Russia, Saint-Petersburg
Composer: A. M. Wildbrecht
Paper, leather; chisel, etching, watercolor
51.3 x 35.5 x 5.5 cm
The Russian atlas of 1800 is considered one of the masterpieces of Russian cartography. At one time his main practical significance was to help administrators make the right decisions management decisions. In addition, the Atlas, accessible only to the highest strata of society, allowed the ruling elite to know their country, not only the spatial position of its parts, but also some aspects of the economic life of the provinces, their nature and history.
The Atlas of 1800 was created on the basis of the Atlas of 1792. The reason for the publication of the new Atlas was the administrative reform of Emperor Paul I (1796-1801), carried out immediately after his accession to the throne. Having a negative attitude towards the activities of his mother, Empress Catherine II (1762-1796), Paul I changed the administrative-territorial structure of the empire, consolidating individual administrative units (territories), and in some even restoring the old, “pre-Catherine” borders. At the same time, he sought to unite provinces that, according to his ideas, were inhabited by the same people and had a similar social structure. This is how the Lithuanian province was created, the Sloboda-Ukrainian province was restored, and the colonized Black Sea lands were united into the Novorossiysk province. It was the holding by Paul I administrative reform forced him to stop printing the Atlas of 1792 and compile a new atlas, which was supposed to glorify the deeds not of the late empress, but of the emperor himself. The work was entrusted to A.M. Wilbrecht (compiler of the 1792 Atlas) and lasted a little more than two years, including the re-composition and re-engraving of the maps. In this regard, about half of the Atlas maps of 1800 were printed from copper boards from which the corresponding maps of 1792 were printed, but with greater or lesser changes introduced into them (engravers A.D. Savinkov, E.M. Khudyakov, I. Leonov, T. Mikhailov, D. Petrov, K. Ushakov, G. T. Kharitonov, I. I. Kolpakov, G. Meshkov, I. K. Nabgolts).
Atlas maps of 1800 show not only the boundaries of the provinces changed due to the reform, but also new ones state borders Russian Empire established after the partition of Poland. In addition, on the title page there is an image of the new state emblem of the empire, approved by the highest decree of Paul I on August 10, 1799, which is a double-headed eagle with imperial crowns, on the chest of which was placed a shield with the Moscow coat of arms, superimposed on the Maltese cross.
See: Bulatov V.E. Russian atlas of forty-three maps, consisting of and dividing the Empire into forty-one provinces (1800). M., 2008.
A large, engraved desk atlas of a reference nature, bound in full leather with a gold-embossed title on the spine. Consists of a title page, a register of cards, 42 cards Russian provinces and one folding General Map of the Russian Empire.
The atlas includes maps of the following provinces: St. Petersburg, Vyborg, Estland, Livland, Courland, Belarus, Pskov, Novgorod, Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Tver, Moscow, Smolensk, Lithuania, Volyn, Minsk, Little Russia, Kursk, Oryol, Kaluga, Tula, Ryazan, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Vyatka, Perm, Orenburg, Simbirsk, Saratov, Tambov, Voronezh, Slobodsk-Ukrainian, Astrakhan, Novorossiysk, Kiev, Podolsk, Tobolsk and Irkutsk [on two sheets]. Each map shows the administrative-territorial boundaries of the province with adjacent territories, settlements, topographic features terrain, including the nature of vegetation. The title of each map is placed in a plot cartouche made in the classicist style, characterizing the territory represented on the map in economic, political and historical aspect. The scale of the maps included in the atlas is different and varies from 11 to 250 versts per inch, which is due to the desire to organically fit the boundaries of the province into the sheet.
"Part west bank America from the Alaska Peninsula to Nootka Bay, based on the latest discoveries made by Russian and By English navigators in 1784, 1786 and 1787” shows the General Map of the Russian Empire. Compiled in a conical conformal projection with two standard parallels, the map shows the state and administrative-territorial borders of the empire, the topography of the area, and adjacent territories neighboring countries. The artistically designed cartouche of the General Map is intended to show the political structure, social welfare, the power of the country, its military victories and achievements in science. The scale of the map is 170 versts per inch.
Captions and inscriptions on all maps of the Atlas are given in Russian.
The scale is approximately 200 versts per inch, that is, about 1: 8,400,000 - 84 km per 1 cm.
The title of the card is in an artistic cartouche with images of a double-headed eagle, below it is the coat of arms of Moscow, as well as the coats of arms of sixteen provinces. In the foreground are the coats of arms of the Novgorod and Kyiv (?) provinces.
The drawing placed on the map is noteworthy. In a certain sense, it is a continuation of the cartographic image and artistic means characterizes the coastal waters of the Northern Arctic Ocean. The figure reflects natural features– ice hummocks, a polar bear, polar birds, as well as scenes of hunting sea animals. Presence of ships under Russian flags emphasizes Russia's priority in the exploration and mapping of northeast Asia, to which numerous expeditions of the 1730-1740s were devoted.
The main content of the map is the political and administrative structure of the Russian Empire.
External boundaries are shown based on various peace treaties. In the west, the position of the border was determined by the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, which ended Russian-Polish War for the lands of modern Ukraine and Belarus. In the extreme north-west, Courland is mistakenly attributed to Russia, since it became part of it only in 1795. The formation of the south-western border was influenced by various agreements with Turkey from the end of the 17th century. until the 1710s and the conditions of the Belgrade Peace, concluded after the Russian-Turkish War of 1735-1737. The border with China is determined by the Nerchinsky (1689), Burinsky and Kyakhtinsky (1727) treaties. The western part of the southern border up to the Caspian Sea was not strictly established. The inclusion of the “Steppes of the Cossack Horde” (the land of the Kyrgyz-Kaisaks, as the Kazakhs were then called) within the state’s borders is based on repeated negotiations about their entry into Russian citizenship in the 1730s. However, these agreements were often violated, and a clearer delimitation of lands in this region was adopted much later.
Internal borders are shown in accordance with Peter's Decree on the administrative division of the Russian Empire in 1708, and according to the reforms of 1719, 1727, 1744. By 1745 the actual administrative structure looked like this: total number provinces – 16, total number of provinces – 45, total number of districts – 166, capital – St. Petersburg. However, the map contains a number of inconsistencies with the actual administrative structure. For example, missing Nizhny Novgorod, which is the center of the province; Smolensk province is named a province; the boundaries of the Astrakhan province do not correspond to the situation in 1745. The error in showing the boundaries of the Astrakhan province and the absence of the Orenburg province, which included part of it, is explained by the chronological proximity of the formation of the latter and the completion of the atlas. It should be noted that the atlas does not always adhere to the rigor of administrative terminology.
But, despite the noted errors, the General Map made it possible to get an idea of the entire territory of the vast Russian Empire and its administrative structure. It was a necessary reference cartographic source “for the whole world” and “national use.”
Fragment of a map from the Drawing Book of Siberia by S. Remezov (1701)
The building of the Academy of Sciences in the engraving by M. Mahaev in the publication Plan of the capital city of St. Petersburg with images of its most notable avenues...St. Petersburg, 1753.
See in the electronic library
Joseph_Nicolas Delisle - portrait of I.-N. Delisle (1688-1768)
Leonhard Euler - portrait of Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)
Gottfried Heinsius - portrait of Gottfried Heinsius (1709-1769)
Geographical Map Containing the Smolensk Governorate with Parts of the Kyiv, Belgorod and Voronezh Governorates. L.5.
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Map of Yarenskaya, Vazhskaya Ustyuge, Solivychegotskaya, Totmskaya and Khlynovskaya Provinces and Uyezds. L. 8.
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Construction of the Volga-Don Canal. Fragment of a map from the Atlas of the Don or Tanais River...Amsterdam, 1701.
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The position of places between the Black and Caspian Seas representing Kuban, Georgian land and the rest of the Volga River with its mouth. L. 11.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The borders of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe were officially consolidated. The St. Petersburg Conventions of 1824 determined the boundaries with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54°40′ N. w. on the coast, and the Russians to the south. The border of Russian and British possessions ran along the Pacific coast from 54° N. w. up to 60° N. w. at a distance of 10 miles from the ocean's edge, taking into account all the curves of the coast. The Russian-Norwegian border was established by the St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826.
New wars with Turkey and Iran led to further expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire. According to the Akkerman Convention with Turkey in 1826, it secured Sukhum, Anaklia and Redoubt-Kale. In accordance with the Treaty of Adrianople of 1829, Russia received the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban to the post of St. Nicholas, including Anapa and Poti, as well as the Akhaltsikhe pashalyk. During these same years, Balkaria and Karachay joined Russia. In 1859-1864. Russia included Chechnya, mountainous Dagestan and mountain peoples (Adygs, etc.), who fought wars with Russia for their independence.
After the Russian-Persian War of 1826-1828. Russia received Eastern Armenia(Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates), which was recognized by the Turkmanchay Treaty of 1828.
Russia's defeat in Crimean War with Turkey, acting in alliance with Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia, led to its loss of the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, which was approved Parisian peace 1856 At the same time, the Black Sea was recognized as neutral. Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 ended with the annexation of Ardahan, Batum and Kars and the return of the Danube part of Bessarabia (without the mouths of the Danube).
The borders of the Russian Empire in the Far East were established, which had previously been largely uncertain and controversial. According to the Treaty of Shimoda with Japan in 1855, a Russian-Japanese war was carried out sea border in the area of the Kuril Islands along the Frisa Strait (between the islands of Urup and Iturup), and the island of Sakhalin is recognized as undivided between Russia and Japan (in 1867 it was declared the joint possession of these countries). The differentiation of Russian and Japanese island possessions continued in 1875, when Russia, under the Treaty of St. Petersburg, ceded the Kuril Islands (north of the Frieze Strait) to Japan in exchange for recognition of Sakhalin as Russian possession. However, after the war with Japan of 1904-1905. According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia was forced to cede to Japan the southern half of Sakhalin Island (from the 50th parallel).
Under the terms of the Aigun Treaty (1858) with China, Russia received territories along the left bank of the Amur from the Argun to the mouth, previously considered undivided, and Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was recognized as common possession. The Beijing Treaty of 1860 formalized the final annexation of Primorye to Russia. In 1871, Russia annexed the Ili region with the city of Gulja, which belonged to the Qing Empire, but after 10 years it was returned to China. At the same time, the border in the area of Lake Zaisan and the Black Irtysh was corrected in favor of Russia.
In 1867, the Tsarist government ceded all of its colonies to the United States for $7.2 million.
From the middle of the 19th century. continued what began in the 18th century. advancement of Russian possessions into Central Asia. In 1846, the Kazakh Senior Zhuz ( Great Horde), and in 1853 the Kokand fortress Ak-Mosque was conquered. In 1860, the annexation of Semirechye was completed, and in 1864-1867. parts of the Kokand Khanate (Chimkent, Tashkent, Khojent, Zachirchik region) and the Bukhara Emirate (Ura-Tube, Jizzakh, Yany-Kurgan) were annexed. In 1868, the Bukhara emir recognized himself as a vassal of the Russian Tsar, and the Samarkand and Katta-Kurgan districts of the emirate and the Zeravshan region were annexed to Russia. In 1869, the coast of the Krasnovodsk Bay was annexed to Russia, and in next year- Mangyshlak Peninsula. According to the Gendemian Peace Treaty with the Khiva Khanate in 1873, the latter recognized vassal dependence on Russia, and the lands along the right bank of the Amu Darya became part of Russia. In 1875, it became a vassal of Russia Khanate of Kokand, and in 1876 it was included in the Russian Empire as the Fergana region. In 1881-1884. lands inhabited by Turkmens were annexed to Russia, and in 1885 the Eastern Pamirs were annexed. Agreements of 1887 and 1895 Russian and Afghan possessions were demarcated along the Amu Darya and the Pamirs. Thus, the formation of the border of the Russian Empire in Central Asia.
In addition to the lands annexed to Russia as a result of wars and peace treaties, the country's territory increased due to newly discovered lands in the Arctic: Wrangel Island was discovered in 1867, in 1879-1881. - De Long Islands, in 1913 - Severnaya Zemlya Islands.
Pre-revolutionary changes Russian territory ended with the establishment of a protectorate over the Uriankhai region (Tuva) in 1914.
Geographical exploration, discovery and mapping
European part
Among the geographical discoveries in the European part of Russia, the discovery of the Donetsk Ridge and the Donetsk Coal Basin made by E.P. Kovalevsky in 1810-1816 should be mentioned. and in 1828
Despite some setbacks (in particular, the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 and the loss of territory as a result of the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905), the Russian Empire at the beginning of the First World War possessed vast territories and was the largest country in the world by area.
Academic expeditions of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Sherer in 1802-1804. to the north-west of Russia, Belarus, the Baltic states and Finland were devoted mainly to mineralogical research.
The period of geographical discoveries in the populated European part of Russia is over. In the 19th century expeditionary research and its scientific synthesis were mainly thematic. Of these, zoning can be called (mainly agricultural) European Russia into eight latitudinal bands, proposed by E. F. Kankrin in 1834; botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Baltic and Caspian Seas, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by K. M. Baer; N. A. Severtsov’s work (1855) on the fauna of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the fauna and physical-geographical conditions, and also established patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil research by V.V. Dokuchaev in the chernozem zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V. Dokuchaev, organized by the Forestry Department to comprehensively study the nature of the steppes and find ways to combat drought. In this expedition, a stationary research method was used for the first time.
Caucasus
The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia necessitated the study of new Russian lands, the knowledge of which was poor. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences, led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. X. Lenz, explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus system and determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks of the Caucasus. In 1844-1865 The natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G.V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, Dagestan, and the Colchis Lowland, and compiled the first general orographic diagram of the Caucasus.
Ural
Among the works that developed the geographical understanding of the Urals are the description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; publication “ Natural history Orenburg Region” by E. A. Eversman (1840), which provides a comprehensive description of the nature of this territory with a well-founded natural division; expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals(E.K. Goffman, V.G. Bragin), during which the peak of Konstantinov Kamen was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled, which served as the basis for drawing up a map of the explored part of the Urals. A notable event was the journey in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and the shores of the Caspian Sea.
Siberia
In the 19th century Research continued in Siberia, many areas of which were very poorly studied. In Altai in the 1st half of the century the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, Lake Teletskoye was explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P. A. Chikhachev carried out physical, geographical and geological research.
In 1843-1844. A.F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, permafrost and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East; for the first time, information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr, the Aldan Highlands, and the Stanovoy Range. Based on the travel materials, A. F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published “Journey to the North and East of Siberia” - one of the best examples of systematic reports on the nature of the explored territories. This work provides characteristics of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the features of the relief of Central Siberia, the uniqueness of its climate, and presents the results of the first scientific research permafrost, the zoogeographic division of Siberia is given.
In 1853-1855. R. K. Maak and A. K. Sondgagen studied the orography, geology and life of the population of the Central Yakut Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the Vilyui River.
In 1855-1862. The Siberian expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia and the Amur region.
A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of southern Eastern Siberia. In 1858, geographical research in the Sayan Mountains was carried out by L. E. Schwartz. During them, topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. Research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P. A. Kropotkin, who paid special attention to the relief and geological structure. He explored the Oka, Amur, Ussuri rivers, the Sayan ridges, and discovered the Patom Highlands. The Khamar-Daban ridge, the coast of Lake Baikal, the Angara region, the Selenga basin, the Eastern Sayan were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky explored the basins of the Lower Tunguska and Olenyok rivers, and I. D. Chersky explored the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska. A geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition by N.P. Bobyr, L.A. Yachevsky, and Ya.P. Prein. Study of the Sayan mountain system in 1903 continued by V.L. Popov. In 1910 he carried out geographical study border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.
In 1891-1892 during his last expedition I. D. Chersky explored the Momsky ridge, the Nerskoye Plateau, and discovered three high mountain ranges behind the Verkhoyansk ridge: Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistai and Tomuskhai.
Far East
Research continued on Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and the adjacent seas. In 1805, I. F. Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811, V. M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849, G.I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur mouth for large ships. In 1850-1853. G.I. Nevelsky and others continued their studies of the Tatar Strait, Sakhalin, and adjacent parts of the mainland. In 1860-1867 Sakhalin was explored by F.B. Schmidt, P.P. Glen, G.W. Shebunin. In 1852-1853 N. K Boshnyak explored and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, lakes Everon and Chukchagirskoe, the Bureinsky ridge, and Khadzhi Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).
In 1842-1845. A.F. Middendorf and V.V. Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.
In the 50-60s. XIX century The coastal parts of Primorye were explored: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posyet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin conducted the shooting northern shore Sea of Japan and Peter the Great Bay. The Lower Amur and the northern part of Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budishchev. In 1858, M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. the Amur and Ussuri rivers were studied by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869 N. M. Przhevalsky made a major trip to the Ussuri region. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Ussuri and Suchan river basins and crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.
middle Asia
As certain parts of Kazakhstan and Central Asia joined the Russian Empire, and sometimes even preceding it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists explored and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, General Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was studied by E. A. Eversman. In 1825-1836 carried out a description of the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoi Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau G. S. Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. A.I. Shrenk studied Eastern Kazakhstan.
In 1840-1845 The Balkhash-Alakol basin was discovered (A.I. Shrenk, T.F. Nifantiev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantiev carried out the first surveys of lakes Balkhash, Issyk-Kul, Zaisan. In 1848-1849 A.I. Butakov conducted the first survey Aral Sea, a number of islands and Chernyshev Bay have been discovered.
Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, was brought by the 1857 expedition of I. G. Borschov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba River basin and the Big Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. He considered steppes and deserts as natural geographical complexes and analyzed the mutual relationships between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation.
Since the 1840s exploration of the highlands of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845 A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857 P.P. Semenov laid the foundation for the scientific study of the Tien Shan. The heyday of research in the mountains of Central Asia occurred during the period of the expeditionary leadership of P. P. Semenov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867 N.A. Severtsov explored the Kirghiz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskem and Kakshaal-Too ridges in the Tien Shan, in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kukhistan, Alai and Trans-Alai ranges. N.A. Severtsov, A.I. Scassi discovered the Rushansky ridge and the Fedchenko glacier (1877-1879). The research carried out made it possible to identify the Pamirs as a separate mountain system.
Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V. A. Obruchev in 1886-1888. (Karakum desert and ancient valley Uzboy).
Comprehensive Research Aral Sea in 1899-1902. conducted by L. S. Berg.
North and Arctic
At the beginning of the 19th century. The discovery of the New Siberian Islands ended. In 1800-1806. Y. Sannikov made an inventory of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, and New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered an island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811 The expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom visited the New Siberian Islands. In 1815, M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilievsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823 P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental research, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the New Siberian Islands, explored and described the islands of Semenovsky, Vasilyevsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenyok rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.
In 1820-1824. F.P. Wrangel, in very difficult natural conditions, traveled through the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukchi Peninsula), and predicted the existence of Wrangel Island.
Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotzebue discovered in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska large bay, named after him. In 1818-1819 The eastern coast of the Bering Sea was explored by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the delta of the largest river in Alaska, the Yukon, was discovered. In 1835-1838. The lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were studied by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L. A. Zagoskin. He also described hinterland Alaska. In 1829-1835 The coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F. Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokwim (Kuskokwim) ridge. In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.
The archipelago was intensively explored New Earth. In 1821-1824. F.P. Litke on the brig “Novaya Zemlya” explored, described and compiled a map of the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833 The first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the South Island of Novaya Zemlya was made by P.K. Pakhtusov. In 1834-1835 P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A.K. Tsivolka and S.A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the North Island up to 74.5° N. sh., the Matochkin Shar Strait is described in detail, Pakhtusov Island is discovered. A description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V. A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829. managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from Cape Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The research carried out made it possible to begin the study of vegetation, fauna and geological structure New Earth (K. M. Baer, 1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a major expedition in 1837, A.I. Shrenk explored the Czech Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, Vaygach Island, the Pai-Khoi ridge, and the polar Urals. Explorations of this area in 1840-1845. continued A.A. Keyserling, who surveyed the Pechora River, explored the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula, the Putorana Plateau, and the North Siberian Lowland in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850 The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi ridge was thoroughly explored.
In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, an inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American researcher R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and the interior of the island was explored for the first time.
In 1901, the Russian icebreaker Ermak, under the command of S. O. Makarov, visited Franz Josef Land. In 1913-1914 A Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov wintered on the archipelago. At the same time, a group of participants from G.L. Brusilov’s expedition in distress on the ship “St. Anna”, headed by navigator V.I. Albanov. Despite difficult conditions, when all the energy was aimed at preserving life, V.I. Albanov proved that Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which appeared on the map of J. Payer, do not exist.
In 1878-1879 During two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N.A.E. Nordenskiöld on the small sailing-steam vessel “Vega” for the first time traversed the Northern Sea Route from west to east. This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.
In 1913, the Hydrographic Expedition of the Arctic Ocean under the leadership of B. A. Vilkitsky on the icebreaking steamships “Taimyr” and “Vaigach”, exploring the possibility of passing the Northern Sea Route north of Taimyr, met solid ice and following their edge to the north, she discovered islands called the Land of Emperor Nicholas II (now Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and the following year, southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now Maly Taimyr). The western and northern shores of Severnaya Zemlya remained completely unknown.
Russian Geographical Society
The Russian Geographical Society (RGO), founded in 1845, (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO) belongs to great merit in the development of domestic cartography.
In 1881, the American polar explorer J. DeLong discovered the islands of Jeannette, Henrietta and Bennett northeast of the island of New Siberia. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886 A study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the New Siberian Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.
Already at the beginning of 1852, it published its first twenty-five-verst (1:1,050,000) map of the Northern Urals and the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, compiled based on materials from the Ural Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society of 1847-1850. For the first time, the Northern Urals and the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge were depicted with great accuracy and detail.
The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river areas of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and Yenisei and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).
Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGO, led by N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V. I. Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov and V. A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the filming Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and filmed (of which over 30,000 km were accounted for by N. M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined and the altitudes of 3,533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this significantly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.
The heyday of the expeditionary activities of the IRGO occurred in 1873-1914, when the society was headed by Grand Duke Konstantin, and the vice-chairman was P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. During this period, expeditions to Central Asia were organized, Eastern Siberia and other areas of the country; two were created polar stations. Since the mid-1880s. expeditionary activities of the society are increasingly specialized in individual industries- glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.
IRGO made a great contribution to the study of the country's topography. To process the leveling and produce a hypsometric map, the IRGO hypsometric commission was created. In 1874, IRGO carried out, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, the Aral-Caspian leveling: from Karatamak (on the northwestern shore of the Aral Sea) through Ustyurt to the Dead Kultuk Bay of the Caspian Sea, and in 1875 and 1877. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Lake Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A. A. Tillo to compile the “Hypsometric map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1: 2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50 thousand high-altitude maps were used for its compilation marks obtained as a result of leveling. The map revolutionized ideas about the structure of the relief of this territory. It presented in a new way the orography of the European part of the country, which has not changed in its main features to this day; the Central Russian and Volga uplands were depicted for the first time. In 1894, the Forestry Department under the leadership of A. A. Tillo with the participation of S. N. Nikitin and D. N. Anuchin organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, lakes).
The military topographical service carried out, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, a large number of pioneering reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps were drawn up of many territories that had previously been “blank spots” on the map.
Mapping the territory in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Topographic and geodetic works
In 1801-1804. “His Majesty’s Own Map Depot” released the first state multi-sheet (107 sheets) map at a scale of 1:840,000, covering almost all of European Russia and called the “Cental-sheet Map”. Its content was based mainly on materials from the General Survey.
In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff, under the leadership of Major General F. F. Steinhel (Steingel), with the extensive use of Swedish-Finnish topographic officers, carried out a large-scale topographic survey of the so-called Old Finland, i.e., the areas annexed to Russia along the Nystadt (1721) and Abosky (1743) to the world. The survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.
After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were united. Wherein Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for training professional topographers - military school, founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanyem Topographic Corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.
In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with topographical officers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.
Since 1819, topographic surveys began in Russia on a scale of 1:21,000, based on triangulation and carried out mainly using scales. In 1844 they were replaced by surveys at a scale of 1:42,000.
On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Headquarters of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping became one of the main tasks of military topographers. The remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer F. F. Schubert was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.
In 1816-1852. In Russia, the largest triangulation work of that time was carried out, stretching 25°20′ along the meridian (together with the Scandinavian triangulation).
Under the leadership of F. F. Schubert and K. I. Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on materials from these surveys in the 20-30s. XIX century semitopographic (semi-topographic) maps of the provinces were compiled and engraved on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.
The military topographic depot began in 1821 to compile a survey topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1:420,000), which was extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten-verst map of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on creating the map continued intermittently until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half-sheets).
A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of Military Topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829 Detailed maps on a scale of 1:210,000 were compiled for the Baku province, the Talysh Khanate, the Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.
In 1828-1832. a survey of Moldavia and Wallachia was carried out, which became a model of work of its time, as it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were compiled into a 1:16,000 atlas. total area shooting reached 100 thousand square meters. verst.
Since the 30s. Geodetic and boundary work began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulations became the basis for creating accurate topographic maps of Crimea. Geodetic networks developed in Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and other areas.
In 1833, the head of the KVT, General F. F. Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition in the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points related to them trigonometrically, provided a reliable basis for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.
From 1857 to 1862 under the leadership and funds of the IRGO, work was carried out at the Military Topographical Depot to compile and publish on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasus region on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map for the first time in Russia was created in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the prime meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was reprinted several times.
In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst map and an orographic forty-verst map of the Caucasus were published.
Among the best cartographic works of the IRGO is the “Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their surroundings” compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published on French The Paris Geographical Society and on the recommendation of A. Humboldt was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.
The Caucasian military topographic department, under the leadership of General I. I. Stebnitsky, conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.
In 1867, a Cartographic Establishment was opened at the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin, opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.
A special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO was occupied by relief maps. The large relief map was completed in 1868, and was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances on a scale of 1:420,000, and for vertical distances - 1:84,000.
The Caucasian military topographic department under the leadership of I. I. Stebnitsky compiled a 20-verst map of the Trans-Caspian region based on astronomical, geodetic and topographical work.
Work was also carried out on topographic and geodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. Thus, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in Peter the Great Bay.
The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at this time. Such in particular is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland annexed to it” from “ Geographical atlas Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V. P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).
Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographical service has been the creation of a Military Topographical Map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of military topographical maps had been published, and by 1917 - 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was conveyed by strokes.
In 1848-1866. under the leadership of Lieutenant General A.I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps, atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of about 345,000 square meters. verst. Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst per inch (1:42,000), Yaroslavl - two versts per inch (1:84,000), Simbirsk and Nizhny Novgorod - three versts per inch (1:126,000) and Penza province - on a scale of eight versts per inch (1:336,000). Based on the results of the surveys, IRGO published multicolor topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84,000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1:336,000).
The Mende filming had an undoubted influence on the further improvement of state mapping methods. In 1872, the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map on a scale of 2 versts in an inch (1:84,000), which was a most detailed source of information about the area, used in troops and the national economy until the 30s. XX century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow and St. Petersburg. This was one of the first Russian topographic maps on which the relief was depicted as contour lines.
In 1869-1885. A detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one mile per inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. Single-versus maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, Southern Finland, Crimea, the Caucasus and parts southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.
By the 60s. XIX century The Special Map of European Russia by F. F. Schubert on a scale of 10 versts per inch is very outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed captain General Staff I. A. Strelbitsky, under whose leadership the final development of conventional signs and all instructional documents that determined the methods of compilation, preparation for publication and publication of a new cartographic work was carried out. In 1872, the compilation of all 152 sheets of the map was completed. The ten verstka was reprinted many times and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military purposes, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.
By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments covered more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and visual surveys. Based on their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.
In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic work in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the KVT, General N. D. Artamonov. It was decided to develop the new 1st class triangulation according to a specific program proposed by General I. I. Pomerantsev. KVT began implementing the program in 1910. By 1914, the bulk of the work was completed.
By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys had been completed in the entire territory of Poland, in the south of Russia (triangle Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces partially; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partly in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in the Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, east of the survey sites on the half- and verst-scale.
The results of topographic surveys of previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographical and special military maps: a half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21,000); verst map of the Western border space, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42,000); military topographic two-verst map (1:84,000), three-verst map (1:126,000) with relief expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1:420,000); military road 25-verst map of European Russia (1:1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map of Central Europe (1:1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and neighboring foreign countries.
In addition to the listed maps, the Military Topographical Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and adjacent states, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of all of Asian Russia.
Over the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918), the corps of military topographers completed an enormous amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: identified geodetic points - 63,736; astronomical points (by latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; Instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis on various scales over an area of 7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out over an area of 506,247 km2. In 1917, the Russian Army supplied 6,739 types of maps of different scales.
In general, by 1917, a huge amount of field survey material had been obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works had been created, but the coverage of the territory of Russia with topographic survey was uneven, and a significant part of the territory remained unexplored in topographic terms.
Exploration and mapping of seas and oceans
Russia's achievements in studying and mapping the World Ocean have been significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting from the first voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the leadership of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.V. Lisyansky, they made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic knowledge of the World Ocean.
In addition to hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian Navy, participants around the world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among whom were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F. P. Wrangel, A. K. Etolin and M. D. Tebenkov, continuously expanded knowledge about the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and improved navigation maps these areas. Particularly great was the contribution of M.D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed “Atlas of the Northwestern coast of America from the Bering Strait to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the Northeastern coast of Asia,” published by the St. Petersburg Maritime Academy in 1852.
In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the finalization of geographical ideas about the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 20-30s. XIX century expeditions of F.P. Litke, P.K. Pakhtusov, K.M. Baer and A.K. Tsivolka, who laid the foundations for the physical-geographical study of these seas and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. To solve the problem of developing transport links between European Pomerania and Western Siberia Expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most effective of which were the Pechora expedition of I. N. Ivanov (1824) and the hydrographic inventory of I. N. Ivanov and I. A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps they compiled had a solid astronomical and geodetic basis. Research of sea coasts and islands in northern Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries by Russian industrialists of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago, as well as the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. During the expedition led by M. M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, which explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole, as well as the mainland sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers, was created for the first time. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands has been completed. In the 20s the Yanskaya (1820-1824) expedition under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and the Kolyma expedition (1821-1824) under the leadership of F.P. Wrangel were sent to the same areas. These expeditions carried out the work program of M. M. Gedenstrom’s expedition on an expanded scale. They were supposed to survey the coastline from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenyok River to Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the group of Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands. In the eastern part of the Wrangel map was designated according to data local residents, an island with the inscription “Mountains seen from Cape Yakan in summer.” This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I. F. Krusenstern (1826) and G. A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867, it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and, in commemoration of the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer, was named after Wrangel. The results of the expeditions of P. F. Anjou and F. P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 handwritten maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.
The research carried out in the middle of the 19th century had not only scientific, but also enormous geopolitical significance for Russia. G.I. Nevelsky and his followers carried out intensive marine expeditionary research in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan. Although the island position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, the problem of accessibility of the Amur mouth for sea vessels from the south and north was finally and positively resolved only by G.I. Nevelsky. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur region and Primorye, showing the enormous potential capabilities of these rich regions, provided, as the research of G. I. Nevelsky proved, with end-to-end water communications leading to Pacific Ocean. These studies themselves were carried out by travelers, sometimes at their own peril and risk, in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G.I. Nevelsky paved the way for the return of the Amur region to Russia under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and the annexation of Primorye to the Empire (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). results geographical research on the Amur and in Primorye, as well as changes in borders in the Far East in accordance with the treaties between Russia and China were cartographically declared on maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published as soon as possible.
Russian hydrographers in the 19th century. continued active work and on European seas. After the annexation of Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, a navigational atlas was compiled by I.N. Billings to the northern coast, in 1807 - I.M. Budishchev’s atlas to the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - “General map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In 1825-1836 under the leadership of E.P. Manganari, based on triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western coast of the Black Sea was carried out, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Black Sea” in 1841.
In the 19th century Intensified study of the Caspian Sea continued. In 1826, based on the materials of detailed hydrographic work of 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Boards under the leadership of A.E. Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully met the requirements of shipping of that time.
In subsequent years, the atlas maps were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the west coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836) and others - on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. In 1847, I.I. Zherebtsov described the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsova, who carried out systematic surveying and description for 15 years, drawing up several plans and 26 maps that covered almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.
In the 19th century Intensive work continued to improve maps of the Baltic and White Seas. Outstanding Achievement Russian hydrography was compiled by G. A. Sarychev “Atlas of the Whole Baltic Sea...” (1812). In 1834-1854. Based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of F. F. Schubert, maps were compiled and published for the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea.
Significant changes to maps White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula were contributed by the hydrographic works of F. P. Litke (1821-1824) and M. F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on materials from the work of Reinecke’s expedition, the “Atlas of the White Sea...” was published in 1833, the maps of which were used by sailors until the beginning of the 20th century, and the “Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia”, which supplemented this atlas, can be considered as a model geographical description coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to M. F. Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.
Thematic mapping
Active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the development of special (thematic) mapping. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th and early 20th centuries.
In 1832, the Main Directorate of Communications published the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire. It included general maps at scales of 20 and 10 versts per inch, detailed maps at a scale of 2 versts per inch and plans at a scale of 100 fathoms per inch and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were compiled, which contributed to increasing the cartographic knowledge of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.
Significant cartographic works in the 19th and early 20th centuries. carried out by the Ministry of State Property formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of Civil Topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.
An important achievement of Russian cartography was the “Marx Great World Desk Atlas” published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), which contained over 200 maps and an index of 130 thousand geographical names.
Mapping nature
Geological mapping
In the 19th century Intensive cartographic study of Russia's mineral resources and their exploitation continued, and special geognostic (geological) mapping was being developed. At the beginning of the 19th century. Many maps of mountain districts, plans of factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, and mineral springs were created. The history of exploration and development of mineral resources in the Altai and Nerchinsk mountain districts is reflected in particular detail in the maps.
Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Map of Salt Mines”, compiled in the Mining Department. The collection's maps date mainly from the 20s and 30s. XIX century Many of the maps in this atlas are much broader in content than ordinary maps of salt mines, and are, in fact, early examples of geological (petrographic) maps. Thus, among the maps of G. Vansovich of 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The “Map of Pskov and part of the Novgorod province: with indications of rock-stone and salt springs discovered in 1824...” also has rich geological content.
An extremely rare example of early hydro geological map represents " Topographic map peninsula of Crimea…” indicating the depth and quality of water in villages, compiled by A. N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on a cartographic basis of 1817. In addition, the map provides information about the areas of territories with different water supplies, as well as a table of the number of villages for counties in need of water supply.
In 1840-1843. English geologist R. I. Murchison, together with A. A. Keyserling and N. I. Koksharov, conducted research that for the first time gave scientific picture geological structure of European Russia.
In the 50s XIX century The first geological maps begin to be published in Russia. One of the earliest is “Geognostic map of the St. Petersburg province” (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research were expressed in the “Geological Map of European Russia” (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).
The main task of the Geological Committee was to create a 10-verst (1:420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map were published out of the planned 170. Since the 1870s. Geological mapping of some areas of Asian Russia began.
In 1895, the “Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism” was published, compiled by A. A. Tillo.
Forest mapping
One of the earliest handwritten maps of forests is “Map for viewing the state of forests and the timber industry in [European] Russia,” compiled in 1840-1841, as established, by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state forests, the forest industry and forest-consuming industries, as well as improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for it were collected through requests through local departments of state property, as well as other departments. Two maps were drawn up in their final form in 1842; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the early examples of soil-climatic maps, which indicated climatic bands and dominant soils in European Russia. A soil-climate map has not yet been discovered.
Work to compile a map of forests in European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of the organization and mapping of forest resources and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols for drawing up forest plans and maps were created, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state-owned lands in Siberia, which acquired a particularly wide scope after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.
Soil mapping
In 1838, a systematic study of soils began in Russia. A large number of handwritten soil maps were compiled primarily from inquiries. A prominent economic geographer and climatologist, Academician K. S. Veselovsky, compiled and published the first consolidated “Soil Map of European Russia” in 1855, which shows eight soil types: chernozem, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, solonetzes, tundra , swamps. The works of K. S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V. V. Dokuchaev, who proposed a truly scientific classification for soils based on the genetic principle, and introduced their comprehensive study taking into account factors soil formation. His book “Cartography of Russian Soils,” published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text for the “Soil Map of European Russia,” laid the foundations of modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882, V.V. Dokuchaev and his followers (N.M. Sibirtsev, K.D. Glinka, S.S. Neustruev, L.I. Prasolov, etc.) conducted soil, and in fact complex physiographic studies in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works were soil maps of provinces (on a 10-verst scale) and more detailed maps individual counties. Under the leadership of V.V. Dokuchaev, N.M. Sibirtsev, G.I. Tanfilyev and A.R. Ferkhmin compiled and published the “Soil Map of European Russia” at a scale of 1:2,520,000 in 1901.
Socio-economic mapping
Farm mapping
The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a more in-depth study of the national economy. For this purpose, in the middle of the 19th century. overview economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was “Map of the industry of European Russia showing factories, factories and industries, administrative places for the manufacturing part, the main fairs, water and land communications, ports, lighthouses, customs houses, the main piers, quarantines, etc., 1842” .
A significant cartographic work is the “Economic-statistical atlas of European Russia from 16 maps,” compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. This was the first economic atlas in our country dedicated to agriculture. It included the first thematic cards(soil, climatic, agricultural). The atlas and its text part make an attempt to summarize the main features and directions of development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. XIX century
Of undoubted interest is the handwritten “Statistical Atlas” compiled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the leadership of N.A. Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms reflecting a wide variety of socio-economic parameters. It was apparently compiled in parallel with the “Economic Statistical Atlas” of 1851 and provides a lot of new information in comparison with it.
A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the “Map of the most important sectors of productivity of European Russia” compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1:2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement in the organization of statistics in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Materials collected over the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources other departments made it possible to create a map that comprehensively and reliably characterizes the economy post-reform Russia. The map turned out great reference manual and valuable material for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of its content, expressiveness and originality of mapping methods, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and historical source, which has not lost its meaning to this day.
The first capital atlas of industry was “Statistical Atlas of the Main Sectors of the Factory Industry of European Russia” by D. A. Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (Ural, Nerchinsk district, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic maps of cargo flows along railways and waterways were published.
One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early 20th century. is the “Commercial and Industrial Map of European Russia” by V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shan scale 1:1 680 000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and regions.
It is worth mentioning one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas album “Agricultural Industry in Russia” (1914), representing a set of statistical maps of the country’s agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of “cartographic propaganda” of the potential opportunities of agriculture in Russia to attract new capital investments from abroad.
Population mapping
P. I. Keppen organized the systematic collection of statistical data on the number, national composition and ethnographic characteristics of the population of Russia. The result of P. I. Keppen’s work was the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1:3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General A.F. Rittikh. At the Paris International Geographical Exhibition the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasus region on a scale of 1:1,080,000 (A.F. Rittich, 1875), Asian Russia (M.I. Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), etc. were published.
Among other thematic cartographic works, one should name the first map of population density of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), “General map of the entire Russian Empire with an indication of the degree of population” by A. Rakint, scale 1:21,000,000 (1866), which included Alaska.
Comprehensive research and mapping
In 1850-1853. The police department released atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).
In 1897, G.I. Tanfilyev, a student of V.V. Dokuchaev, published a zoning of European Russia, which was first called physiographic. Tanfilyev’s scheme clearly reflected zonality, and also outlined some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions.
In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, was published. In 1910, the second edition of this atlas appeared.
The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the major “Atlas of Asian Russia”, published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, accompanied by an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions for agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this publication for the first time included a detailed overview of the history of cartography in Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later a famous historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The contents of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflect the results of much work various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas provides an extensive set of economic maps for Asian Russia. Its central section consists of maps with backgrounds different color the general picture of land ownership and land use is shown, which reflects the results of ten years of activity of the Resettlement Administration for the resettlement of displaced people.
There is a special map dedicated to the distribution of the population of Asian Russia by religion. Three maps are dedicated to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. Cartograms for agriculture show the share of different crops and relative amount main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special atlas maps are dedicated to communication routes, postal institutions and telegraph lines, which, of course, was of extreme importance for sparsely populated Asian Russia.
So, at the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided the needs of defense, national economy, science and education of the country, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. At the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire possessed vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state published by the cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin in 1915.
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