Metallurgy. This branch of the manufacturing industry consists of several technological stages: ore mining, primary extraction of metal from ore, improving the quality of the extracted metal, etc.
Ferrous metallurgy closely connected with other sectors of the economy (mining, coal, energy, non-ferrous metallurgy, chemistry); this to a certain extent influences its placement. Currently, the prevailing location of ferrous metallurgy enterprises is: 1) to coking coal basins; 2) iron ore deposits; 3) seaports.
Scientific and technological revolution is displacing previous technologies in ferrous metallurgy; Instead of the old open-hearth method of producing steel, the most efficient, electrical, oxygen-converter methods, adapted to the conditions of a small enterprise, are used. Currently, special attention is also being paid to the use of melted scrap metal; 2/5 of the world's steel is obtained using this method.
In modern non-ferrous metallurgy More than 70 types of non-ferrous metals are extracted from ore; the volume of its production annually is 20 million tons. Among these metals by production volume leading place occupies aluminum; it accounts for about half of the production of non-ferrous metallurgy. The technology for producing “white” metal, which is widely used in many industries and construction, is very complex, so individual stages of its production are carried out in different countries and even regions. The first stage of aluminum production is the extraction of bauxite, which is mainly concentrated in the rich deposits of Australia, Guinea, Jamaica and Brazil; the second - (production of aluminum oxide) in areas where fuel and lime are abundant, the third - (extraction of metal through electrolysis) at the location is focused on cheap electricity. The main factor in locating aluminum production is the availability of cheap electrical energy.
Mechanical engineering industry. In developed countries, mechanical engineering occupies a special place as a leading industry; it accounts for 36 - 40% of industrial output and 34% of workers in this industry. Modern mechanical engineering is a complex industry, combining more than 300 types of production, the most knowledge-intensive, producing many types of products amounting to several million units.
Currently, according to the cost of production production of electrical equipment left traditional industries behind. In this knowledge-intensive industry, the leading place in terms of production volume is occupied by Japan, the USA, and new industrial countries in Asia, China, Western European countries. The USA specializes in the production of expensive equipment. Asian countries are focused on the production of computer equipment and consumer electronics, and Western European countries are focused on communications, medical, industrial and scientific equipment.
Transport engineering covers the automotive, aerospace, shipbuilding and railway machinery industries. Transport vehicles are divided according to their purpose of use into civilian vehicles and vehicles used to perform military missions. In terms of the number of products produced (annually 45-50 million units), product cost and serial production, the automotive industry ranks first; Passenger cars account for 3/4 of total automobile production
General mechanical engineering includes the production of equipment for all sectors of the economy and the production of other mechanical engineering products used in the everyday life of the population (watches, textile and sewing machines, etc.). This industry produces a variety of products: from piecemeal, complex and expensive equipment (nuclear reactors, equipment for metallurgical plants) to consumer products, the number of which is in the millions.
Metallurgy. This branch of the manufacturing industry consists of several technological stages: ore mining, primary extraction of metal from ore, improving the quality of the extracted metal, etc.
Ferrous metallurgy is closely related to other sectors of the economy (mining, coal, energy, non-ferrous metallurgy, chemistry); this to a certain extent influences its placement. Currently, the prevailing location of ferrous metallurgy enterprises is: 1) to coking coal basins; 2) iron ore deposits; 3) seaports.
Scientific and technological revolution is displacing previous technologies in ferrous metallurgy; Instead of the old open-hearth method of producing steel, the most efficient, electrical, oxygen-converter methods, adapted to the conditions of a small enterprise, are used. Currently, special attention is also being paid to the use of melted scrap metal; 2/5 of the world's steel is obtained using this method.
In modern non-ferrous metallurgy, more than 70 types of non-ferrous metals are extracted from ore; the volume of its production annually amounts to 20 million tons. Among these metals, aluminum occupies the leading place in terms of production volume; it accounts for about half of non-ferrous metallurgy production. The technology for producing “white” metal, which is widely used in many industries and construction, is very complex, so individual stages of its production are carried out in different countries and even regions. The first stage of aluminum production is the extraction of bauxite, which is mainly concentrated in the rich deposits of Australia, Guinea, Jamaica and Brazil; the second - (production of aluminum oxide) in areas where fuel and lime are abundant, the third - (extraction of metal through electrolysis) at the location is focused on cheap electricity. The main factor in locating aluminum production is the availability of cheap electrical energy.
Mechanical engineering industry. In developed countries, mechanical engineering occupies a special place as a leading industry; it accounts for 36 - 40% of industrial output and 34% of workers in this industry. Modern mechanical engineering is a complex industry, combining more than 300 types of production, the most knowledge-intensive, producing many types of products amounting to several million units.
Currently, in terms of product value, the production of electrical equipment has left traditional industries behind. In this knowledge-intensive industry, the leading places in terms of production volume are occupied by Japan, the USA, newly industrialized countries in Asia, China, and Western European countries. The USA specializes in the production of expensive equipment. Asian countries are focused on the production of computer equipment and consumer electronics, and Western European countries are focused on communications, medical, industrial and scientific equipment.
Transportation engineering covers automobile manufacturing, aerospace manufacturing, shipbuilding and the production of machinery for railway transport. Transport vehicles are divided according to their purpose of use into civilian vehicles and vehicles used to perform military missions. In terms of the number of products produced (annually 45-50 million units), product cost and serial production, the automotive industry ranks first; Passenger cars account for 3/4 of total automobile production
General mechanical engineering includes the production of equipment for all sectors of the economy and the production of other mechanical engineering products used in the everyday life of the population (watches, textile and sewing machines, etc.). This industry produces a variety of products: from piecemeal, complex and expensive equipment (nuclear reactors, equipment for metallurgical plants) to consumer products, the number of which is in the millions.
Mechanical engineering. If the starting point of the industrial revolution of the 18th-19th centuries. was the introduction of new working machines in the textile industry, now the initial, decisive technical changes are taking place in the field of mechanical engineering.
Favorable preconditions for the rapid development of mechanical engineering were created by the continuously increasing demand of the main industries for various machines and mechanisms. However, to meet the demands of rapidly developing industry, transport, agriculture and military affairs, mechanical engineering had to change qualitatively and quantitatively.
By the beginning of the 20th century. the largest part of mechanical engineering enterprises was concentrated in England, Germany, the USA and Belgium. The total cost of machines manufactured in these countries from 1888 to 1898 increased in England from 123.2 million rubles. gold up to 171.6 million rubles, in Germany from 26.9 million rubles. to 64.7 million rubles, in the USA and Belgium these figures more than doubled and amounted to 56.9 million rubles in 1898, respectively. and 24.8 million rubles. gold.
Based on the nature of their products, machine-building enterprises of this period should be divided into two groups. The first included enterprises that produced steam engines and boilers, textile and metalworking machines. These were factories that specialized in the production of machines and mechanisms for one purpose.
The second group included enterprises that manufactured machines and mechanisms for various purposes. These factories produced, along with steam engines, textile and metal-cutting machines, other equipment and instruments for industry, transport, agriculture and military affairs. These were universal machine-building enterprises.
The development of mechanical engineering was accompanied by increasing specialization of production. At machine-building enterprises, specialization spread to sections and workshops. All this affected the increase in quantity, improvement of quality of machinery and equipment, and increase in labor productivity.
“In order to increase the productivity of human labor, aimed, for example, at the production of some piece of the entire product, it is necessary,” noted V. I. Lenin, “that the production of this piece be specialized, become a special production dealing with a mass product and therefore allowing (and causing) the use of machines, etc.” .
The development of mechanical engineering during this period was characterized by a gradual transition from individual to small-scale production, and somewhat later to serial, large-scale, and then mass production.
The logical conclusion of the process of specialization of factories, workshops and sections was the specialization of the metalworking equipment itself. The narrow focus of the equipment not only contributed to an increase in its productivity, but also created the prerequisites for mass production of products with subsequent automation of the technological process itself.
Thus, a characteristic feature of the development of mechanical engineering in the last third of the 19th and early 20th centuries. There was a transition from universal to specialized metalworking machines.
The machine park of the enterprises has turned into a system of various high-performance machines. The most complex equipment, instruments, various products and devices were produced using machines. Mechanical engineering became the basis of industrial production.
Along with the specialization of production and equipment, there was a process of specialization of mechanical engineering itself. He expressed himself in identifying its various industries (metallurgical, transport, agricultural, etc.), in which the most visible results of the transition of enterprises to the production of mass products were observed.
The transition to standardized, high-performance, mass, continuous production in mechanical engineering became possible on the basis of the specialization of metalworking machines, the expansion of types of equipment with the widespread use of individual electric motors.
Machine tool industry. The rapid development of mechanical engineering was associated, first of all, with the rapid growth of machine tool industry - the basis for the production of machines by machines. Here important role The modernization of the mechanical support of the lathe and its use in an improved form on other machines played a role.
In the 70-90s. XIX century The palm in the production of new types of machine tools goes to American enterprises, which have mastered the production of not only all the main types of metal-cutting machines: lathes, drilling, milling, planing and grinding, but also launched the production of specialized types of machines that were intended to perform one or more operations: turning-turret, turning-head, turning-boring, radial-drilling, horizontal-boring, longitudinal-planing, longitudinal and rotary-milling, cylindrical grinding, gear hobbing, gear shaping, gear planing, etc.
The differentiation of machine types according to the nature of technological operations created the necessary conditions for the emergence of automation.
In 1873 in the USA, on the basis of a turret lathe, X. Spencer created the first automatic lathe. In the 70-90s. Johnson semi-automatic machines for bar work and Cleveland system automatic machines, which had devices for cutting threads, drilling holes and milling four planes, were widely used. The first multi-spindle automatic machines appeared, which made it possible to significantly speed up the manufacturing process and increase the accuracy of processing parts.
The widespread use of tools made of high-speed steel and hard alloys has made it possible to create high-speed machines.
Standardized, mass, continuous production of machines required increased precision in the manufacture of products and mechanisms. In 1851, the English engineer and entrepreneur Joseph Whitworth (1803-1887) designed the first high-precision measuring machine, which made it possible to measure workpieces with an accuracy of hundredths and thousandths of a millimeter. He also developed a system of standard gauges that allowed for high precision fitting of parts. By 1880-1890 Whitworth's measuring instruments became widespread in machine-building factories in Europe and America. At his factory, Whitworth pioneered the standardization and interchangeability of screw threads. This marked the beginning of the widespread use of standardized parts, mechanisms and machines.
There was no mass production of metal-cutting machines in Russia. Basically, the machines were produced in separate factories for their own needs or were manufactured in small batches according to orders. In 1875, Russia's machine park was 90% of foreign origin. This situation continued until the outbreak of the First World War. Even such large enterprises as the Bromley brothers and Phoenix factories produced machine tools in the amount of 35-40% of the total output of the enterprise.
Causes underdevelopment machine tool industry in the country lay in the weak metallurgical base of Russia, the lack of incentives for the development of machine tool industry, the duty-free import of machine tools from abroad, as well as the shortage of experienced machine tool workers.
However, such large factories as Nevsky, Motovilikha (Perm), Nobel, Bromley brothers, etc., produced machines of their own design: lathes, drilling, boring and planing.
In 1874, the Nobel plant in St. Petersburg produced a milling machine for processing curved surfaces and cutting wheel teeth. In the 80s designer S.S. Stepanov manufactured an original combined metal-cutting machine designed for mobile railway workshops. It was possible to turn, plane, mill and drill parts on it. Stepanov’s machines were even exported to the USA, Germany and France.
At the end XIX - early XX century At the Kharkov Locomotive Plant, universal radial drilling and slotting-drilling-milling machines of an original design were created.
Limited mechanical transmission capabilities. The method of energy transmission inherited from the time of the industrial revolution was to connect transmissions large quantity working machines with a steam engine. How cumbersome and complicated this method has acquired end of the 19th century V. clearly shown in the story “Moloch” by A. I. Kuprin, already known to us:
“Leather drives descended from the ceiling there from a thick steel rod that ran through the entire barn, and set in motion two or three hundred machines of various sizes and styles. There were so many of these drives, and they crossed in so many directions, that they gave the impression of one continuous, tangled and trembling belt network. The wheels of some machines rotated at a speed of twenty revolutions per second, while the movement of others was so slow that it was almost invisible to the eye.”
The process of concentration and centralization of production was accompanied by the consolidation of industrial enterprises, in particular machine-building enterprises, as well as the acceleration of the work of the machine system used in them. The consumption of energy supplied by thermal power plants of factories increased more and more, and the increase in the cost of obtaining energy gave an ever smaller increase in production output. This was caused primarily by growing energy losses during its transmission from steam engines to working (in this case, metalworking) machines in the presence of mechanical transmissions.
From the second half of the 19th century V. designers in different countries tried to rationalize and improve individual components of mechanical transmissions. However, in general, energy losses still increased as enterprises and the fleet of working machines increased, especially after they began to move to mass, continuous production. The problem was solved after the transition to an electrical method of transmitting and distributing mechanical energy.
Metallurgy. The rapidly growing factory system of machines placed an ever-increasing demand for metals. The previous period was called the “age of steam, iron and coal.” The new stage of technological development is increasingly becoming the “age of electricity, steel and oil.” The system of machines in industrial production branches was made mainly of steel and partly of cast iron. Industry has also increased demand for non-ferrous metals, which play a special role in electrical engineering. The second insatiable consumer of ferrous metals was railway transport. The third, a particularly generous customer, who, unlike the first two, was almost not influenced economic crises, there was a military industry.
Hence the rapid development of metallurgy and mining during the period under review.
Metallurgical technology has made enormous strides both in the blast furnace process and in the processing of cast iron into steel. The open-hearth process has been improved.
Along with the open-hearth and Bessemer methods of steel production, in 1878 the English inventors S. J. Thomas (1850-1885) and P. Gilchrist (1851-1935) introduced a new method for producing cast steel by processing phosphorous cast iron in a converter with a refractory lining, the so-called Tom-Sovo method. “It is remarkable that Thomas (1878) invented, instead of the Bessemer method of iron extraction, the basic or Thomas method1. This method gave Germany an advantage, because it consists in freeing the ore from phosphorus, and in Germany iron ore is rich in phosphorus (NB),” wrote V.I. Lenin.
First of all, it was about the use of Lorraine ores with phosphorus impurities by German metallurgists.
All this ensured rapid growth in steel production: from the 70s. XIX century By 1900, steel production in the world increased almost 17 times, and continuously outpaced the production of cast iron. A significant part of the steel was obtained not from cast iron, but from metal scrap (scrap), which accumulated in huge quantities in industrialized countries.
Requests from the military industry, mechanical engineering, and toolmaking forced persistent research into the properties and methods of producing high-quality and alloyed: carbon, silicon, nickel, manganese, chromium, tungsten and other steels, as well as various ferroalloys (iron alloys with other elements).
In 1898, Americans Taylor and White invented a steel that retained its cutting properties at high cutting speeds. The use of high-speed steel cutters made it possible to increase the cutting speed by 5 times. The invention of hard alloys, which included molybdenum, chromium, tungsten, silicon, and manganese, contributed to increasing the hardness and wear resistance of cutting tools.
In 1907, Haynes (England) patented a hard alloy made of cast carbides - “stallite”.
The need to develop new varieties of high-quality and alloy steel and ferroalloys, on the one hand, and the successes of electrical engineering, on the other, led to the creation of electrometallurgy.
In the 70s XIX century German chemist Werner Siemens (1823-1883) designed an arc furnace that could be used to melt steel. Further improvement of arc furnaces (1890) is associated with the names of N. G. Slavyanov and French chemist A. Moissan (1852-1907): The latter created an electric arc furnace in 1892, which became widespread in chemical and metallurgical technology. Then (at the end of the 90s) arc furnaces were introduced by P. Heroux (France), E. Stassano (Italy) and other inventors. In 1902-1906. electric furnaces of a different design appeared - induction.
At the beginning of the 20th century. engineer V.P. Izhevsky (1863-1926) built a small electric melting furnace in the workshops of the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute. However, it was not widely used. Industrial production of electric steel in Russia began in 1909 at the Obukhov plant, where P. Héroux electric arc furnaces were used.
In 1886-1888. C. M. Hall (USA) and P. Heroux developed an electrolytic method for producing aluminum, which was a prerequisite for the increasingly widespread use of this metal.
The inventors' patent applications did not contain accurate description this method. Therefore, the search for ways to produce aluminum continued. In 1892, the Canadian Wilson, bypassing all patents, tried to develop a non-electrolytic process using calcium instead of sodium. By fusing limestone and coal in an electric furnace, Wilson discovered calcium carbide, which, when reacted with water, forms acetylene. This discovery had great value. In 1883, electrolysis of a molten medium was also used to obtain magnesium. Copper production methods have also improved significantly.
Russian engineer N.A. Iossa (1845-1916) in the early 80s. proposed the use of processing copper ingots in a Bessemer converter. Work on obtaining copper from matte in converters was continued by A. A. Auerbach, who proposed placing tuyeres on the side of the converter.
Even in the previous period, in 1826, P. G. Sobolevsky (1782-1841) and V. V. Lyubarsky (1795-1854) developed a method for pressing and sintering platinum powder. This was the birth of powder metallurgy. It received a new development at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when a method was developed for making filaments from tungsten metal powder for lighting lamps. This method is widely used all over the world today.
In 1909, the idea was expressed about the possibility of using porous metal-ceramic materials and products, but the use of filters and porous bearings in industry began only in the late 20s. of our century.
Foundry technology. Development of foundry production in 1870-1917. stimulated by an increase in the smelting of iron and steel and the mass production of mechanical engineering products. With the increase in the need for casting, the use of shaft blast iron furnaces - cupolas - expanded, which made it possible to ensure a continuous, for several days, iron production process.
The development of mechanical engineering and the ever-increasing need for mass production of similar products have led to changes in molding technology. Instead of slow molding, in which a clay one-piece model or mold was prepared for each casting, they began to use rapid molding using split flasks and models. This method turned out to be more productive, although it was done manually.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Manual molding was replaced by molding machines (presses, sandblasting devices, etc.), which made it possible not only to mechanize foundries, but also to create mechanized foundries (Westinghouse in the USA, etc.).
In terms of foundry production volume, the leading positions were occupied by the USA, Germany and England. Russia was in fourth place in the world.
In general, Russian foundry technology lagged significantly behind Western ones. The equipment was primitive and low-power. The existing mechanisms were powered by a steam engine, and transportation of products was carried out manually.
At the same time, in Russia there were separate foundries for the production of large-scale and mass batches of products. These included the foundries of the Lyubertsy Agricultural Engineering Plant and the Podolsk Sewing Machine Plant (Singer). At these enterprises, the organization of the technological process was not inferior to Western European and American factories.
Highly skilled workers and craftsmen worked in foundries and workshops. Russian foundry scientists made a great contribution to the development of world foundry production.
In 1899, the molder of the Putilov plant N.V. Melnikov for the first time cast a steel rolling roll weighing about 30 tons.
In 1900, at the World Exhibition in Paris, an openwork cast iron pavilion produced by the Kasli Art Casting Plant received a high award.
Blacksmithing technology. Transport development, various branches of mechanical engineering, and military affairs stimulated the growth of forging production, the improvement and development of forging equipment. During this period, steam hammers and hydraulic presses began to occupy the main place among the tools of forging production.
Blanks for making forgings were heated in special furnaces. For a long time, a stone forge with side blast was used. At the end of the 19th century. cast iron forges with bottom blast of an improved type appeared, which made it possible to regulate the strength of the fire depending on the size of the workpieces. It had great importance for large-scale and mass production.
The billets heated in the forges entered the forge. The most common forging tools at this time were steam hammers. Various systems steam hammers (Nesmith, Morrison, Condie, etc.) differed from each other in their steam distribution systems, frame, steam cylinder design, etc. The most widespread was the steam hammer of J. Nesmith, designed back in 1839 and subsequently improved.
At the Motovilikha (Perm), Obukhov plants and at the Krupp plant in Westphalia in 1870-1873. 50-ton steam hammers were built. Particularly remarkable was the Motovi-Likha hammer, built according to the design of the talented Russian engineer N.V. Vorontsov (1833-1893). In 1873, the hammer1 of this hammer weighing 650 tons was cast. A large working model of the hammer was demonstrated in the same year at the Vienna World Exhibition. At that time, this hammer was a perfect, highly mechanized design that combined enormous power with ease of control and operation2.
Later in Western Europe More powerful steam hammers were also built at some factories, and in 1891 a hammer weighing 125 tons was even installed in the USA.
However, the work of huge heavy hammers caused shaking of buildings, required large foundations, bulky workpieces, caused deformation of workpieces, made it difficult to use instrumentation, and complicated the mechanization of auxiliary work.
From 1885-1886 hydraulic presses began to be installed. The advantages of the presses were simplicity of operation, independence of pressure from the thickness of the forging, precision of compression, and the ability to manufacture products from cast iron. The disadvantage of the presses was that they were slow-moving. Therefore, it was unprofitable to use them for the production of small and medium-sized forgings. Hydraulic presses were used mainly for forging large ingots. Steam hammers were used to produce small and medium-sized forgings.
For the manufacture of more precise products in large-scale and mass production, stamping began to be used. The dies, which consisted of two parts: a matrix and a punch, were produced on drilling, turning, milling and boring machines. The productivity of stamping was 8-10 times higher than forging.
The growing demand for forging products has led to the emergence of specialized forging shops. Machine-building plants had one or more forging shops, which provided the main production with blanks.
Production of rolled products. After the development of the Bessemer steel smelting process, which made it possible to produce ingots weighing a ton or more, significant changes occurred in rolling production technology. Metallurgical plants now have more productive trio rolling mills (three-roll rolling mills) with improved lifting tables for feeding the ingot from the lower to the upper pair of rolls. Two-roll (duo) and four-roll rolling mills were also used (the latter were used for the production of small grade iron and wire). All rolling mills were powered by steam engines.
Since the 70s XIX century Due to the rapid development of railway transport, the demand for steel rails has increased. In Russia, the first steel rail plant was built by N. I. Putilov in 1874. The technology for the production of steel rails was vividly described by A. I. Kuprin in the story “Moloch”:
“A huge block of hot metal passed through a whole series of machines, rolling from one to another along rollers that rotated under the floor, visible on its surface only with its very top part. The block was squeezed into the hole formed by two steel cylinders spinning in different directions, and crawled between them, causing them to rattle and tremble from tension. Next, a machine with an even smaller hole between the cylinders awaited him. After each machine, a piece of steel was made thinner and longer and, after running back and forth across the rail-rolling machine several times, it little by little took the shape of a ten-fathom red rail. The complex movement of sixteen machines was controlled by just one person, located above the steam engine...”1
By the end of the 19th century. production of pipes and sheet iron was established. The technology of rolling armor plates has also improved. The broiler rolling mill of the Krupp plant in Essen was very famous, on which it was possible to roll slabs over 8 m in length and 3 m in width. In Russia, armor was manufactured at the Obukhov and Kolpino factories.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Rolling mills powered by steam engines were electrified. In 1897, an electric motor was first used in a rolling mill in Western Europe.
By this time, the construction of the first blooming mills - rolling mills for compressing square steel ingots and the beginning of the use of continuous rolling mills.
Metal welding. Until the 80s XIX century The dominant method of joining metals was forge or forge welding. It consisted of heating products in a forge and forging them at the joint. However, primitive methods of joining metals no longer satisfied the increased needs of large-scale machine production and developing transport. It was necessary to find effective ways of joining metals, which made it possible to quickly and cheaply not only produce new machines, but also repair broken ones.
This method of joining and cutting metals was proposed by the outstanding Russian inventor N. N. Benardos (1842-1905). In 1882, he developed and practically used an electric arc for welding metals, which was excited between a carbon electrode and the workpiece. Benardos developed technologies for electric arc welding, butt welding, lap welding, rivet welding and resistance spot welding. He called this method of welding “electrohephaestus” (in honor of Hephaestus, the ancient Greek god of fire and blacksmithing).
In 1898, engineer N. G. Slavyanov (1854-1897) improved the Benardos electric arc welding method. Instead of a carbon electrode, he used the method of hot welding with a metal electrode. The name of N. G. Slavyanov is associated with the invention and widespread use of the world's first electric welding machines, which have found wide recognition not only in Russia, but also far beyond its borders.
The use of electric arc welding has significantly increased labor productivity, reduced the weight of products, and made it possible to repair machine parts that were previously beyond repair. A significant advantage of this method was the ability to carry out repair work without disassembling the machines. Electric arc welding ensured the tightness of the resulting seam, which was necessary in the construction of ships, steam boilers, pipelines, etc.
However, electric arc welding methods also had their disadvantages, which consisted mainly in the low strength of the welds.
At the beginning of the 20th century. French scientists and engineers developed a method of acetylene-oxygen welding. Gas welding at that time provided welds with higher strength than electric arc welding. The portability and low cost of welding equipment ensured this method became widespread.
At the end of the 19th century. Thermite welding began to be used for welding rail joints and the ends of electrical wires. In thermite welding, powdered flammable mixtures of aluminum or magnesium with thermite iron scale were used for heating.
Mining engineering. Mining technology of the period under review was characterized by a transition from manual mining to machine mining using steam and then electrical energy. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. the conditions for the transition to widespread oil production were prepared.
Extraction of solid minerals. The development of heavy industry and, above all, metallurgy placed increasing demands on mining. The production of solid minerals - coal and ores - has increased sharply. World coal production increased from 213 million tons in 1870 to 1342 million tons in 1913. D. I. Mendeleev, who devoted a number of studies to mining and metallurgical production, wrote in the late 80s. XIX century: “Fuel, and especially coal in our time, constitute the first - after people - condition for the entire industrial development of every country and every part of it... Coal fuel determines the entire industrial, and from it the entire world power Great Britain". The scientist believed that the huge reserves of coal in our country, which “are not developed and are still not properly understood by few people,” are an important prerequisite for the future industrial development of Russia1.
According to data cited by Mendeleev in another article, in the early 80s. In the UK, 147 million tons of coal were produced, in the USA - 70 million tons, in Germany -59 million tons2.
Noting that the cost of annual global gold production is “10 times less than the price of coal mined annually,” the scientist writes with bitter irony: “The gold produced is far from enough to cover European annual peacetime military expenditures alone, because they reach 1,700 million rubles. The sums of the cost of coal can even cover expenses similar to military ones”3.
Ore production also increased sharply. If in 1870 30 million tons were received, then in 1913 - about 177 million tons.
In the 70s XIX century Mining was still carried out manually.
Since 1863, when the drilling machine (perforator) was first used in mines, many rotary hammers have been invented various designs(percussion, rotational). Further improvement of drilling machines went in the direction of supplying them with hydraulic and pneumatic drives. IN the latter case Compressed air from the compressor was supplied through pipes to the face and supplied through a hose to the breaker tool.
In parallel with the creation and improvement of drilling machines with hydraulic and pneumatic pipelines in the late 70s. Electrically driven drilling machines began to appear.
In the 70-80s. The first tunneling machines are created.
In 1897, Georg Leiner developed a portable hammer drill (jackhammer), which became widely used in mines and mines in many countries around the world.
By the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The first projects of mining machines also included.
In 1893, the inventor A.K. Kaleri in Russia developed a design for a machine called the “Zemleroy”. It was used for digging tunnels with a diameter of 25 m and mining coal and ore.
In 1907-1908 a tradesman from the city of Ust-Izhora F.A. Polyakov-Kovtunov received six patents, including for a tunneling machine for earthworks, an “earth-cutting” machine, and for an elevator-conveyor.
However, neither the miners nor the Mining Department provided the necessary financial assistance to the inventors. The projects of A.K. Kaleri and F.A. Polyakov-Kovtunov were not implemented.
In 1913, according to the project of the American engineer I. S. Morgan, the Morgan-Jeffrey mining machines began to be produced, but in practice they turned out to be of little use and were discontinued.
For almost two centuries since the beginning of the use of explosives in mines, black powder was the only explosive used in mining technology.
In 1862, the Swedish scientist and engineer A. B. Nobel proposed nitroglycerin as an explosive." The explosive power of nitroglycerin was 13 times greater than gunpowder. However, the use of liquid nitroglycerin turned out to be dangerous.
The problem of creating a relatively safe and easy-to-handle explosive has worried many scientists.
In 1890, based on the research of D.I. Mendeleev, explosive gelatin was invented, which became the main component in the production of gelatin dynamites.
The use of new types of equipment in mining and the use of explosives, which sharply increased the productivity of mineral extraction, raised the issue of creating special highly efficient devices for the mechanical transportation of minerals and rock. Along with belt conveyors (conveyors) at the beginning of the 20th century. in mining, pneumatic scraper conveyors began to be used, and later scraper conveyors with an electric motor.
In the mines of Germany, England and other countries, swinging conveyors have become widespread.
Closely related to the issue of mechanization of transportation were the issues of mechanization of mine hoisting. In the previous period, the main means of lifting in shallow mines were manual gates, and in deep mines - horse gates.
Further improvement of lifting mechanisms consisted of replacing horse-drawn gates with steam-powered lifting machines. In the 60-70s. XIX century these machines began to be used everywhere. The first steam hoisting machine in Russia was installed in 1860 and provided lifting of 30 tons of coal per day. Steam lifting machines made it possible to increase the productivity of mine lifting (delivery) to 300 tons per day, which was many times higher than the productivity of a horse-drawn winch.
Since the 90s Electric lifting machines began to operate in the mining industry. The first such machine was used in 1891 in Germany.
In Russia, electric lifting machines began to be used from the end of the 19th century. By 1915, 61 electric hoists were already operating in the Krivoy Rog basin.
Electric lifting machines have greatly increased lifting capacity and increased lifting speed.
The operation of mine workings, especially deep ones, has long been associated with the danger of releasing firedamp (methane) and coal dust, which are susceptible to fire and explosions1.
Many disasters in mines forced entrepreneurs to pay attention to the need to ensure the safety of workers, in particular to more efficient ventilation of mines.
The first mechanical centrifugal fan was invented by engineer A. A. Sablukov (1783-1857) in 1832. However, mass production of these fans was not established in Russia.
Further improvement of ventilation is associated with the use of a steam engine drive. The most common at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. there were fans of the Guibal system. Their main disadvantage is their large dimensions (from 5 to 12 m in diameter).
In the 90s XIX century Along with steam ones, cheaper and less demanding electric fans began to be used, designed by Seurat, Rato, Genette-Gerscher, etc.
Until the beginning of the 20th century. Piston pumps were used to pump water out of mines. At first, steam engines served as engines for them. Pneumatic and hydraulic piston pumps were also used. In the last decade XIX V. piston pumps began to be driven by electric motors.
In 1898, the French academician O. Rato invented the first multi-wheel centrifugal pump, which began to displace piston pumps. Centrifugal pumps powered by an electric motor were more powerful and efficient. The Rato centrifugal pump supplied 250 m3 of water to a height of over 500 m.
In the 70s XIX century To illuminate mines, candles and lamps filled with kerosene, oil or lard were used everywhere (the “God Help”, “Cockerel” lamps). Since the 80s Electricity began to be used for constant lighting. In 1880, the French inventor G. Trouvé demonstrated a portable electric lamp that operated using galvanic batteries or accumulators. However, these lamps are not widely used due to their high cost and heavy weight of power supplies.
In 1896, the head was developed in America electric lamp, operating from a portable electric battery by T. Edison. These lamps have become widely used throughout the world.
The problem of underground coal gasification. In 1888, D.I. Mendeleev put forward the idea of underground gasification of coal: “Probably, over time, even such an era will come when coal will not be taken out of the ground, but there, in the ground, they will be able to turn it into flammable gases and they will be transported through pipes.” distribute over long distances"1. In 1912, the English chemist and physicist William Ramsay (Ramsay) (1852-1916) put forward a similar idea and was preparing to implement it, but the first World War prevented this.
The idea of underground gasification of coal aroused great interest of V.I. Lenin, who dedicated the article “One of the Great Victories of Technology” (1913) to it: “One of the great problems of modern technology is thus nearing resolution. The revolution that its decision will cause is enormous.”2 Lenin associated this achievement in mining with a sharp reduction in the cost of electricity and electrification of all sectors of production and everyday life. But at the same time he emphasized that under capitalism this technical achievement will have negative consequences for workers: “Under capitalism, the “liberation” of the labor of millions of miners engaged in coal mining will inevitably give rise to mass unemployment, a huge increase in poverty, and a deterioration in the situation of workers. And the profits from the great invention will be pocketed by the Morgans, Rockefellers, Ryabushinskys, Morozovs...”
Oil production. Until the 70s. XIX century Oil consumption was insignificant, so world production of this mineral increased slowly. In 1870, world oil production amounted to 700 thousand tons. The widespread use of steam engines, internal combustion engines, and the construction of thermal power plants immeasurably increased the consumption of oil and petroleum products. By 1901, world oil production reached 22.5 million tons, and by 1913 it increased to 52.3 million tons per year.
The increase in demand for oil and petroleum products has brought to life new technology oil production. The well mining method was no longer satisfactory. needed new way. This was the drilling of wells, developed in the previous period.
The most important task The mechanization of drilling operations was successfully solved in Russia by mining engineer G. D. Romanovsky. In 1859, he first used a steam engine in drilling, which by the end of the 70s. has become widespread.
WITH the greatest effect The steam engine began to be used for rotary drilling. In 1889, in the USA, Chapman created the first such installation.
Along with rotary units, in which the entire column of pipes rotated, the development of downhole motors began, which were placed directly at the bit.
In 1878, Alfred Branly in Belgium and in 1883, George Westinghouse in the USA, tried to create such an engine. However, their inventions were not successful.
This problem was solved in Russia by engineers K. G. Simchenko and P. V. Valitsky. In 1890 and 1898 they created downhole motors - turbodrills.
By the end of the 70s. XIX century This includes the first attempts to create electric drills. In 1879, Werner Siemens tried to use electric current to drive a drilling machine. In 1885, J. Westinghouse repeated this attempt. In 1891, the Dutchman Van Depel and the American Marvin designed electric hammer drills. A patent for the invention of the first electric drill belongs to the Russian engineer V.N. Delov, who created such a machine in 1899. In 1912, the Romanian engineer Cantili used an electric drill of his own design for drilling wells.
By the end of the 19th century. include the first attempts to extract oil from the bottom of the sea. In 1897, the drilling of shallow underwater wells began in the USA (California).
In 1896, mining engineer Zglenitsky, and in 1898 Lebedev, proposed a method of offshore drilling from drilling rigs on piles.
Along with the improvement of well drilling, methods for lifting oil also developed. In the previous period, a bailer was used (a narrow metal vessel up to 6 m long). The bailer was lowered into the well, filled with oil, and raised to the surface manually or with the help of horse traction. This was an inefficient, difficult and fire-hazardous method of extracting oil.
In 1865, engineer Ivanitsky proposed the use of a deep piston pump, which was driven manually, by horse traction or by a steam engine.
In the 70s XIX century the outstanding Russian inventor V.G. Shukhov (1853-1939) proposed using compressed air to lift oil (airlift). However, the reluctance of entrepreneurs to introduce improvements in oil industry slowed down the introduction of this invention. In 1886, V. G. Shukhov’s proposal was supported by D. I. Mendeleev. In 1897, V. G. Shukhov’s invention was finally tested in Baku.
In 1914, M. M. Tikhvinsky invented gas lift - a method of extracting oil from wells using compressed gas.
By the beginning of the 20th century. the oil and oil refining industry has acquired a large economic and military significance and became the object of the struggle of the largest national and transnational monopolistic associations.
V.I. Lenin in his work “Imperialism, as the highest stage of capitalism” traces in detail the struggle, “... which in economic literature is called the struggle for the “division of the world”, between the American oil (“kerosene”) trust of Rockefeller “Standard Oil” company" and "the owners of Russian Baku oil, Rothschild and Nobel." Lenin notes that the monopoly position of both closely related companies was threatened by the Shell company and the Deutsche Bank and other German financial groups that supported it, who sought to take control of the oil fields in Romania and Russia. The matter ended in victory for the Rockefeller company. Her opponents had to retreat
The basis of the economy and industrial development of any country is mechanical engineering. At the same time, heavy engineering occupies a special place in the structure of social production, determining the industrial potential and technological safety countries. The focus on the export of raw materials has led to catastrophic consequences for the Russian engineering industry. Over the course of many years of modern reform, the state's economic policy has contributed to the weakening of the engineering industry and the increasing dependence of the Russian economy on the country's raw materials sector.
Fig.1. Dynamics of import-export indicators of heavy engineering products
In this regard, the measures taken by the Government in recent years to improve the economy are being carried out under extremely unfavorable conditions. The share of domestic manufacturers in the market for heavy engineering products continues to decline due to growing import volumes (Fig. 1).
At the same time, the production capacity utilization of Russian enterprises does not exceed 30%. This is partly due to the significant degree of depreciation of fixed assets (43.2%), the share of completely worn out fixed assets reaches 13.4%.
As a result, in the heavy engineering industry there is a significant imbalance between the demand for engineering products and the production capacity of domestic manufacturers.
The situation on the global metallurgical equipment market for domestic machine builders is even less favorable (Fig. 2 and 3).
Fig.2. Production of equipment for metallurgy in the world Fig. 3. Leading equipment manufacturing companies
(2010) metallurgy, $ billion. (2010)
Fig.4. Dynamics of production, export and domestic consumption
An example of a reasonable approach to the development of the country's industrial potential is shown by the People's Republic of China, which has seen a rapid growth in the share of engineering products practically from scratch. This allows China to occupy a tough competitive position in the global equipment market, including metallurgical equipment.
Changes in production and consumption volumes of metallurgical equipment are shown in Fig. 4.
It should be noted that the need for metallurgical equipment is partly reduced due to objective reasons: in recent years, on the basis of imported equipment, large-scale modernization of the main metallurgical enterprises has been carried out and the need for equipment is reduced to components, replacement and spare parts.
At the same time, the demand for domestic metallurgical equipment is largely affected by factors such as the lack of an effective marketing policy, working capital and financial support from the state.
Share of domestic enterprises in production volumes individual species metallurgical equipment varies significantly (Fig. 5):
Fig.5. Shares of domestic enterprises in the market in 2011-2012
If most of the new sintering equipment is produced in Russia, then as we move to other metallurgical processes with higher added value, the share of imports increases and amounts to about 90% in rolling and pipe rolling equipment.
A significant part of the import of engineering products is made up of rolling rolls and forging equipment.
The situation in the field of creating high-tech forging and pressing equipment could change significantly with the creation of a domestic heavy-duty universal press with a force of 80 thousand tons, the design of which was carried out at VNIIMETMASH, taking into account the experience of creating the largest in the world with a force of 65 and 75 thousand tons (Fig. 6).
Fig.6 a, b. Unique pressing equipment
Fig.7. Gazostat
However, its production and development requires the mobilization of significant resources and close coordination of the efforts of many organizations with effective support from the state.
A similar situation is observed in the export of metal products and metallurgical equipment - products with low added value predominate.
Exceptions include the high-tech cold rolling mills for critical precision pipes developed and manufactured by VNIIMETMASH, which are in steady demand abroad, as well as modern high-tech isostatic equipment.
In recent years alone, 24 similar mills have been manufactured, mainly for foreign countries. Currently, work is underway to create mills for rolling pipes of the roller and roller type of a new, already sixth generation.
Unique gasostats, classified as dual-use products, have recently been supplied to Russia, Ukraine and India (via Rosoboronexport) (Fig. 7).
The presence of significant scientific and technical potential of domestic machine builders was convincingly confirmed during the creation of a modern metallurgical mini-plant in the city of Yartsevo, Smolensk region. (Fig. 8).
Fig.8. Equipment of the foundry and rolling plant in Yartsevo:
a) rolling of construction reinforcement; b) production of steel from an arc furnace
The products manufactured by the plant - high-quality construction fittings - not only meet the needs of the Moscow region, but are also in demand abroad. Integrated design, manufacturing and supply of equipment were organized by VNIIMETMSH with the involvement of traditional partners, mainly from Russia and Ukraine. When creating the equipment, a number of the latest progressive technologies were developed technical solutions. The experience of creating and developing a casting and rolling complex is a good scientific and technical basis for creating a series of similar enterprises in Russia and abroad.
Thus, the domestic heavy engineering industry still has significant scientific and technical potential that is in demand, which was preserved in extremely difficult conditions, but, unfortunately, is not properly used.
Further trends in the metallurgical equipment market will be determined by the situation in the metallurgical industry, which is predicted to experience moderate growth in the long term. Competition between domestic and foreign manufacturers will continue to remain intense. Advantages in the competitive struggle will be given to those enterprises whose products meet ever-increasing requirements for productivity, technological capabilities, efficiency and environmental performance.
General systemic problem mechanical engineering lies in the incompleteness of the cycle innovative development industry, including scientific development, development work, production and operation of pilot industrial samples, mass production, sales and support for the operation of products by consumers. Under the terms of this cycle, financial resources received from selling products and supporting their operation must be used in the necessary and sufficient amounts to finance technical re-equipment and long-term development of enterprises, primarily for carrying out scientific research to create competitive equipment. Currently, our own working capital is clearly not enough to carry out exploration work and create promising innovative developments. The institute's products are used in metallurgy, oil and gas, aerospace and defense complexes, nuclear energy, construction industry, transport, electrical engineering, automotive, machine tool, mining, agriculture, instrument making, medicine and other fields.
The most important activity of VNIIMETMASH is the export of equipment and engineering, the products of which are exported to many countries around the world, including countries such as the USA, Japan, Germany, France, China, India, the Republic of Korea, Italy.
On the initiative of VNIIMETMASH, a International Union manufacturers of metallurgical equipment, one of the main tasks of which is to combine production and intellectual potential. practical efforts of metallurgical and machine-building plants in the field of innovative infrastructure, modernization of production, international industrial cooperation.
The energy and fuel prerequisites outlined above, subject to their implementation, make it possible to approach the solution of one of the most responsible and difficult tasks long-term plan - towards the accelerated development of metallurgical production and mechanical engineering in our country. It is no coincidence that the level of advanced industrial countries is measured primarily by the state of their metallurgical and machine-building industries. It is no coincidence that the most intense attention is focused on the problems of metal in our national economic plans and in our economic construction. Metallurgy and mechanical engineering in the projected five-year period will be the most important section of the plan, on the strengthening of which maximum resources and enormous efforts should be concentrated.
That is why out of the total amount of 11.8 billion rubles. according to the starting point and 13.5 billion rubles. on the optimal option for capital investments in industry 3.5 billion rubles are allocated for metallurgy and mechanical engineering. according to the starting point and 4 billion rubles. according to the optimal plan option, i.e. the highest investments from all industrial sectors, including electrical construction . This scope of capital investments is based on the country's estimated need for metals at 9.8 million tons in 1932/33, against approximately 4 million tons of demand for the current year. These calculations, with all their conditionality and with all the amendments that will have to be made in the real course of life, still with sufficient reliability determine the need for cast iron for the entire five-year period at 32.7 million tons, for rolled steel at 31.5 million tons, for rails - 3.2 million tons, for high-quality iron - 14.1 million tons, sheet iron - 4.2 million tons, roofing iron - 3.1 million tons, etc. Full coverage of this need for cast iron and covering it with other types of metal within 80-95% is possible only with a metal production program that is based on the production of cast iron in the last year of the five-year period, 10 million tons, i.e. almost tripling metal production compared to 1927/28 .
This determines the construction program in ferrous metallurgy. Both versions of the plan are based on the need, already in the current five-year period, to implement a construction program that, upon completion, will provide 10 million tons of annual output of pig iron. The difference in options refers to the timing of this grandiose construction and the real supply of metal, which can be taken into account in the national economic balance of the last year of the five-year period. The starting option is based on the receipt of 8 million tons of cast iron in the last year of the five-year period, the optimal option is from the full 10 million tons. Accordingly, plans are planned real objects construction, the timing of their implementation and the size of capital investments.
The solution to this metallurgical problem in the next five years is inevitable goes two ways - through extensive reconstruction of existing metallurgical enterprises in both decisive metallurgical regions of the country (in Ukraine and the Urals) and through the large construction of new metallurgical plants with the inclusion of new areas - the Kerch Peninsula and the Kuznetsk basin.
The post-war experience of Germany, which is closely watched by all advanced capitalist countries, convinces us of the possibility of significantly increasing the productivity of metallurgical plants through more thorough preparation production process(ore beneficiation, proper selection of coke, more advanced preparation of the charge in general). This fairly proven path opens up the possibility, with appropriate reconstruction of existing metallurgical plants, to bring their production to 6.7 million tons according to the starting option and 7.4 million tons according to the optimal option, with the fact that for the plants of Ukraine (including here, first of all, Kerch) production will be raised from 2.4 million tons in 1927/28 to 5.0 million tons in the last year of the five-year period, and at Ural plants from 0.7 million tons to 1.4 million tons and at the rest to 0.3 million tons. Such expansion of production of existing metallurgical plants will require construction of 12-15 new blast furnaces in Ukraine in five years with an annual furnace productivity of 180-200 thousand tons (not counting reconstructed furnaces) and a corresponding expansion of blast furnace production in the general reconstruction of factories. As a result The annual productivity of the blast furnace on average in Yugostal increases from 85 thousand tons in the current year to 125 thousand tons in 1932/33 . For the Urals this means construction on existing plants, approximately 10 blast furnaces with a capacity of 180 thousand tons of annual furnace productivity (mineral fuel) with full mechanization of supply on large units, i.e., a type completely new for the Ural metallurgy.
The total cost of this reconstruction of existing metallurgical plants (including the necessary preparation of the ore base and the organization of coke production) is also extremely difficult task the upcoming five-year period) will require an investment of about 1 billion rubles. with a purpose of approximately ¾ of this amount for the southern and ¼ - for the Ural metallurgy. The specific difficulty of this plan is that the reconstruction will be carried out in an environment of intense metal shortage and, therefore, should not be associated with a long shutdown of existing plants . This circumstance requires a very carefully developed reconstruction plan and great organizational management of this matter, not to mention an accurate and uninterrupted supply of resources, imported equipment and foreign technical assistance. Considering that the entire metallurgical production program for the next five years depends on the implementation of this reconstruction, it is necessary to place this whole matter in an environment of attentive assistance and strict control. But first of all, it is necessary to ensure that a comprehensive reconstruction plan is drawn up as soon as possible, without which the solution to this problem cannot be guaranteed.
If the reconstruction of existing metallurgical plants determines the country's supply of metal during this five-year period, then the enormous construction of new metallurgical plants that begins will decide the fate of the country’s metal supply in the last year of the current year and, especially, in all subsequent five-year periods . The projected five-year period will bear the historical task of partly putting into operation, partly preparing for commissioning, that new succession of giant metal plants, only with which we will be able to further advance at the required pace on this decisive front in the industrialization of the country. That is why both versions of the plan for the new construction of metallurgical plants indicate a scale of appropriations almost equal to the costs of the enormous reconstruction of existing metallurgical enterprises. According to the starting option, it is planned to build new metallurgical plants about 800 million . and according to the optimal option almost 1 billion rubles.
New metallurgical plants will have to produce in the last year of the five-year period, according to the starting option, 1.3 million tons of pig iron and, according to the optimal option, 2.6 million tons. The solution to this problem no longer falls only on the two proven metallurgical regions of the country (Ukraine and the Urals) - they are joined by the Kerch region and Kuzbass. In the construction of new metallurgical plants, the five-year plan is based on standard type the largest enterprise with 650 thousand tons of annual products, taking into account in the construction plan the possibility (where this is ensured by the conditions of the territory and raw material reserves) of their further deployment up to doubling. In matters of location of these new metallurgical productions, the plan is based on the need to connect them to sources of raw materials and energy bases with the admission, however, of such a wide combination as the cooperation of the Ural-Kuznetsk region, Kerch-Tkvarcheli and Zaporizhzhya-Krivoy Rog regions.
A) Kerch group of two stages with a total capacity of 750 thousand tons, with the entry into operation according to the starting version of the first stage of 350 thousand tons and the second of 200 thousand tons and with a total cost of about 150 million rubles.
b) Ukrainian group from the Krivoy Rog plant, with a capacity of 650 thousand tons, the Zaporozhye plant of the same capacity, Dneprosplav, Dnepropetrovsk Electric Steel and the Mariupol plant with the entry into operation according to the initial version of the Krivorozhsky plant for 350 thousand tons and the Zaporozhye plant for 50 thousand tons and with the total cost of the entire groups about 350 million rubles; Additionally, the question of the feasibility of building the Donbass Metallurgical Plant or doubling the capacity of one of the Ukrainian plants (Krivoy Rog or Zaporozhye), which will also require about 100-150 million rubles, should be studied.
c) the Ural group with the construction of the Magnitogorsk metallurgical plant with a capacity of 650 thousand tons of annual metal productivity and production in 1932/1933 of 350 thousand tons, the Alapaevsky plant of the same capacity, the Zlatoust special steel plant and the Balashov plant with a total cost of the entire group of about 210 million rubles, the Tavdinsky Metallurgical Plant with a capacity of 50 thousand tons of cast iron, the Chelyabinsk Ferro Steel Plant, the Saldinsky and Nadezhdinsky Sheet Plants and some other smaller ones, with a total cost of about 75 million rubles. In the optimal version, in addition to this, the Kama and Kamensky plants are envisaged, each with a finished capacity of 50 thousand tons.
G) Siberian group with the Kuznetsk (Telbes) plant with a capacity of 350 thousand tons of annual metal production and a cost of about 130 million rubles. (with production of 160 thousand tons in the last year of the five-year period) and the Petrovsky Far Eastern Plant with a capacity of 30 thousand tons and a cost of about 12 million rubles. according to the calculations of the starting version.
e) Finally, the question of the possibility and feasibility of constructing: a) in the Central Black Sea Region - the Lipetsk Metallurgical Plant with a capacity of 650 thousand tons and a cost of about 180 million rubles, b) in the N.-Volga Territory - the Khopersky Metallurgical Plant, requires additional coverage, with a capacity of 650 thousand tons and a cost of about 180 million rubles. and c) a metallurgical plant in the Caucasus worth about 100 million rubles. and organizing the production of ferro-manganese for export using the energy of Rionges and Zages. The possibility of replacing these facilities with a significant expansion of the capacity of newly created metallurgical plants located in areas that are more reliable in terms of raw materials and energy resources cannot be ruled out.
This new metallurgical construction, which underlies a huge mechanical engineering program, and, as will be shown later, thanks to its coke plants and blast furnace processes, is the basis for accelerated development chemical industry, without which the tasks of reconstructing agriculture and increasing the country’s defense capability cannot be solved, is one of the most difficult and critical sections of the entire construction front. This is especially true since the entire situation requires us to carry out such construction as quickly as possible (no more than 4-5 construction seasons). Meanwhile, of this entire phalanx of metallurgical plants, only Magnitogorsk, Kuznetsk and Krivoy Rog are currently provided with projects. Vigorous completion of the design and examination of this matter is the most important prerequisite for the successful solution of the task.
Diagram 9
It goes without saying that this investment program in the ferrous metallurgy should ensure not only the expansion of ferrous metal production, but also significant improvement in their quality and reduction in cost . The average cost of cast iron at factories in the Urals should be 46.7 rubles by the end of the five-year period. per ton versus 55.9 rub. at the beginning of the five-year period and the average cost at Ukrainian factories is 38.2 rubles. per ton versus 49.9 rubles. currently.
No less difficult difficulties arise in areas of development of non-ferrous metallurgy . General development production of non-ferrous metals from the beginning to the end of the five-year period, including concessions, can be seen from the following data (in thousand tons):
This production program for non-ferrous metallurgy, which according to all the conditions of our construction should be considered minimal, is based on an extremely complex and difficult construction program with a total cost of about 450 million rubles. for five years.
Soviet mechanical engineering Over the past years, it has made significant steps forward in its development and is far ahead of the miserable pre-war level at which it was in pre-revolutionary Russia. However, what has been accomplished so far is only a small beginning in solving the enormous problems of the machine-building industry, which have largely fallen within the projected five-year period. It is along this line that the main tasks of increasing the energy supply of labor in all sectors of the economy are being solved, and it is along this line that we must, in the shortest possible time, free ourselves from dependence on capitalist countries, or, in any case, seriously mitigate this dependence. That is why, along with the above-mentioned capital investments in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, the five-year plan outlines, according to calculations, the initial investment option about 900 million rubles . and according to calculations of the optimal investment option 1 billion rub. for capital construction in the field of mechanical engineering .
The direction of development of our mechanical engineering is determined primarily by the state and objectives of our energy sector. According to the most conservative estimate, a little less than half (i.e., about 800 thousand square meters of heating) of the entire boiler system in our industry is both physically and morally worn out. (Along with this, about half (i.e., about 700 thousand horsepower) of all engines in industry are also worn out morally and partly physically. To this we must add the newly growing need for power equipment that arises in the process growth of our economy. This obliges us to widely to develop and bring to a new technical level the business of boiler building in the country ; The metallurgical plant in Leningrad, Parostroy in Moscow and the Taganrog Boiler Plant specialize in it, which together account for about 70% of the total boiler production by the end of the five-year period. Boiler production will have to grow, according to calculations of the optimal option, to 300 thousand square meters. m in the last year of the five-year period against 114 thousand sq. m. m. in 1927/28. The main base of the vigorously developed diesel industry becomes the Kolomna plant, the Russian Diesel plant in Leningrad and the Sormovsky plant, which by the end of the five-year period concentrate about 70% of the total diesel production, growing from 65.9 thousand hp. forces at the beginning of the five-year period to 202 thousand horsepower. strength at the end of the five-year period. Turbo construction is based at the Leningrad Metallurgical Plant, where it grows from 60 thousand kW at the beginning of the five-year period to 650 thousand kW at the end of the five-year period, and water turbines are also included in production program also one of the Mosmashtrest factories.
To a certain extent, this group also includes development of machine tool industry , which, along with strengthening the existing machine tool bases (Leningrad Sverdlov Plant, Red Proletary in Moscow, Engine of the Revolution in N. Novgorod and Kramatorsk Plant), will rely on the reconstruction and specialization of existing smaller plants and on the construction new factories in Ukraine, in the production center, possibly in the Urals. Investments in machine tool industry are estimated at 25 million rubles for the five-year period. only for new factories.
The second major point determining the development of mechanical engineering is the need for special, mostly individualized, equipment from our main mining regions - the Southern and Ural regions, together with Siberia. In this regard, along with the complete reconstruction of the Kramatorsk Machine-Building Plant, which is equivalent to rebuilding it from scratch and requiring about 54 million rubles. investments, within five years the construction of the Sverdlovsk Heavy Engineering Plant in the Urals should be completed at a total cost of about 49 million rubles. Completion of these works makes it possible correctly locate the main heavy engineering bases in the country , eliminate irrationally long-distance transportation and ensure the reconstruction of mining operations that is necessary for the planned rate of coal mining, ore mining, development of non-ferrous metallurgy, gold mining, etc.
The next largest factor determining the development of mechanical engineering over the next five years is transport - its reconstruction and new construction. Next, the reconstruction program in transport and the need that it will present to the metal industry in the field of steam locomotives, cars, automatic couplings, etc. will be developed in detail. Based on this program, it is planned reconstruction of existing locomotive factories , requiring in total up to 100 million rubles on the fifth anniversary. The center of these reconstruction works in the field of steam locomotive building will be the Lugansk plant, which will require investments of about 40 million rubles. and will have to reach 350 powerful locomotives in the last year of the five-year period. Only at the end of the five-year period will the question arise about a major reconstruction of the second locomotive plant to produce up to 500 locomotives per year. The question of the facility (Sormovo or Kharkov) should be further studied. Car manufacturing will be based on the ongoing reconstruction of existing plants with the commissioning, however, of a newly rebuilt workshop at the Dneprovsky plant and the Nizhne-Tagil carriage building plant, with the concentration of the main production of heavy-duty railcars at these latter plants. The total amount of investment in car-building plants is determined at 160 million rubles. Preparing vehicles for the transition to automatic coupling will require construction of one or two automatic coupling plants , with a total cost of about 30-50 million rubles. (apparently in Ukraine and the Urals).
Finally, sea and river shipbuilding with total amount capital costs of 82 million rubles.
Particular emphasis should be placed on construction tasks in the automotive industry. The planned construction of an automobile plant (in Nizhny Novgorod) with an annual production of 100,000 cars and a cost of 140 million rubles. is a major step forward in resolving this extremely important national economic and cultural problem.
Next, it should be noted that the production of the metal industry, which is associated with the supply of various kinds of materials and iron structures to the entire construction front and, in particular, our newly emerging production of machines for construction work . A construction machinery plant is planned at the Central Production Production Center with a cost of about 12 million rubles. Along with this, there are small capital investments, but extremely important in their pioneering significance in our country factories for textile engineering, production of chemical equipment, etc.
Finally, enormous challenges lie in the area agricultural mechanical engineering in direct connection with the tasks of reconstructing agriculture, which are one of the decisive prerequisites for the entire national economic plan. Construction program in the field of agriculture. mechanical engineering is based on the need to increase agricultural output. cars up to 525 million rubles according to the starting price and up to 610 million rubles. according to the optimal option versus 153 million rubles. in 1927/28. This program is based on the completion of the construction of the Rostov plant worth 46 million rubles, on the extensive reconstruction of Ukrainian factories with capital investments of 58.6 million rubles, on the reconstruction of the remaining factories of the RSFSR with investments of 30, 3 million rubles and on the creation of the Omsk agricultural plant. mechanical engineering. The total amount of investment in agriculture. mechanical engineering is measured according to the starting option of 160 million rubles. and at the optimal rate 180 million rubles. The largest independent problem in the field of agriculture. mechanical engineering is the construction of Stalingrad tractor new plant worth 77 million rubles. and a productivity of 50 thousand tractors per year and expansion of the tractor workshop to Putilov plant and for the production of 10 thousand tractors per year and a tractor workshop at the Kharkov Locomotive Plant for the production of 3 thousand tractors per year. In addition, according to calculations of the optimal option, it is planned construction of the second powerful tractor plant of the Stalingrad type .
These are the main lines and objects of the mechanical engineering construction program. Here, of course, only the most basic of a large, complex and highly differentiated program is given. With all the desire to limit the range of machines, in a strict sequence, accumulating experience and firmly securing one position after another, the interests of the country's industrialization persistently require the immediate introduction into the construction program of more and more new groups of machine-building enterprises, which, for a significant part, will take place over the next only five years First stage of its development.
Mechanical engineering is expanding its position in almost all major industrial areas country, with the distribution of funds between reconstruction and new construction, which, apparently; meets the challenges of proper development of the productive forces of our country.
There is no need to emphasize the enormous importance of this construction program in the field of metallurgy and mechanical engineering. It is the steel axis of the entire projected in the five-year reconstruction plan National economy . But it is necessary to emphasize with all energy the enormous difficulty and, therefore, the enormous responsibility of this most important and largest construction site in terms of investments, which makes exceptionally great demands not only on the internal material and organizational resources of the country, but also on technical assistance from advanced countries of Europe and America.