F.O. Paulucci, P.S. Kotlyarevsky.	Gulistan Peace Treaty.
Russian-Turkish war. 1806-1812. +	Ottoman Empire.	To defend and strengthen Russia’s position in Transcaucasia. Contribute to strengthening Russian influence in the Balkan region.	13.11 - 12.12.1806 - Russian forces captured the fortresses of Khotyn, Iasi, Bendery, and the city of Bucharest. 06/2/1807 - victory over the troops of Ali Pasha at Obilesti.	I.I. Mikhelson, M.A. Milorado-vich.	Bucharest Peace Treaty.
			05/10/11/1807 - the Turkish fleet was defeated in the Dardanelles naval battle. 19.06 - in the Athos naval battle, the Turkish fleet is put to flight.	D.N. Senyavin.
			September - October 1810 - Russian forces take Rushchuk, Zhurzha, Turno, Nikopol, Plevna.	N.M. Kamensky 2nd.
			06/22/1811 - the army of Ahmed Pasha was defeated at Rushchuk. 8-11.10 - Turtukai and Silistria were taken. 25.10 - surrender of the Turkish army.	M.I. Kutuzov.
Russian-Swedish war. 1808-1809.		Establishing full control over the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia. Territorial increments.	03/1/1809 - the Åland Islands were taken. 6-7.03 - a Cossack detachment crosses the ice to the Scandinavian coast and occupies the city of Grisselgam, close to Stockholm.	P.I. Bagration, M.B. Barclay de Tolly, Ya.P. Kulnev.	Treaty of Friedrichsham.
Russian-Iranian war. 1826-1828.		Repel Iranian aggression provoked by England.	09/13/1826 - the troops of Abbas Mirza and Allayar Khan were defeated near Elizavetpol. 06/26/1827 Nakhichevan was occupied. 7.07 - Abbas-Abad fortress. 4.09-10.10 - successful siege of Erivan. January 1828 - Russian troops are sent to Tehran, which forces the Shah to hastily ask for peace.	I.F. Paskevich.	Turkmanchay Peace Treaty.
Russian-Turkish war. 1828-1829. +	Ottoman Empire.	Russia sought to strengthen its position in the Balkans and establish control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.	06/23/1828 - the Transcaucasian fortress of Kare fell. 23.07 - Akhalkalaki fortress was taken. 16.08 - Akhaltsikhi fortress. 06/27/1829 - Erzurum was captured.	I.F. Paskevich.
			05/30/1829 - a crushing defeat of the Turks at the village of Kulevchi in Bulgaria. 13.07 - the first Turkish army is defeated near the city of Aidos. 07/31 - the second army is defeated near the city of Slivno. 7.08 - Adrianople is busy.	I.I. Dibich, F.V. Ridiger.	Treaty of Adrianople.
Crimean War	Ottoman Empire, Sardinian kingdom.	Nicholas I sought to take over the “legacy of a sick man” (the possessions of the decrepit Turkish Empire): the Mediterranean straits, the territory of the Balkan Peninsula.	11/5/1853 - in the first naval battle of steam ships in the history of mankind, the Turkish steam frigate Pervaz-Bahri was defeated.	G.I. Butakov.	Treaty of Paris
			11/18 - Turkish sailing ships are completely defeated in Sinop Bay.	P.S. Nakhimov.
			09/01/1854 - Anglo-French troops land near Evpatoria. 8.09 - The Allies defeat the Russians at the Battle of the Alma River. 13.10 - victory over the English cavalry near Balaklava. 24.10 - defeat of Russian forces in the battle on the Akkerman Plateau.	A.S. Menshikov.
			09/15/1854-08/27/1855 - the heroic defense of Sevastopol, which ended with its forced surrender.	P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, E.I. Totleben, V.A. Kornilov.
			11/16/1855 - the Turkish fortress of Kare was taken.	YES. Muravyov.
Russian-Turkish war. 1877-1878. +	Ottoman Empire.	The desire to restore Russian influence on Turkey and support the national liberation movement of the Slavic population of the Balkans.	August - December 1877 - Russian troops were able to defend the positions occupied in the Shipka Pass area. 28.11 - the garrison capitulates Plevna fortress. 23.12 - Sofia is busy.	I.V. Gurko.	San Stefano preliminary peace, subsequently adjusted (not in favor of Russia) by the decisions of the Berlin Congress.
			27-28.12 - brilliant victory over the Turks in the battle of Shey-novo.	F.F. Radetsky, M.D. Skobelev, N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky.
			01/14-16/1878 - Russian forces approach Adrianople.	I.V. Gurko, F.F. Radetzky.
Russo-Japanese War. 1904-1905.		The need for a “small victorious war” to strengthen tsarism. The importance of maintaining Russia's protectorate over Korea, the concession for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway and the lease of the Liaodong Peninsula. The Japanese were pushed towards war with Russia by England and the USA.	01/26/1904 - the death of the cruiser "Varyag" and the gunboat "Koreets" in the port of Chemulpo. 27.01 - attack by Japanese ships on the Portarthur squadron.	The death of the commander of the Pacific Fleet, the outstanding naval commander Admiral SO. Makarova.	Treaty of Portsmouth.
			11 -21.08 - the battle of Liaoyang brought defeat to the Russian ground army. 09.22-04.10 - battle on the Shchakhe River, which did not bring victory to either side.	A.N. Kuropatkin.

1. Yuri

   Where is the Patriotic War of 1812?

2. julia

   That's it!!

3. Naska

   A Caucasian war??

4. Vadim

   WITH Ottoman Empire fought 4 times - on average every 20 years. And each time the war turned into major defeats for the Ottomans.

5. Rjvbccfh

   Of course, cover all military campaigns and local conflicts on the borders Empire XIX century is quite difficult. The picture lines up well if it is divided into theaters of war. For example: western direction, separately the Caucasus. Central Asian campaigns, as well as conflicts with China in the Far East.

6. Guest

   Apparently, the one who compiled this “table” is clearly not a patriot of our country - Russia. After reading this material I see only negativity and the desire to show what royal Russia She was aggressive and didn’t say a word about the reasons. About the fact that she was forced to enter into wars imposed on her by European countries. You, Mr. Compiler, are either ignorant or a vile traitor.

   The indignant “patriots” still have to learn and learn the materiel, and it’s time to decide: if you don’t have enough intelligence to understand that the Motherland, alas, is not a popular doll, but the state is the aggressor, then you are a patriotic SUCK! If we understand and approve of everything, then there is no need to look for fascists and terrorists somewhere, look in the mirror!
   And the compilers of the table, guys. They were still modest and LACKED HEROISM! Where are the almost annual campaigns in Europe within the framework of the “anti-Napoleonic coalitions”? Did Suvorov storm the Ural passes? But these attacks provoked Boinapartie to snap back at least once. Don't be them. and there would have been no war in 1812. Where are the aggressive campaigns? Central Asia? Capture of Khiva, Bukhara, Samarkand,
   finally - Chinese Gulja (!). And who suppressed the “Boxer” uprising in China and, on the sly, grabbed all of Manchuria (along with the “purely Russian” city of Vladivostok), Mother Russia? Was it not Platov’s 20,000-strong Cossack corps who moved towards the Indian Okiyan in 1801 to defend the borders of their homeland? What about Poland and Hungary?……. WHY DO WE NOT SING THE SONG ANYMORE “DO THE RUSSIANS WANT WARS?” ???!!!

7. Elena

   I would like to know what you want and who you are. You are not just not patriots. You are not Russian. Don't go to grandma's. That is why hatred and envy come out of you. The Russians beat you and will beat you if you do shit. We provoked Napoleon. This needs to be invented!!! And I don’t sing many good songs. I don’t eat Kalinka, I don’t eat birch trees in the field. Literacy. Do you want to provoke a revolution? Do you want brotherly blood? Defame the people and the government? They took place in the last century!

The search has been going on for almost three hundred years universal method resolving contradictions that arise between states, nations, nationalities, etc., without the use of armed violence.

But political declarations, treaties, conventions, negotiations on disarmament and the limitation of certain types of weapons only temporarily removed the immediate threat of destructive wars, but did not eliminate it completely.

Only after the end of World War II, more than 400 various clashes of so-called “local” significance, and more than 50 “major” local wars were recorded on the planet. More than 30 military conflicts annually - these are the real statistics of the last years of the 20th century. Since 1945 local wars and armed conflicts have claimed more than 30 million lives. Financially, the losses amounted to 10 trillion dollars - this is the price of human belligerence.

Local wars have always been an instrument of policy in many countries of the world and the global strategy of opposing world systems - capitalism and socialism, as well as their military organizations - NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

In the post-war period, more than ever before, it began to be felt organic connection between politics and diplomacy, on the one hand, and the military power of states, on the other, since peaceful means turned out to be good and effective only when they were based on military power sufficient to protect the state and their interests.

During this period, the main thing for the USSR was the desire to participate in local wars and armed conflicts in the Middle East, Indochina, Central America, Central and South Africa, Asia and the Persian Gulf region, into which the United States and its allies were drawn in to strengthen own political, ideological and military influence in vast regions of the world.

It was during the years cold war“A series of military-political crises and local wars occurred with the participation of domestic armed forces, which, under certain circumstances, could develop into a large-scale war.

Until recently, all responsibility for the emergence of local wars and armed conflicts (in the ideological coordinate system) was placed entirely on the aggressive nature of imperialism, and our interest in their course and outcome was carefully masked by declarations of selfless assistance to peoples fighting for their independence and self-determination.

So, the origin of the most common military conflicts unleashed after the Second World War is based on the economic rivalry of states in the international arena. Most other contradictions (political, geostrategic, etc.) turned out to be only derivatives of the primary feature, i.e., control over certain regions, their resources and labor force. However, sometimes crises were caused by the claims of individual states to the role of “regional centers of power.”

A special type of military-political crisis includes regional, local wars and armed conflicts between state-formed parts of one nation, divided along political-ideological, socio-economic or religious lines (Korea, Vietnam, Yemen, modern Afghanistan, etc.) . However, their root cause must be called precisely economic factor, and ethnic or religious are just a pretext.

A large number of military-political crises arose due to attempts by the leading countries of the world to retain in their sphere of influence states with which, before the crisis, they maintained colonial, dependent or allied relations.

One of the most common reasons, which caused regional, local wars and armed conflicts after 1945, was the desire of national-ethnic communities for self-determination in various forms (from anti-colonial to separatist). The powerful growth of the national liberation movement in the colonies became possible after the sharp weakening of the colonial powers during and after the end of the Second World War. In turn, the crisis caused by the collapse of the world socialist system and the weakening influence of the USSR and then the Russian Federation led to the emergence of numerous nationalist (ethno-confessional) movements in the post-socialist and post-Soviet space.

Great amount local conflicts, which arose in the 90s of the 20th century, represent real danger possibility of a third world war. And it will be local-focal, permanent, asymmetrical, networked and, as the military says, non-contact.

As for the first sign of the third world war as a local focal point, we mean a long chain of local armed conflicts and local wars that will continue throughout the solution of the main task - mastery of the world. The commonality of these local wars, spaced from each other over a certain time interval, will be that they will all be subordinated to one single goal - mastery of the world.

Speaking about the specifics of the armed conflicts of the 1990s. - beginning of the XXI century, we can talk among others about their next fundamental point.

All conflicts developed in a relatively limited area within one theater of military operations, but with the use of forces and assets located outside it. However, the conflicts, which were essentially local, were accompanied by great bitterness and resulted in complete destruction in some cases. state system(if there was one) of one of the parties to the conflict. The following table presents the main local conflicts of recent decades.

Table No. 1

	Country, year.	Features of armed struggle, number of dead, people	results armed struggle
		The armed struggle was air, land and sea in nature. Conducting an air operation, widespread use of cruise missiles. Naval missile battle. Military operations using the latest weapons. Coalitional nature.	The Israeli Armed Forces completely defeated the Egyptian-Syrian troops and seized territory.
	Argentina;	The armed struggle was mainly of a naval and land nature. The use of amphibious assaults. widespread use of indirect, non-contact and other (including non-traditional) forms and methods of action, long-range fire and electronic destruction. Active information warfare, disorientation public opinion in individual states and the world community as a whole. 800	With the political support of the United States, Great Britain carried out a naval blockade of the territory
		The armed struggle was mainly aerial in nature, and command and control of troops was carried out mainly through space. High influence of information warfare in military operations. Coalition character, disorientation of public opinion in individual states and the world community as a whole.	Complete defeat of Iraqi forces in Kuwait.
	India - Pakistan;	The armed struggle was mainly on the ground. Maneuverable actions of troops (forces) in isolated areas with the widespread use of airmobile forces, landing forces and special forces.	Defeat of the main forces warring parties. Military goals have not been achieved.
	Yugoslavia;	The armed struggle was mainly aerial in nature; troops were controlled through space. High influence of information warfare in military operations. Widespread use of indirect, non-contact and other (including non-traditional) forms and methods of action, long-range fire and electronic destruction; active information warfare, disorientation of public opinion in individual states and the world community as a whole. The desire to disorganize the system of state and military administration; the use of the latest highly effective (including those based on new physical principles) weapons systems and military equipment. The growing role of space reconnaissance.	The defeat of the troops of Yugoslavia, the complete disorganization of military and government administration.
	Afghanistan;	The armed struggle was ground and air in nature with extensive use of forces special operations. High influence of information warfare in military operations. Coalitional nature. Troop control was carried out mainly through space. The growing role of space reconnaissance.	The main Taliban forces have been destroyed.
		The armed struggle was mainly air-ground in nature, with troops controlled through space. High influence of information warfare in military operations. Coalitional nature. The growing role of space reconnaissance. Widespread use of indirect, non-contact and other (including non-traditional) forms and methods of action, long-range fire and electronic destruction; active information warfare, disorientation of public opinion in individual states and the world community as a whole; maneuverable actions of troops (forces) in isolated directions with the widespread use of airborne forces, landing forces and special forces.	Complete defeat of the Iraqi Armed Forces. Change of political power.

After World War II, for a number of reasons, one of which was the emergence of nuclear missile weapons with their deterrent potential, humanity has so far managed to avoid new global wars. They were replaced by numerous local, or “small” wars and armed conflicts. Individual states, their coalitions, as well as various socio-political and religious groups within countries have repeatedly used force of arms to resolve territorial, political, economic, ethno-confessional and other problems and disputes.

It is important to emphasize that until the beginning of the 1990s, all post-war armed conflicts took place against the backdrop of intense confrontation between two opposing socio-political systems and military-political blocs unprecedented in their power - NATO and the Warsaw Division. Therefore, local armed clashes of that time were considered primarily as an integral part of the global struggle for the spheres of influence of two protagonists - the USA and the USSR.

With the collapse of the bipolar model of the world structure, the ideological confrontation between the two superpowers and socio-political systems has become a thing of the past, and the likelihood of a world war has significantly decreased. The confrontation between the two systems “ceased to be the axis around which the main events of world history and politics unfolded for more than four decades,” which, although it opened up wide opportunities for peaceful cooperation, also entailed the emergence of new challenges and threats.

Initial optimistic hopes for peace and prosperity, unfortunately, did not materialize. The fragile balance on the geopolitical scales was replaced by a sharp destabilization of the international situation and an exacerbation of hitherto hidden tensions within individual states. In particular, interethnic and ethno-confessional relations did not become complicated in the region, which provoked numerous local wars and armed conflicts. In the new conditions, the peoples and nationalities of individual states remembered old grievances and began to make claims to disputed territories, gaining autonomy, or even complete separation and independence. Moreover, in almost all modern conflicts there is not only a geopolitical, as before, but also a geocivilizational component, most often with an ethnonational or ethnoconfessional overtone.

Therefore, while the number of interstate and interregional wars and military conflicts (especially those provoked by “ideological opponents”) has declined, the number of intrastate confrontations, caused primarily by ethno-confessional, ethnoterritorial and ethnopolitical reasons, has sharply increased. Conflicts between numerous armed groups within states and crumbling power structures have become much more frequent. Thus, at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century, the most common form of military confrontation became an internal (intrastate), local in scope, limited armed conflict.

These problems manifested themselves with particular severity in the former socialist states with a federal structure, as well as in a number of countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Thus, the collapse of the USSR and Yugoslavia led only in 1989-1992 to the emergence of more than 10 ethnopolitical conflicts, and in the global “South” around the same time more than 25 “small wars” and armed clashes broke out. Moreover, most of them were characterized by unprecedented intensity and were accompanied by mass migration of the civilian population, which created a threat of destabilization of entire regions and necessitated the need for large-scale international humanitarian assistance.

If in the first few years after the end of the Cold War the number of armed conflicts in the world decreased by more than a third, then by the mid-1990s it increased significantly again. Suffice it to say that in 1995 alone, 30 major armed conflicts took place in 25 different regions of the world, and in 1994, in at least 5 of the 31 armed conflicts, participating states resorted to the use of regular armed forces. According to estimates by the Carnegie Commission on the Prevention of Deadly Conflicts, in the 1990s, the seven largest wars and armed confrontations alone cost the international community $199 billion (excluding the costs of the countries directly involved).

Moreover, a radical shift in the development of international relations, significant changes in the field of geopolitics and geostrategy, and the emerging asymmetry along the North-South line have largely aggravated old problems and provoked new ones (international terrorism and organized crime, drug trafficking, smuggling of weapons and military equipment, danger environmental disasters) that require adequate responses from the international community. Moreover, the zone of instability is expanding: if earlier, during the Cold War, this zone passed mainly through the countries of the Near and Middle East, now it begins in the Western Sahara region and spreads to Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, Transcaucasia, South-Eastern and Central Asia. At the same time, we can assume with a reasonable degree of confidence that such a situation is not short-term and transitory.

The main feature of the conflicts of the new historical period was that there was a redistribution of the role of various spheres in armed confrontation: the course and outcome of the armed struggle as a whole is determined mainly by confrontation in the aerospace sphere and at sea, and ground forces will consolidate the achieved military success and directly ensure the achievement of political goals.

Against this background, increased interdependence and mutual influence of actions at the strategic, operational and tactical levels in the armed struggle has emerged. In fact, this suggests that the old concept of conventional wars, both limited and large-scale, is undergoing significant changes. Even local conflicts can be fought over relatively large areas with the most decisive goals. At the same time, the main tasks are solved not during a collision of advanced units, but through fire engagement from extreme ranges.

Based on the analysis of the most common features conflicts of the late 20th - early 21st centuries, the following fundamental conclusions can be drawn regarding the military-political features of armed struggle at the present stage and in the foreseeable future.

The armed forces reaffirm their central role in carrying out security operations. The actual combat role of paramilitary forces, paramilitary forces, militias, and internal security forces units turns out to be significantly less than expected before the outbreak of armed conflicts. They turned out to be unable to conduct active combat operations against the regular army (Iraq).

The decisive moment for achieving military-political success is to seize the strategic initiative during an armed conflict. Passive conduct of hostilities in the hope of “exhaling” the enemy’s offensive impulse will lead to the loss of controllability of one’s own group and subsequently to the loss of the conflict.

The peculiarity of the armed struggle of the future will be that during the war, not only military facilities and troops will come under enemy attacks, but at the same time the country’s economy with its entire infrastructure, civilian population and territory. Despite the development of the accuracy of weapons of destruction, all the studied armed conflicts of recent times were, to one degree or another, humanitarian “dirty” and entailed significant casualties among the civilian population. In this regard, there is a need for a highly organized and efficient system civil defense countries.

The criteria for military victory in local conflicts will be different, however, in general, it is obvious that the main importance is the solution of political problems in an armed conflict, while military-political and operational-tactical tasks are primarily of an auxiliary nature. In none of the conflicts examined was the victorious side able to inflict the planned damage on the enemy. But, nevertheless, she was able to achieve the political goals of the conflict.

Today there is a possibility of escalation of modern armed conflicts both horizontally (drawing new countries and regions into them) and vertically (increasing the scale and intensity of violence within fragile states). Analysis of trends in the development of the geopolitical and geostrategic situation in the world at the current stage makes it possible to assess it as crisis-unstable. Therefore, it is absolutely obvious that all armed conflicts, regardless of the degree of their intensity and localization, require an early settlement, and in ideal- full resolution. One of the time-tested ways to prevent, control and resolve such “small” wars are various forms of peacekeeping.

Due to the increase in local conflicts, the world community, under the auspices of the UN, developed in the 90s such a means for maintaining or establishing peace as peacekeeping, peace enforcement operations.

But, despite the opportunity that emerged with the end of the Cold War to initiate peace enforcement operations, the UN, as time has shown, does not have the necessary potential (military, logistical, financial, organizational and technical) to carry them out. Evidence of this is the failure of the UN operations in Somalia and Rwanda, when the situation there urgently demanded an early transition from traditional peacekeeping operations to forced ones, and the UN was unable to do this on its own.

That is why, in the 1990s, a tendency emerged and subsequently developed for the UN to delegate its powers in the field of military peacekeeping to regional organizations, individual states and coalitions of states ready to take on crisis response tasks, such as NATO, for example.

Peacekeeping approaches create the opportunity to flexibly and comprehensively influence the conflict with the aim of resolving it and further final resolution. Moreover, in parallel, at the level of the military-political leadership and among the broadest sections of the population of the warring parties, work must necessarily be carried out aimed at changing psychological attitudes towards the conflict. This means that peacekeepers and representatives of the international community must, whenever possible, “break” and change the stereotypes of relations between the parties to the conflict that have developed in relation to each other, which are expressed in extreme hostility, intolerance, vindictiveness and intransigence.

But it is important that peacekeeping operations comply with fundamental international legal norms and do not violate human rights and sovereign states - no matter how difficult it may be to combine this. This combination, or at least an attempt at it, is especially relevant in the light of new operations in recent years, called “humanitarian intervention”, or “humanitarian intervention”, which are carried out in the interests of certain groups of the population. But, while protecting human rights, they violate the sovereignty of the state, its right to non-interference from outside - international legal foundations that have evolved over centuries and were considered unshakable until recently. At the same time, in our opinion, it is impossible to allow outside intervention in the conflict under the slogan of the struggle for peace and security or the protection of human rights to turn into overt armed intervention and aggression, as happened in 1999 in Yugoslavia.