Lecture 6. Sociogenetic theories of development

The origins of the sociogenetic approach come from the tabula rasa theory that arose in the Middle Ages, formulated John Locke(1632-1704), according to which the human psyche at the moment of birth is a “blank slate”, but under the influence of external conditions, as well as upbringing, all the mental qualities characteristic of a person gradually arise in him. Locke put forward a number of ideas about organizing children's education on the principles of association, repetition, approval and punishment.

A representative of this trend was the French philosopher of the 18th century. Claude Adrian Helvetius(1715-1771), who believed that all people are born identical in their natural abilities and the inequality between them in the field of mental abilities and moral qualities is due only to unequal external environmental conditions and various educational influences.

Sociologizing ideas were consonant with the ideology that dominated the USSR until the mid-80s. According to this theory, with the help of targeted training and education, any qualities and behavioral properties can be formed in a child. In order to study a child, you need to study the structure of his environment.

The sociogenetic approach is associated with the behavioristic direction in psychology, according to which a person is what his environment makes of him. The main idea of ​​behaviorism is the identification of development with learning, with the child’s acquisition of new experience. American researchers took the idea of ​​I.P. Pavlov that adaptive activity is characteristic of all living things. The phenomenon of the conditioned reflex was perceived as some kind of elementary behavioral phenomenon. The idea of ​​combining stimulus and response, conditioned and unconditional stimuli came to the fore: the time parameter of this connection was highlighted. The main theories of behaviorism include:

1. The theory of classical and instrumental conditioning I.P. Pavlova

2. Associationistic concept of learning by D. Watson and E. Ghazri.

3. The theory of operant conditioning by E. Thorndike.

4. B. Skinner's theory. With the help of reinforcement, you can shape any type of behavior.

The very idea of ​​conducting a rigorous scientific experiment, created by I.P. Pavlov to study the digestive system, entered into American psychology. The first description of such an experiment by I. P. Pavlov was in 1897, and the first publication by J. Watson was in 1913. Already in the first experiments of I. P. Pavlov with the salivary gland brought out, the idea of ​​​​connecting dependent and independent variables was realized, which runs through all American studies of behavior and its genesis not only in animals, but also in humans. Such an experiment has all the advantages of real natural scientific research, which is still so highly valued in American psychology: objectivity, accuracy (control of all conditions), accessibility for measurement. It is known that I.P. Pavlov persistently rejected any attempts to explain the results of experiments with conditioned reflexes with references to subjective state animal.

American scientists perceived the phenomenon of the conditioned reflex as a kind of elementary phenomenon, accessible to analysis, something like a building block, from many of which a complex system of our behavior can be built. The genius of I.P. Pavlov, according to his American colleagues, was that he was able to show how simple elements can be isolated, analyzed and controlled in laboratory conditions. The development of the ideas of I.P. Pavlov in American psychology took several decades, and each time the researchers were confronted with one of the aspects of this simple, but at the same time not yet exhausted phenomenon in American psychology - the phenomenon of the conditioned reflex.

In the earliest studies of learning, the idea of ​​combining stimulus and response, conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, came to the fore: the time parameter of this connection was highlighted. This is how the associationist concept of learning arose (J. Watson, E. Ghazri). J. Watson started "his" scientific revolution, putting forward the slogan: “Stop studying what a person thinks; let’s study what a person does!”

1. Behaviorism

Watson John Brodes

(1878 – 1958). American psychologist, founder of behaviorism (from the English behavior - behavior), one of the most widespread theories in Western psychology of the 20th century.

In 1913 His article “Psychology from the Point of View of a Behaviorist” was published, assessed as a manifesto of a new direction. Following this, his books “Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology” (1914), “Behaviorism” (1925) appeared, in which for the first time in the history of psychology the postulate that the subject of this science is consciousness (its content, processes, functions, etc.).

Influenced by the philosophy of positivism, Watson argued that only what can be directly observed is real. He argued that behavior should be explained from the relationship between the directly observable effects of physical stimuli on the organism and its also directly observable responses (reactions). Hence Watson’s main formula, adopted by behaviorism: “stimulus-response” (S-R). It followed from this that psychology must eliminate the processes between stimulus and response - whether physiological (nervous) or mental - from its hypotheses and explanations.

Methodologists of behaviorism proceeded from the assumption that the formation of basic mental processes occurs during life. Lipsitt and Kaye (Lipsitt, Kaye, 1964) conducted experiments on the development of conditioned reflexes in 20 three-day-old infants. Ten infants were classified as experimental group, and for them the combination of unconditional (nipple) and conditioned stimuli (pure tone) was repeated 20 times. The researchers wanted to obtain the suckling response to the sound tone that a pacifier would naturally produce. After twenty stimulus combinations, infants in the experimental group began to make sucking movements in response to the sound, while infants in the control group, who were not exposed to stimulus combinations, did not show such a response. This research shows that learning occurs from the earliest days of life. It also suggests that a behaviorist approach can provide insight into development and that through conditioning, researchers can study infants' ability to process sensory information long before they acquire language.

D. Watson proved the ideas of classical conditioning in his experiments on the formation of emotions. He experimentally demonstrated that it is possible to form a fear response to a neutral stimulus. In his experiments, a child was shown a rabbit, which he picked up and wanted to stroke, but at that moment received an electric shock. Naturally, the child scaredly threw the rabbit and began to cry. However, the next time he approached the animal again and received an electric shock. By the third or fourth time, for most children, the appearance of a rabbit, even in the distance, caused fear. After this negative emotion was consolidated, Watson tried to change it again emotional attitude children, developing an interest and love for the rabbit. In this case, they began to show it to the child during a tasty meal. The presence of this important primary stimulus was an indispensable condition for the formation of a new reaction. At the first moment, the child stopped eating and began to cry, but since the rabbit did not approach him, remaining far away, at the end of the room, and tasty food (for example, chocolate or ice cream) was nearby, the child quickly calmed down and continued eating. After the child stopped reacting by crying to the appearance of a rabbit at the end of the room, the experimenter gradually moved the rabbit closer and closer to the child, while simultaneously adding tasty things to his plate. Gradually, the child stopped paying attention to the rabbit and, in the end, reacted calmly, even when it was located near his plate, took the rabbit in his arms and tried to feed him something tasty. Thus, Watson argued, our emotions are the result of our habits and can change dramatically depending on circumstances.

Watson's observations showed that if the formed fear reaction to a rabbit was not converted to a positive one, a similar feeling of fear subsequently arose in children when they saw other fur-covered objects. Based on this, he sought to prove that persistent affective complexes can be formed in people based on conditioned reflexes according to a given program. Moreover, he believed that the facts he discovered proved the possibility of forming a certain, strictly defined model of behavior in all people. He wrote: “Give me a hundred children of the same age, and after a certain time I will form them absolutely identical people, with the same tastes and behavior."

The principle of behavior control gained wide popularity in American psychology after the work of Watson. His merit is also that he expanded the sphere of the psyche to include the bodily actions of animals and humans. But he achieved this innovation at a high price, rejecting as a subject of science the enormous riches of the psyche, irreducible to externally observable behavior.

Edwin Ray Ghazri

(1886 – 1959). He was a professor of psychology at the University of Washington from 1914 until his retirement in 1956. His major work was The Psychology of Learning, published in 1935 and reprinted in new edition in 1952

He proposed a single law of learning, the law of contiguity, which he formulated as follows: “A combination of stimuli which accompanies a movement, when reappeared, tends to produce the same movement. Notice that there is nothing said here about “confirmatory waves,” or reinforcement, or states of satisfaction.” Another way to define the law of contiguity is that if you did something in a given situation, then the next time you find yourself in the same situation, you will strive to repeat your actions.

E. Ghazri explained why, despite the possible truth of the law of contiguity, the prediction of behavior will always be probabilistic. Although this principle, as just stated, is short and simple, it will not be understood without some explanation. The phrase “tends” is used here because behavior at any point in time depends on a large number of different conditions. Conflicting “tendencies” or incompatible “tendencies” are always present. The outcome of any stimulus or stimulus pattern cannot be predicted with absolute accuracy because other stimulus patterns exist. We can express this by saying that the behavior presented is caused by the entire situation. But in saying this, we cannot flatter ourselves that we have done more than find an explanation for the impossibility of predicting behavior. No one has yet described, and no one will ever describe, the entire stimulus situation, or observe any complete situation, so as to speak of it as a “cause,” or even as a pretext for misconceptions about a small part of behavior.

In a recent publication, E. Ghazri revised his law of contiguity to clarify: “What is noticed becomes the signal for what is done.” For Ghazri, this was a recognition of the enormous number of stimuli that an organism encounters at any given time, and the fact that it is apparently impossible to form associations with all of them. Rather, the organism responds selectively to only a small fraction of the stimuli encountered, and this is the fraction that is associated with any response caused by those stimuli. One can pay attention to the similarities between Ghazri’s way of thinking and the concept of “predominance of elements” by Thorndike, who also believed that organisms react selectively to various manifestations of the environment.

Edward Lee Thorndike

(1874–1949). American psychologist and educator. President of the American Psychological Association in 1912.

Conducted research studying animal behavior. They were aimed at getting out of the “problem box”. By this term E. Thorndike meant an experimental device in which experimental animals were placed. If they left the box, they received reinforcement of the reflex. The research results were displayed on certain graphs, which he called “learning curves.” Thus, the purpose of his research was to study the motor reactions of animals. Thanks to these experiments, E. Thorndike concluded that animals act by the method of “trial and error and random success.” These works led him to the theory of connectivism.

E. Thorndike concludes that the behavior of any living creature is determined by three components:

1) a situation that includes both external and internal processes that affect the individual,

2) reaction or internal processes occurring as a result of this impact;

3) a subtle connection between the situation and the reaction, i.e. association. In his experiments, Thorndike showed that intelligence as such and its activity can be studied without resorting to reason. He transferred the emphasis from establishing internal connections to establishing connections between the external situation and movements, which introduced new trends in associative psychology. In his theory, Thorndike combined mechanical determinism with biological, and then with biopsychic, significantly expanding the field of psychology, previously limited by limits consciousness.

Based on his research, Thorndike derived several laws of learning:

1. The law of exercise. There is a proportional relationship between the situation and the reaction to it with the frequency of their repetition).

2. The law of readiness. The condition of the subject (the feelings of hunger and thirst he experiences) is not indifferent to the development of new reactions. Changes in the body's readiness to conduct nerve impulses are associated with exercise.

3. Law of associative shift. When reacting to one specific stimulus out of several acting simultaneously, other stimuli that participated in this situation subsequently cause the same reaction. In other words, a neutral stimulus, associated by association with a significant one, also begins to cause desired behavior. Thorndike also identified additional conditions for the success of a child's learning - the ease of distinguishing between stimulus and response and awareness of the connection between them.

4. Law of effect. The last, fourth, law caused a lot of controversy, since it included a motivation factor (a purely psychological factor). The Law of Effect states that any action pleasure-inducing V certain situation, is associated with it and subsequently increases the likelihood of repeating this action in a similar situation, while displeasure (or discomfort) during an action associated with a certain situation leads to a decrease in the likelihood of committing this act in a similar situation. This implies that learning is also based on certain polar states within the organism. If the actions taken in a certain situation lead to successful results, then they can be called satisfying, otherwise they will be violating. Thorndike gives the concept of a successful result at the neuronal level. At successful action the neuronal system, when alerted, is actually functioning, not inactive.

E. Thorndike, B. Skinner. They identified development with learning.

Burres Frederick Skinner

(1904 – 1990). American psychologist, inventor and writer. He made a huge contribution to the development and promotion of behaviorism.

Skinner is best known for his theory operant conditioning, to a lesser extent - thanks to artistic and journalistic works in which he promoted the ideas of the widespread use of behavior modification techniques developed in behaviorism (for example, programmed training) to improve society and make people happy, as a form of social engineering. Continuing the experiments of D. Watson and E. Thorndike, B. Skinner designed the so-called “Skinner box”, which made it possible to accurately measure behavior and automatically supply reinforcement. The Skinner box, reminiscent of a rat or pigeon cage, has a metal pedal, which, when pressed, the animal receives a portion of food into the feeder. With this very simple device, Skinner was able to make systematic observations of the behavior of animals under different conditions of reinforcement. It turned out that the behavior of rats, pigeons, and sometimes people is quite predictable, since they follow certain laws of behavior, at least in this situation. In Skinner's experiments (as in Thorndike's experiments), food was usually the reinforcer.

A typical Skinner model usually includes following components: discriminated stimulus, individual response, and reinforcement. A discriminable stimulus usually signals to the individual that learning has begun. In Skinner's experiments, light and sound signals, as well as words, were used as discriminative stimuli. The response is the emergence of operant behavior. Skinner called his type of conditioning operant conditioning because the individual's response operates the mechanism of reinforcement. Finally, a reinforcing stimulus is given for an adequate response. Therefore, reinforcement increases the likelihood of subsequent operant behavior. Operant behavior can also be taught through avoidance conditioning, where reinforcement consists of ending exposure to an aversive stimulus. For example, bright lights may be turned off, loud noise- subdued, angry parent - calmed. Thus, in operant conditioning, an individual learns a response when the reinforcement consists of stopping exposure to an unpleasant stimulus.

Skinner developed a method of conditioning behavior through successive approximations, which forms the basis of operant conditioning. This method consists in the fact that the entire path from the initial behavior (even before the start of training) to the final reaction that the researcher seeks to develop in the animal is divided into several stages. In the future, all that remains is to consistently and systematically reinforce each of these stages and thus lead the animal to the desired form of behavior. With this method of learning, the animal is rewarded for every action that brings it closer to the final goal, and it gradually develops the desired behavior.

According to Skinner and other behaviorists, this is how most human behavior is developed. From Skinner's point of view, it is possible to explain the very rapid learning of a child's first words (without, however, extending this concept to language acquisition as a whole). At first, when the child is just beginning to utter some articulate sounds, the babbling “me-me-me” already causes delight among those around him, and especially the happy mother, who already thinks that the child is calling her. However, soon the parents' enthusiasm for such sounds cools down until the baby, to everyone's joy, utters “mo ... mo.” Then these sounds cease to be reinforced for the newborn until a relatively articulate “mo-mo” appears. In turn, this word, for the same reasons, will soon be replaced by the combination “moma”, and, finally, the child will clearly pronounce his first word - “mom”. All other sounds will be perceived by others only as “baby talk” in the literal sense of the word, and they will gradually disappear from the “lexicon” of the newborn. Thus, as a result of selective reinforcement from family members, the infant discards those incorrect responses for which he does not receive social reinforcement, and retains only those that are closest to the expected result.

Operant reactions in Skinner's sense should be distinguished from automatic, purely reflex reactions associated with unconditioned and conditioned reflexes. An operant response is an action that is voluntary and purposeful. However, Skinner defines goal-directedness in terms feedback(i.e. influencing behavior by its consequences), rather than in terms of goals, intentions or other internal states- mental or physiological. In his opinion, the use of these "internal variables" in psychology involves the introduction of dubious assumptions that add nothing to the empirical laws that relate observed behavior to observable environmental influences. It is these laws that are the real means of predicting and controlling the behavior of humans and animals. Skinner emphasized that “the objection to internal states is not that they do not exist, but that they are irrelevant for functional analysis.” In this analysis, the probability of an operator response appears as a function external influences- both past and present.

In the field of education, Skinner put forward the concept of programmed learning. According to him, such training can free the student and teacher from the boring process of simple knowledge transfer: the student will gradually advance in mastering a particular topic at his own rhythm and in small steps, each of which is reinforced; These steps constitute the process of successive approximation (Skinner, 1969). However, it was very soon discovered that such training quickly reaches its “ceiling”, and this is due precisely to the fact that only minimal effort is required from the student and therefore reinforcement soon becomes ineffective. As a result, the student quickly becomes bored with such training. In addition, personal contact with the teacher seems to be necessary to constantly maintain student motivation and orderly transfer of knowledge. All of this can perhaps be explained by the principles underlying social learning, and in particular observational learning.

Burress Frederick Skinner was one of the most famous psychologists of its time. It was he who stood at the origins of the direction that today in science is called behaviorism. Even today, his learning theory plays an important role in psychology, pedagogy, and management.

Scientist's experiments

Skinner's theory is described in detail in one of his main works, which is called “The Behavior of Organisms.” In it, the scientist sets out the principles of the so-called operant conditioning. The easiest way to understand these principles is to consider one of the most typical experiments of a scientist. The rat's weight was reduced to 80-90% of normal. It is placed in a special device called a Skinner box. It provides the opportunity to perform only those actions that the observing experimenter can see and control.

The box has a hole through which food is supplied to the animal. To get food, the rat must press a lever. This pressing in Skinner's theory is called an operant response. How the rat manages to press this lever - through its paw, nose, or perhaps tail - does not matter. The operational reaction in the experiment remains the same, since it causes only one consequence: the rat receives food. Rewarding the animal with food certain number pressing, the researcher forms stable ways of responding in the animal.

Formation of behavior according to Skinner

A prompt reaction in Skinner's theory is a voluntary and purposeful action. But Skinner defines this goal-directedness in terms of feedback. In other words, behavior is influenced by certain consequences of the animal.

Skinner agreed with the views of scientists Watson and Thornadike on the dual nature mental development. They believed that the formation of the psyche is influenced by two types of factors - social and genetic. In operant learning, specific operations performed by the subject are reinforced. In other words, genetic data act as the basis on which socially conditioned behavior is built. Therefore, development, Skinner believed, is learning caused by certain stimuli external environment.

Skinner also believed that it could be used not only to control the behavior of other subjects, but also in relation to own behavior. Self-control can be achieved by creating special conditions, in which the desired behavior will be reinforced.

Positive reinforcement

Operant learning in Skinner's theory of reinforcement is based on the active actions of the subject (“operations”) carried out in a certain environment. If a spontaneous action becomes useful for meeting a certain need or achieving a goal, it is reinforced positive result. For example, a pigeon can learn a complex action - playing ping-pong. But only if this game becomes a means of getting food. In Skinner's theory, reward is called reinforcement because it reinforces the most desirable behavior.

Sequential and proportional reinforcement

But a pigeon cannot learn to play ping-pong unless the experimenter shapes this behavior in it through discriminative learning. This means that the individual actions of the pigeon are reinforced by the scientist consistently, selectively. In B.F. Skinner's theory, reinforcement can either be distributed randomly, occurring at certain time intervals, or occur in certain proportions. Reward distributed randomly in the form of periodic cash wins provokes the development of gambling addiction in people. Reinforcement that occurs at certain intervals - salary - contributes to the fact that a person remains in a certain service.

Proportional reinforcement in Skinner's theory is such a powerful reinforcement that the animals in his experiments practically worked themselves to death in an attempt to earn more tasty food. Unlike behavior reinforcement, punishment is negative reinforcement. Punishment cannot teach a new behavioral model. It only forces the subject to constantly avoid certain operations followed by punishment.

Punishment

The use of punishment, as a rule, has negative side effects. Skinner's learning theory identifies the following consequences of punishment: high levels of anxiety, hostility and aggressiveness, and withdrawal. Sometimes punishment forces an individual to stop behaving in a certain way. But its disadvantage is that it does not promote positive behavior.

Punishment often forces the subject not to abandon an undesirable model of behavior, but only to transform it into a hidden form that is not punished (for example, this could be drinking alcohol at work). Of course, there are many cases when punishment seems to be the only method of suppressing socially dangerous behavior that threatens the life or health of other people. But in ordinary situations Punishment is an ineffective means of influence and should be avoided whenever possible.

Pros and cons of Skinner's operant learning theory

Let's consider the main advantages and disadvantages of Skinner's concept. Its advantages are as follows:

• Strict hypothesis testing, control additional factors, affecting the experiment.
• Recognition of the importance of situational factors and environmental parameters.
• A pragmatic approach that has led to the creation of effective psychotherapeutic procedures for behavior transformation.

Disadvantages of Skinner's theory:

• Reductionism. The behavior exhibited by animals is entirely reducible to the analysis of human behavior.
• Low validity due to laboratory experiments. Experimental results are difficult to transfer to conditions natural environment.
• No attention is paid cognitive processes in the process of formation certain type behavior.
• Skinner's theory does not give stable, sustainable results in practice.

Motivation concept

Skinner also created a theory of motivation. Its main idea is that the desire to repeat an action is determined by the consequences of this action in the past. The presence of certain incentives causes certain actions. If the consequences of a particular behavior are positive, then the subject will behave in similar situation similar in the future.

His behavior will repeat. But if the consequences of a certain strategy are negative, then in the future he will either not respond to certain incentives or change the strategy. Skinner's theory of motivation boils down to the fact that multiple repetitions certain results lead to the formation of a specific behavioral attitude in the subject.

Personality and the concept of learning

From Skinner's point of view, personality is the experience that an individual acquires throughout life. Unlike, for example, Freud, supporters of the concept of learning do not consider it necessary to think about mental processes, which are hidden in the human mind. Personality in Skinner's theory is a product, largely shaped by external factors. It is the social environment, and not the phenomena of internal mental life, determine personal characteristics. Human psyche Skinner considered it a "black box". It is impossible to explore emotions, motives and instincts in detail. Therefore, they must be excluded from the experimenter’s observations.

Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, which the scientist worked on for many years, was supposed to summarize his extensive research: everything a person does and what he is in principle is determined by the history of rewards and punishments received by him.

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Many psychotherapy methods are based on learning principles. At the beginning of the development of behavioral psychotherapy, it was based on Pavlov's concept of conditioned reflexes. According to behaviorists, human behavior is a set of conditioned reflexes and it is better not to interfere with the “closed work” of the brain. If the patient is taught incorrectly, his formed conditioned reflexes will lead to poorly adaptive behavior, which, in turn, will lead to neuroses. primary goal behavioral therapy- gradual extinction of maladaptive reflexes that form incorrect behavior, and the formation of reflexes that contribute to correct behavior and getting rid of neuroticism.

Behaviorists believe that most of a person’s life activity is the result of his learning. A person tries with all sorts of tricks to get around those situations that he is afraid of and because of this he does not gain the necessary experience. Fear becomes less and this behavior is reinforced. But as a result, the basic needs of the body are not realized. For example, a young guy gets nervous when he asks a girl out on a date. To avoid stress, he stops communicating with girls. Fear does not bother him, but now he has problems meeting the necessary needs. In any case, this situation ends badly - nervous tics, sweating, intrusive thoughts, anxiety - all this is a manifestation of psychopathology. In behaviorism, this is a behavior option.

The first behavioral treatment method in history, implemented in 1973 by D. Wolpe, was systematic desensitization. Its essence is that the patient is taught to gradually relax the muscles. In conversations and work with the patient, those moments and situations that can cause stress and fear are identified. If the patient begins to relax, he is asked, in a relaxed moment, to imagine a situation that gives rise to unpleasant and exciting emotions. When a person overcomes this situation, he is asked to imagine more difficult situation. If possible, it is better to arrange such procedures in places that are close in atmosphere to the situation that causes fear. If a person has agrophobia, then after working through the situation in your thoughts, you can go out into the streets with him and cross roads, carefully, starting with small ones, with calm traffic.

Even though behavioral therapy has clear parameters for recovery, it has not developed properly in our country.

Today we cannot imagine psychology without psychometric techniques that were created and developed by behaviorists. Based on the theories of operant conditioning by Skinner and Thorndike, psychological methods, which greatly influenced the development of pedagogy.

Operant conditioning is the process of transferring stimuli in communication. When communicating, one person transmits a stimulus to another, in response to which the opponent has a reaction, expressed in behavior. In this case, such a reaction will be the reason leading to the response of the first person. If ineffective interaction occurs between people, then incorrect forms of behavior are formed, which can ultimately result in illness.

An approximate communication scheme is reflected in the following.

Stimulus - response

Let's consider a simple example - a child wants to be bought a toy, but his parents refuse. He begins to cry excitedly, fall down, become hysterical, his parents cannot calm him down, they give up and buy what they want. Such a reaction from the parents will serve as a positive incentive for further action; the child will now throw tantrums for less significant reasons, which, in turn, will lead to psychological and physical problems. Such conclusions were first voiced by B. Skinner, a recognized American psychologist. Today, behavioral therapy is used not only in therapeutic practice, but also in educational institutions, somatic medical institutions, sports organizations and production teams. There they do not change the state, but change behavior, which ultimately leads to a change in state.

In his youth, Skinner dreamed of becoming a writer, but his relationship with prose did not work out at all. He went to study at Harvard school to the Faculty of Psychology, where absolutely all the time was spent studying, no entertainment or parties. After graduation, he began working as a psychologist in medical school Harvard, a little started later teach.

Skinner's major work, The Behavior of Organisms, was published in 1938, after which he became a leading theorist. The movement of neobehaviorism is associated with his name. At the end of his life he was engaged writing activity. Some of his interesting works are “On Behaviorism”, “Science and human behavior" and "Teaching technology".

Skinner assumed that man is quite close to animals, more than he realizes. And the study of philosophy gave him the idea that behaviorism is not only the science of human behavior, it is its philosophy. He believed that personality is a set of forms of behavior. Depending on the situation, one or another reaction will be manifested. Any individual reaction contains a past experience. Skinner studied human behavior, without touching on its motives and causes.

Basics of Behavior Therapy

Let's look at the concepts used in behavior therapy

Reactive conditioning - or otherwise - conditioned reflex. Let us recall a simple experiment: in the process of learning, dogs begin to salivate in response to a created conditioned stimulus. This is also possible for a person when he sees delicious food. But still, man is not as similar to animals as Skinner believed. If the animal's reinforcement disappears, then reactive conditioning will immediately disappear along with it. With a person, everything is more complicated; despite the lack of reinforcement, he can continue to do the same thing out of habit - for example, look for money where he once found it. This process is called operant conditioning - that is, the formation and maintenance of a specific behavior through its consequences.

Let's look at an example

A woman suffering from hysterical neurosis constantly fainted. To help her, they turned to a psychotherapist. On the next occasion, the doctor was able to bring her out of the state of fainting and talked with the patient for some time, after which she became cheerful and even cheerful. For some time the doctor did not come, but later the fainting occurred again, and he was called. The situation repeated itself - everything ended successfully - with a good conversation. After which, fainting began to occur more often than usual. Thus, pleasant conversations with the doctor served as reinforcement for the patient to increase the frequency of fainting. Realizing this, the doctor next time refused to talk, explaining that he considered it useless to talk immediately after fainting, since at this time blood circulation in the brain is impaired and therefore understanding is inhibited. It is possible to talk only after several weeks have passed. Stopping conversations became a negative reinforcement for changing inappropriate behavior. The patient's fainting symptoms passed, after a couple of weeks she discussed her problems with the doctor, after which they always talked once every two weeks.

This reward is a stimulus or reinforcer that influences responses and behavior. But it can be not only positive, but also negative. Positive reinforcement increases the desired response, while negative reinforcement decreases the unnecessary one.

The role of reinforcement is great in child rearing and pedagogy. It is important to use reinforcement correctly so that it helps the child's development. For example, a solution to a child’s literacy problem could be a monetary reward for reprinting professional (for example, psychological) texts without errors. With this approach, the child improves his literacy and at the same time learns new material which can be applied in later life.

Behaviorists did not look for causes in behavior; neobehaviorists said that behavior is an explanatory fiction. The latter include the following concepts:

Autonomous man- this fiction says that a person has “ inner being”, which controls the energy within the personality.

Liberty- a fiction that people can use to explain behavior if its reasons are not precisely known.

For example, after hypnosis, a person cannot remember how the process of suggestion itself took place, but when explaining his actions he says that it was his free decision.

Dignity (also known as reputation)- a fiction, thanks to which people divide actions and activities into worthy and unworthy.

Creation- also an explanatory fiction. According to Skinner, such activity is no different from other types of human activity. An example is the writing of poetry by a poet and the hatching of eggs by a chicken. They feel equally good after the actions performed.

Skinner argued that behavior can be controlled. Positive behavior should be encouraged through rewards, and bad behavior should be discouraged through punishment. But the big disadvantage of punishments is that they only say what not to do, but do not explain how to behave. Therefore, punishment is an obstacle in the learning process, because the form of behavior that was followed by punishment does not go away without a trace, it remains and manifests itself in other actions. At the same time, new actions allow you to evade punishment and are a response to it.

If you often resort to punishment, then the initial effect of it will wear off, since the person being punished, at the beginning showing good result, may rebel in the future. Punishment brings little benefit to both the punisher and the punished.

Skinner believed that behavior is formed by the presentation of the desired result. It is worth carefully observing people's behavior to understand real reasons behaviors in which needs and goals are hidden.

Behaviorists concluded that conditioning can occur outside of consciousness. Skinner suggested that the role of consciousness in behavior may not be so great, but still, for conditioning to be most effective, it must be conscious.

Skinner developed methods of programmed learning, during which each person learns at his own personal speed, and only after fully mastering the material and completing tasks does he move on to more complex ones. This method allows the student to understand everything at every moment of learning and be ready to answer or complete a task.

What have we learned about behaviorism?

The goal of behaviorism therapy is to teach people to respond to situations in life the way they want to respond.

therapy does not interfere with the emotional basis of a person’s relationships

All patient complaints in behaviorism are considered important information about it, and not at all symptoms

the patient and the doctor set specific goals in such a way that they know when they will be achieved

Skinner often expressed thoughts that there is less need to work with internal causes, that behavior therapy can be the basis of control of infinite power. Such statements led many to accuse behaviorism of trying to control the individual; doctors refused to apply these principles in their work.

But for successful practice, not all principles of behaviorism can be applied, but only those that can benefit patients. In a study of behavioral therapy, it was found that qualitative improvements in patients are observed only with internal changes in the personality structure. To make this happen, it is quite logical and justified to use behavioral methods. Today, techniques have been developed in which these methods are used in integrated system treatment.

Also, behavioral therapy methods have found their application in NLP ideas. Behaviorists did indeed reprogram behavior, but always only for the purpose of corrective action. better side. All people influence each other when communicating, and behaviorists believed that the best thing that can be done is to learn how to competently influence human behavior.

The effectiveness and efficiency of the behaviorists' methods was obvious and undeniable, but disagreements arose regarding the rights of hospital patients, prisoners and young men. Those doctors who nevertheless decided to use behavioral methods in their practice were condemned and criticized; colleagues questioned their competence, interpreting even successful treatment results in their own way.

Skinner's research and the work of other neobehaviorists greatly influenced the development of psychology and pedagogy. Based on new theories, schools of psychotherapy, techniques and teaching practices arose. Our country was closed, unfortunately, from these new trends.

But even in Western countries Skinner's theories were heavily criticized in the media due to his denial of creativity, personality and freedom. Philosophers criticized him for his lack of coverage and consideration of problems inner world individuals, psychologists because, in principle, he did not study many other problems.

Despite all this, Skinner was able to justify his vision of human nature, without taking into account intuitive moments and references to divine providence.

We are accustomed to the fact that a psychologist is a person who will listen, help and give advice, and at whose appointment you can lie on the couch and cry to your heart's content. Although psychologists were not always like this. They once tortured people and maliciously manipulated them. Such psychologists were called behaviorists, and their history began more than a hundred years ago.

John Watson and "pieces of meat"

Dr. Watson's namesake was born in California in 1878. John's religious mother dreamed that her son would become a preacher, and therefore smoking, drinking and dancing were prohibited in the family. The only entertainment was Baptist confessional meetings, which lasted three days. Watson's father did not share his wife's Christian lifestyle and, soon after John's birth, ran away from the family to two Cherokee Indian women.

When Watson turned thirteen, he followed the example of his invisible father and went to great lengths: he began to defy teachers, drink, smoke and do things that his mother never did even with the lights off. Soon Watson could already boast of two arrests - for a fight and shooting within the city.

The family decides to take the shame off to Baptist College. There, the atheist Watson becomes an outcast. But he meets Pastor Gordon Moore, a heretic and teacher of fashion psychology. Soon the odious professor was kicked out, and Watson followed him to the University of Chicago.

There Watson becomes disillusioned with psychology, which then resembled science even less than it does now. The psychologist’s main method of work was self-reports from subjects, and Watson did not trust people. Instead of people, he studied rats: of course, it is pointless to demand self-reports from them, but you can observe and record their behavior from the outside.

Gradually, Watson decided to transfer this principle to humans. In 1913, he published the article “Psychology from the Point of View of a Behaviorist,” where he stated: consciousness is subjective, behavior needs to be studied, and “the difference between man and beast” is insignificant. Humans are a species of animal, and the task of psychologists is to predict and control their reactions.

The article makes a splash. Watson turns speculative psychology into a serious science. In addition, by the beginning of the 20th century, German-speaking countries were at the forefront of the study of the psyche. Watson proposed the American way of development of psychology and in 1915 became president of the American Psychological Association.

Having become acquainted with the works of Pavlov, John decided to teach people reactions in the same manner that the Russian used with dogs. In 1920, Watson conducted an experiment that psychologists later called the most cruel in the history of their science. In one of the hospitals, John found 9-month-old Albert. His mother “heard something” about Watson and, without hesitation, agreed to the scientist’s experiments in a confidence-inspiring, well-tailored suit.

The essence of the experiment (Watson did not tell Albert’s mother about it) was as follows. John showed the boy a rabbit. The child pulled his hands towards the animal. At this moment, the assistant hit the metal shield, which made a frighteningly loud sound, and the child began to cry. The experiment was repeated many times - a silent but very dramatic video about the relationship between a boy and animals was preserved. Soon Albert was hiccupping with fear at the sight of the rat, the rabbit, the fur coat and Santa Claus's beard.

Continuing to experiment on his own and other people's children, Watson wrote the book " Psychological help baby and child." “Help” became a bestseller: 100,000 copies were sold in a couple of months. Publications began interviewing John, and he began to be invited to conferences.

As a result, in the first half of the 20th century, every second American was raised “according to Watson.” Fortunately, it didn’t always work out: the behavioral psychologist had serious demands. Thus, Watson argued that in order for “pieces of meat” (yes, this is a quote) to grow independent, they should never be touched. Excessive parental love is pedophilia.

The most important thing is to teach a child to use the potty correctly: Watson devotes an entire chapter to “the den of Satan” (as Watson’s mother called the intestines that were not emptied on time). Children need to be protected from “homosexuality”: boys should not be sent to Boy Scouts, and girls should be almost legally prohibited from holding hands.

The results of Watson's upbringing are visible in the destinies of his own children. My daughter spent her life attempting suicide. The son became a Freudian and challenged his father's ideas. He didn’t argue for long: unlike his sister, he managed to commit suicide the second time.

John's other children were luckier: after undergoing psychotherapy, they began to live normal lives. True, intestinal problems did not stop haunting them.

And Watson's granddaughter, Emmy winner Maryet Hartley, wrote a book about her grandfather and her own manic-depressive psychosis.

Nevertheless, Watson's authority and contribution to psychology are undeniable to this day. A year before his death he was awarded highest award American Psychological Association, and was recently named one of the twenty most influential psychologists of all time.

Mr Skinner and the Kamikaze Pigeons

Burress Frederick Skinner, born in Pennsylvania in 1904, was interested in invention from childhood. Because of this, he was almost thrown out of college: he constantly played tricks on the teachers. Once he even installed a complex trigger mechanism to a bucket of water above the door. But the apparatus for sifting out unripe mountain ash made Skinner the most successful young entrepreneur in the state.

After college, Fred locked himself in the attic of his father's house, wanting to write a novel. It didn’t work out; from the pen of an unrecognized genius only sluggish humoresques came out. Skinner suffered, grew dirty, snapped. Friends advised me to contact a shrink. After attending a couple of sessions, Fred unexpectedly decided to become a psychologist himself.

In those years, experiments on animals had a drawback: they were carried out “by eye”, their results depended not so much on the rats, hamsters and pigeons themselves, but on the reaction of the scientist holding a stopwatch in his hand. The “Skinner box” invented by Fred helped solve this problem, because it recorded the behavior of animals with computer accuracy.

When placed in a Skinner box, a pigeon would randomly flap its wings and receive food. The pigeon began to flap its wings on purpose, but the reinforcement stopped. The pigeon, continuing its flapping, accidentally leaned over - and suddenly received food again. Increasing the reaction, Fred forced the pigeon to turn around, squat and perform other obscene things.

Unexpectedly, Skinner's pigeons came in handy in the war: as part of the Pigeon Project, Fred trained kamikaze pigeons. Under the guidance of a behaviorist, the world's birds have learned to correct the flight of a rocket. But unfortunately for the ambitious Skinner and fortunately for the world (and the pigeons), the war is over.

Like Watson, Skinner dreamed of building an ideal society. After the war, he sat down to write the utopian novel Walden 2. Fred's book, published simultaneously with 1984, described a small community built on the laws of reinforcement and punishment. The total control that frightened Orwell was presented in Skinner's novel as a common good.

In an interview, Skinner admitted that the ideas in the novel seemed creepy even to him. But this did not bother his fans at all: inspired by Walden, they organized the Twin Oaks commune, which exists to this day. After the birth of his second child, Skinner casually invented a crib that maintained an optimal microclimate for the baby. Fred sent an article about the crib to a women's magazine, not realizing that he was ruining his already dubious reputation. The editors, without going into details about the use of the crib, titled the article “Skinner's Baby Box.” A rumor spread across America: Skinner built a training box for a man and locked his one-year-old daughter there.

But despite the rumors, in 1972 the American Psychological Association ranked Skinner first on its list outstanding psychologists XX century. Even the fact that Skinner did not conduct a single experiment on humans in his entire life did not prevent him from bypassing Freud.

PRACTICE OF BEHAVIORISM

In the USSR, behaviorism was recognized as a “dying imperialist theory.” Now Russian authors write that it has outlived its usefulness. This does not prevent behaviorism from still penetrating into all corners of human life.

Watson himself was the founder of behaviorism in product promotion. After leaving university, he moved to the legendary advertising agency JWT, where the country's leading psychologist had to start his career almost from scratch. And although at first John believed that the craft of an advertiser was “little better than growing cabbage,” the desire to bring his own ideas to life allowed Watson to soon become vice president of the company.

Watson was the first to put science in the service of fooling the consumer. Before Watson, advertising only informed, John acted more boldly. He stated that advertising does not sell a product, but a way of life.

It was after Watson that coffee ceased to be just a drink, but began to increase productivity and help in a career. Thanks to him, celebrities appeared in advertising: they shaped positive reaction to a stimulus in the form of toothpaste or chocolate.

“Sex sells” is another Watson formula. But the point is not the symbolic acquisition of beauty, as modern advertisers explain the sultry beauty on the packaging of diapers. Watson's idea is simple: if fear can be associated with a rabbit, then sexual arousal can be associated with anything. In this case, the quality of the product is not important. A buyer who takes a product because of its beautiful packaging will buy it and will not compare it with analogues. Slogans are also important. Watson came up with many of them himself, to the best of his ideas about beauty. Behaviorism is used in displaying goods, stimulating unnecessary purchases, and building customer loyalty. You didn't buy a chocolate bar located at eye level with a child, and he lay down on the floor of the supermarket and threw a tantrum? Took 10 thousand worth of goods and received a bag as a gift? Eating at a third-rate diner for the eighth time, hoping to get your eleventh meal free? Greetings from behaviorist Watson.

PSYCHOTHERAPY

Behaviorism formed the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, which is familiarly called CBT. According to many experts, this is much more effective method achieve success with the patient than long and tedious psychotherapy.

Wanting to smooth over the aftermath of the experiments with Albert, John took 6-year-old Peter, who was afraid of rats without the help of a doctor, and decided to “knock down” this reaction with sweets. Frightened by a rat at the other end of the room, the boy ate and calmed down. Watson moved the cage closer. Even closer. Soon Peter even began to feed the animal*. The rat became associated with pleasure. This method is still used in psychology. Only instead of eating they use relaxation.

Other people's problems are self-sustaining cycles that force them to step on the same rake. A man has submitted a report to his boss and is worried about the result (can you imagine, there are people who really care about this!). The report is approved. "I was worried - everything went well." Then the person gets excited again and receives praise again. When the third report is smashed to smithereens, the person thinks that he didn’t worry enough. And the fourth time increases fear tenfold.

Registration of the level of fear and the result obtained (in order to understand that this is not connected in any way), relaxation, meditation, sex, drugs and rock and roll, as well as the skill of ignoring what is happening, help to destroy the cycle.

CBT is so effective that it is included in the American health insurance system. A behaviorist does not delve into past traumas, but solves the problem here and now. Psychoanalysts believe that understanding the problem will change behavior, and they look for it (the problem) until old age. Behaviorism works directly with behavior and copes with a number of situations in a couple of months.

The KB therapist does not coddle with the patient, but pushes him to solve the problem. Requirement for a consultant: he himself does not have clients’ problems, he should be an example, and not solve in parallel own difficulties, as psychologists from TV series do.

STAFF MOTIVATION

If instead of a bonus you have a corporate party with an Buyer, blame the behaviorists: the roots of “non-material motivation” grow from there.

The fact is that behaviorists have proven that raising wages does not work in the long run. Any reinforcement becomes boring. In order for a pigeon to dance a jig in a box, the stimulus in the form of food must be replaced after a while.

After a salary increase, the “hardworking” response quickly fades. The reward should vary and surprise the employee. Of course, you can surprise with a bonus in Chinese euros (not every day they pay in a non-existent currency), but there are also cheaper ways of “stroking” employees - like the already mentioned corporate party or exotic positions. Thus, Apple avoided staff outflow by renaming the position “consultant” to “genius”.

PEDAGOGY

The idea that it is wrong to spank a child existed before the behaviorists, but it was of a moral nature. Gingerbread supporters insisted that it was somehow wrong to put children on peas. “Yes, it’s wrong,” the parents agreed. “But how can we raise people from them?”

Skinner proved: Physical punishment ineffective. “The child will not change behavior. He will learn to avoid punishment." You get used to punishment faster than to encouragement. The first time a slap in the face is enough, the second time a belt. To discourage people from meddling where they shouldn’t, you need to raise the stakes. As a result, only the physical destruction of the child can stop the wrong behavior.

If punishment is inevitable, you should not flog, but deprive him of positive reinforcement: not take him to the zoo or take away the binoculars through which the child spies on his neighbor changing clothes. When punishing, you need to offer a model of correct behavior and “buns” for its implementation.

PROFILING OF CRIMINALS

The TV series Criminal Minds talks about behaviorism. Now there will be spoilers. The fact is that attempts to create a portrait of a maniac have been made since the time of Jack the Ripper, but John Douglas from the FBI Behavioral Analysis Unit is considered a pioneer in the study of killers.

Douglas developed a technique for calculating criminals based on their behavior. Studying the case materials, the investigator identifies two qualities of the killer: the method of action and handwriting. Mode (modus operandi) is everything the criminal does to kill the victim. Picking locks indicates a possible criminal past, dexterous handling of a knife indicates service as a soldier in the army or as a cook in the kitchen. If the murders are committed between 18.30 and 19.00, it is possible that the killer is letting off steam on his way home from work.

The modus operandi can change (“the window keeper” can take a couple of lessons from a familiar bugbear) and says nothing about the pathology of the maniac. If there is no knife, the killer uses a hammer. The method is being improved, making it possible to determine the experience of a maniac.

But handwriting is already a murderer's fetish. The handwriting may include items stolen for collection or left at a crime scene, the type of victim, or damage caused. Handwriting, unlike the method, is unshakable, because it satisfies psychological need from murder. That is, without handwriting, a crime is simply meaningless.

Often the newspapers get information about the method of murder, not the handwriting. This makes it possible to identify the imitator: if he reproduced the modus, but did not leave a withered rose, most likely the crime was committed for personal rather than pathological reasons.

Distinguishing between method and handwriting is not always easy. It is important to remember: modus operandi is “how”, handwriting is “why”. If the killer uses any blunt object (a vase, a dumbbell, a volume of the Soviet Encyclopedia), we are talking about a method of murder. But when it is possible to establish that all the victims were killed with a can of peas, this is a signature.

For comparison. Do you prefer to meet people in clubs? But if a girl turns up in a different situation, you will also take advantage of it. But if you like to have sex in a women's bra, then without this element you simply will not enjoy the process.

The Douglas method has proven its effectiveness. But it also has its opponents, who say it is unscientific, confuses police and ruins the lives of innocent people. If you want to become more familiar with behavioral profiling but are too lazy to binge watch 10 seasons of Criminal Minds, there is another option. Watch David Fincher's Netflix series Mindhunter, in the creation of which John Douglas was directly involved.

Frederick Skinner is one of the most influential American psychologists in history, an atheist and a radical behaviorist. He developed perhaps the main theory in behaviorism - the theory of operant conditioning. Despite serious development psychology since the formation of the basic positions of Skinner's teachings, his principles continue to work effectively in science. For example, in the treatment of phobias or in the fight against various dependencies. Skinner believed that the only correct approach to the study of psychology was the approach that studies the behavior of subjects (humans, animals, etc.). Therefore, in fact, he denied the existence of the mind outside the body, however, he did not deny the existence of thoughts that can be analyzed using the same principles that apply to the analysis of external behavior.

Skinner: a unique personality from birth

Burres Frederick Skinner was born in 1904 in the small town of Susquehanna, in Philadelphia. His father was a lawyer, and his mother was a strong-willed, intelligent housewife, which predetermined the child’s upbringing. Frederick grew up in a conservative religious environment, where hard labour and love for God. From an early age, Skinner was an active boy, preferring games fresh air, loved to build, create various things. He studied with pleasure, although, despite all the efforts of his mother and teachers, he remained an atheist. His growing up was not without tragic event: younger brother died at the age of sixteen from a cerebral aneurysm.

Frederick Skinner graduates from Hamilton College in New York in 1926 with a degree in English Literature. However, studying did not bring him much pleasure: he was usually left to his own devices, since he did not like football and sports in general, and he was not attracted to fraternity parties. Moreover, the college rules obliged him to attend church every day, which also did not please the future psychologist. While studying in college, he wrote articles for the faculty newspaper, in which he often criticized the college, Teaching Staff and the administration and even the oldest student fraternity, Phi Beta Kappa.

Passion for writing and entry into psychology

Frederick Skinner always wanted to be a writer, which is why he made numerous attempts to find himself in the craft of writing: he composed both prose and poetry, and sent works to newspapers and magazines. After receiving his diploma, he even built himself a studio in the attic of his parents’ house, but over time he realized that writing did not give the result he expected. It was not possible to achieve any significant success. “I realized that I had nothing important to say about anything important,” he later said.

Skinner soon stopped collaborating with newspapers, for which he wrote articles about problems in the employment market, and settled in Greenwich Village in New York, living a bohemian life. At the same time he began to travel. Quickly fed up with such a life, Skinner decides to enroll at Harvard to study psychology. He always liked to observe the behavior of animals and humans, so there were no problems with specialization. The psychology department at the university at that time was predominantly focused on introspection (self-observation), and F. Skinner became more and more interested in behaviorism.

Education is what survives when what has been learned is forgotten. F. Skinner

Skinner's research and theory

In 1931, Skinner graduated from Harvard and received a diploma; he continued to engage in research at the university. The most significant theory for the psychology of behaviorism was the doctrine of operant conditioning developed by Skinner or the theory of operant learning. Its emergence was made possible not least thanks to numerous experiments with the so-called “Skinner box”. The device itself was a transparent, small box with a special pedal inside. A laboratory rat was placed in the box and given absolute freedom actions. As a result of chaotic and random movements in the box, each new rat inevitably touched the pedal over and over again. After pressing the pedal, food appeared in the box due to the operation of a special mechanism. After a few random presses, the rat developed a new behavior pattern: when the rat wanted to eat, it pressed the pedal and food appeared. Moreover, this behavior was formed without the participation of any additional incentives.

Skinner called such behavior patterns operants, that is, forms of behavior that represent a developed mechanism: the rat got hungry and pressed the pedal. At the same time, the scientist designated the positive consequences of such behavior as “reinforcements.” Through numerous experiments with different types of reinforcers, Skinner found that there was a pattern with operants followed by positive consequences. It lies in the fact that such forms of behavior occur much more often than others. It turns out that if a rat “knows” that after pressing the pedal it will receive food, then it will repeat this action more often than others.

Similar behavior is typical for pigeons, with which Skinner loved to experiment. If a pigeon accidentally pecks at a red spot located on the floor of the cage and receives a grain, then this operant (an action with the expectation of success) will be repeated more often than others in the future. The same pattern of behavior is true for a person - if he was fed very tasty in one of the restaurants, then he will definitely return there, even if the establishment is located on the other side of the city. In some sources, the described pattern is referred to as the “first law of operant conditioning.” Although Skinner himself called it the “law of benefit.”

Practical value this law is not questioned. After all, now, if a teacher or therapist needs to correct behavior by forming new habits or a new form of behavior, then it is enough to use positive reinforcement for the “target” behavior. By constantly reinforcing this behavior, the teacher will ensure that the behavior is repeated repeatedly in the future by the student or the therapist by the patient.

Regarding the negative consequences of behavior, Skinner disagrees with many other psychologists. They believe that by imposing a “fine” on such behavior, they can eventually get rid of it altogether. But Skinner says that such a “fine” leads the individual to search for other forms of behavior that may be even more undesirable than the form that led to the punishment.

Life after Harvard

Skinner stayed at Harvard to conduct research for another 5 years after receiving his diploma. In 1936, he left his alma mater and moved to Minnesota, where he received a teaching position at a local university, a position that allowed him to continue research in the field of behaviorism. With the outbreak of the First World War, Skinner had new project: he tried to teach pigeons to be guides during bomb strikes from the air. However, he failed to achieve his goal before the project was closed. But he managed to teach pigeons to play ping-pong.

In 1945, he became head of the psychology department at Indiana University. But, after working in the position for only a few years, he accepted an offer from Harvard University and returned to the position of lecturer at his alma mater. After some time, he received the title of professor, which allowed him to remain at Harvard for the rest of his life.

Main works

Skinner included all the developments in the theory of operant learning in his first published work, “The Behavior of Organisms.” This book has been compared by many to the works of I.P. Pavlov, but while Pavlov focused on reactions to various stimuli, Skinner focused on responses to the environment.

With the advent of his own children, he became increasingly interested in education, which was reflected in his book “Technology of Teaching”. The book was published in 1968. Three years later, his work “Beyond Freedom and Dignity” was published. She came under serious criticism due to the fact that Skinner hinted in the work at a person's lack of free will and individual consciousness. Therefore, later he had to publish the work “About Behaviorism” to smooth out possible false interpretations.

However, in addition to the main early work"The Behavior of Organisms" Skinner's name is often associated with another of his works: "WaldenTwo" ("Second Walden"). This is a work of art, a novel, with the help of which the scientist wanted to satisfy his eternal need for writing. Essentially this is a utopian novel. Despite the fictitiousness of the plot, Skinner applied some provisions of the theory of operant conditioning when describing the events. The people of the community described in the novel are raised from childhood through a system of rewards and punishments in order to become adults. good people. Which implies a completely equal position for all individuals, both according to social status: whether a cleaner or a manager, they are equal, and in material terms: there is no currency as such, and the daily rate for using any benefits of society is 4 credits, which are earned according to the plan and distribution of managers.

The novel somewhat damaged Skinner's reputation as a scientist among some of his colleagues; others noted his dubious emphasis on scientific approach, which does not take into account other aspects of human existence. However, there are several known attempts to create a similar community in modern conditions. For example, the Twin Oaks community, which still exists today. However, it has moved away from most of the principles of Skinner's fictional society, but continues to use his idea of ​​​​planning and loans.

Family in the life of Frederick Skinner

Great value in scientific life Skinner had it own family. He met his wife Yvonne Blue while working at the University of Minnesota. In their marriage they had two daughters. The second daughter of the Skinner couple grew up in infancy in a special device invented by her father - in a “plexiglass heated crib with a window” (Aircrib). Skinner decided to take such a step after his wife’s requests during pregnancy to come up with a safe crib for their baby. Due to the fact that the couple then lived in Minnesota, the father of the family took into account both climatic factors and the general state of the environment in the state.

IN engineering plan The crib, invented by Skinner, was a large metal bed with a ceiling, three walls and plexiglass glass that could be raised or lowered if it was necessary to pick up or place the baby in the crib. Parents could regulate temperature and humidity using special device located on top of the crib. Came from below fresh air. Deborah – that was the girl’s name – spent the first two years of her life in such a crib. By all accounts, she was healthy, and she also had a very happy childhood and adulthood.

Unfortunately, Skinner's invention was not destined to become commercially successful, despite its fame and recognition. The press did their best: after several photographs of his daughter in the crib, many people had a direct association with the “Skinner Box”, as well as with reinforcements, levers and other things. In addition, people are very careful when it comes to technologies that replace the work of a loving mother. Perhaps the criticism was unfounded real reasons: Deborah Skinner grew up healthy and happy child, she had no problems with the crib and always talked about her childhood in in a positive way.

I don't admire myself as a person. My successes do not negate my shortcomings. F. Skinner

Last years of life and legacy

IN last years Skinner was still active in his life scientific activity, although he somewhat moved away from direct research. In several autobiographical works, the scientist tried to give logical order to his rich life and chronologically build its important milestones. But he carried out research in the field of behaviorism even at an advanced age, although the diagnosis of leukemia in 1989 seriously limited his activity. He lost his battle with the disease on August 18, 1990, when he died at the age of 86 at his home in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

The basic principles of Skinner's theory live on, primarily thanks to the B.F. SkinnerFoundation,” whose president today is his eldest daughter Julia Skinner (married Vargas). Throughout his life, the scientist received more than two dozen “Honorary Degrees” from various US higher educational institutions. A few days before his death, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award from American Association psychologists. He published more than 20 books and wrote about 180 articles, and his contemporaries recognize him as a pioneer of modern behaviorism along with John Watson and Ivan Pavlov. According to many researchers, Skinner is the second most influential psychologist in history after Sigmund Freud.

List of used literature:

1. Melnik S.N., Personality Psychology, Vladivostok, Far Eastern State University, 2004.
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3. Psychotherapeutic Encyclopedia / Ed. B.D. Karvasarsky, St. Petersburg, “Peter”, 2006
4. Fifty modern thinkers on education, from Piaget to the present day / Ed. Joya Palmera, M., “Higher School of Economics”, 2012
5. Benjamin, L.T., Jr. & Nielson-Gammon, E. (1999). B.F. Skinner and psychotechnology: The case of the hair conditioner. Review of General Psychology, 3, 155-167. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.3.3.155
6. Bjork, D. W. (1996). B. F. Skinner: A life. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
7. Epstein, R. (1995, November 1). Babies in boxes. Psychology Today. Retrieved from http://psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19951101-000010.html
8. Skinner, B. F. (1945). Baby in a box: The mechanical baby-tender. The Ladies Home Journal, 62, 30-31, 135-136, 138.
9. Skinner-Buzan, D. (2004, March 12). I was not a lab rat. Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2004/mar/12/highereducation.uk