Almost all nations have had revolutions in history. But today we will talk about french revolution, which began to be called the Great.
The largest transformation of social and political systems s of France, which led to the destruction of the absolute monarchy and the proclamation of the First French Republic.
We will tell you about the Great French Revolution from various sources.
Source I – Wikipedia
Reasons for the revolution
The beginning of the revolution was the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and historians consider the end to be November 9, 1799 (the coup of the 18th Brumaire).
France in the 18th century was absolute monarchy, based on bureaucratic centralization and regular army. The existing socio-economic and political regime formed as a result of complex compromises developed over a long period of time political confrontation and civil wars of the XIV-XVI centuries. One of these compromises existed between royal power and the privileged classes - for the refusal political rights state power protected with all the means at its disposal social privileges these two classes.
Another compromise existed in relation to the peasantry - over a long series peasant wars XIV-XVI centuries the peasants achieved the abolition of the overwhelming majority cash taxes and the transition to natural relations in agriculture. The third compromise existed in relation to the bourgeoisie (which at that time was the middle class, in whose interests the government also did a lot, maintaining a number of privileges of the bourgeoisie in relation to the bulk of the population (peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, the owners of which constituted a layer of French bourgeois). However, the regime that emerged as a result of these complex compromises did not provide normal development France, which in the 18th century. began to lag behind its neighbors, primarily from England. In addition, excessive exploitation increasingly armed the masses against the monarchy, whose vital interests were completely ignored by the state.
Gradually during the 18th century. At the top of French society there was a mature understanding that the old order with its underdeveloped market relations, chaos in the management system, corrupt sales system government positions, the lack of clear legislation, a confusing taxation system and an archaic system of class privileges need to be reformed. Besides, royalty lost credibility in the eyes of the clergy, nobility and bourgeoisie, among whom the idea was asserted that the power of the king was a usurpation in relation to the rights of estates and corporations (Montesquieu's point of view) or in relation to the rights of the people (Rousseau's point of view). Thanks to the activities of educators, of whom the physiocrats and encyclopedists are especially important, a revolution took place in the minds of the educated part of French society. Finally, under Louis XV and even more so under Louis XVI, liberal reforms in political and economic areas. Granting some political rights to the third estate along with a significant deterioration of its economic situation as a result of reforms inevitably led to the collapse of the Old Order.
The meaning of the Great French Revolution
Accelerated the development of capitalism and the collapse of feudalism
Influenced the entire subsequent struggle of peoples for the principles of democracy
Became a lesson, example and warning to life transformers in other countries
Contributed to the development of national identity European peoples
Source II – catastrofe.ru
Characteristic look
The Great French Revolution is the largest transformation of the social and political systems of France that occurred in late XVIII century, as a result of which the Old Order was destroyed, and France from a monarchy became a de jure republic of free and equal citizens. Motto: Freedom, equality, brotherhood.
The beginning of the revolution was the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and various historians consider its end to be July 27, 1794 (Thermidorian coup) or November 9, 1799 (Coup of the 18th Brumaire).
Marxist historians argue that the Great French Revolution was “bourgeois” in nature and consisted of a change feudal system capitalist, and the leading role in this process was played by the “bourgeois class”, which overthrew the “feudal aristocracy” during the revolution. Most other historians disagree, pointing out that feudalism in France disappeared several centuries before the revolution; the French aristocracy actually included more than just large landowners, but also large capitalists) it was the French aristocracy that imposed capitalist (market) relations during the 25-30 years preceding 1789, the revolution began with mass uprisings of peasants and townspeople, which were anti-capitalist in nature, and they continued throughout its entire course, with active participation the bourgeoisie, which represented the French middle class) Those who found themselves in power after the first stage of the revolution, especially in the provinces, for the most part did not come from the bourgeoisie, but were nobles who were at the helm of power even before the revolution - collecting taxes, rent from the population, etc.
Among non-Marxist historians, two views prevail on the nature of the Great French Revolution, which do not contradict each other. The traditional view, which arose at the end of the 18th - early XIX centuries (Sieyès, Barnave, Guizot), considers the revolution as a nationwide uprising against the aristocracy, its privileges and its methods of oppressing the masses, from which revolutionary terror against the privileged classes, the desire of the revolutionaries to destroy everything that was associated with the Old Order and build a new free and democratic society. From these aspirations flowed the main slogans of the revolution - freedom, equality, brotherhood.
According to the second view, which shares big number modern historians(including I. Wallerstein, P. Guber, A. Cobbo, D. Guerin, E. Leroy Ladurie, B. Moore, Huneke and others) the revolution was anti-capitalist in nature and represented an explosion of mass protest against capitalism or against those methods its distribution, which was used by the ruling elite.
There are other opinions about the nature of the revolution. For example, historians F. Furet and D. Richet view the revolution to a large extent as a struggle for power between various factions that replaced each other several times during 1789-1799. There is a view of the revolution as the liberation of the bulk of the population (peasants) from a monstrous system of oppression or some kind of slavery, hence the main slogan of the revolution - freedom, equality, brotherhood.
From the storming of the Bastille to the march on Versailles
When preparation royal court to the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly became obvious, this was enough to cause an even greater explosion of discontent among the Parisians, who linked the prospects for improving their position with the work of the National Assembly. On July 12, 1789, new clashes occurred between the people and the troops in Paris; Camille Desmoulins called the people to arms by attaching a green ribbon to his hat. On July 13, the alarm sounded over Paris.
On the morning of July 14, 12 cannons, 32 thousand rifles and gunpowder for them were captured in the Invalides. Countless crowds of people, armed partly with guns, but also with pikes, hammers, axes and clubs, flooded the streets adjacent to the Bastille - military fortress and the main political prison of Paris. The officers of the regiments stationed in Paris no longer counted on their soldiers. Communication with Versailles was interrupted. At about one o'clock in the afternoon the fortress's cannons began firing at the people.
However, the people continued the siege, and the cannons captured in the morning were prepared to bombard the fortress. The garrison realized that resistance was pointless, and surrendered at about five o'clock.
The king was forced to acknowledge the existence of the Constituent Assembly. In the following weeks, the revolution spread throughout the country. On July 18, an uprising took place in Troyes, on July 19 in Strasbourg, on July 21 in Cherbourg, and on July 24 in Rouen. In a number of cities, uprisings took place under the slogans “Bread! Death to the buyers! The rebels seized grain, took possession of local town halls, and burned documents stored there.
Subsequently, new elected authorities - municipalities - were formed in the cities, and a new armed force was created - the National Guard.
The rebel peasants burned the castles of the lords, seizing their lands. In some provinces, about half of the landowners' estates were burned or destroyed. (these events of 1789 were called the “Great Fear” - Grande Peur).
By decrees of August 4-11, the Constituent Assembly abolished personal feudal duties, seigneurial courts, church tithes, privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations and declared the equality of all before the law in the payment of state taxes and the right to occupy civil, military and ecclesiastical offices. But at the same time it announced the elimination of only “indirect” duties (the so-called banalities): the “real” duties of the peasants, in particular, land and poll taxes, were retained.
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen” - one of the first documents of democratic constitutionalism. The “old regime”, based on class privileges and the arbitrariness of the authorities, was opposed to the equality of all before the law, the inalienability of “natural” human rights, popular sovereignty, freedom of opinion, the principle “everything is permitted that is not prohibited by law” and other democratic principles of revolutionary enlightenment, which have now become requirements of law and current legislation. The Declaration also affirmed the right of private property as a natural right.
On October 5, a march took place on Versailles to the king's residence in order to force Louis XVI to authorize the decrees and Declaration, which the monarch had previously refused to approve. Wherein National Assembly ordered Lafayette, commander of the National Guard, to lead the guards to Versailles. As a result of this campaign, the king was forced to leave Versailles and move to Paris, to the Tuileries Palace.
Source III – studopedia.ru
I am the Kobe dictatorship
On September 21, the Republic (First Republic) was proclaimed in France. The motto of the Republic was the slogan “Liberty, equality and fraternity.”
The question that worried everyone then was the fate of the arrested King Louis XVI. The convention decided to try him. On January 14, 1793, 387 deputies of the Convention out of 749 voted to give the king death penalty. One of the deputies of the Convention explained his participation in the vote this way: “This process is an act of public salvation or a measure of public safety...” On January 21, Louis XVI was executed, and in October 1793, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed.
The execution of Louis XVI served as a reason for the expansion of the anti-French coalition, which included England and Spain. Failures on the external front, deepening economic difficulties within the country, rising taxes - all this shook the position of the Girondins. Unrest intensified in the country, pogroms and murders began, and on May 31 - June 2, 1793, a popular uprising took place. The third stage of the Revolution begins with this event.
Power passed into the hands of radical strata of the bourgeoisie, which relied on the bulk of the urban population and the peasantry. The Montagnards' national victory was preceded by their victory over their opponents in the Jacobin Club; therefore, the regime they established was called the Jacobin dictatorship. To save the revolution, the Jacobins believed necessary introduction emergency regime. The Jacobins recognized centralization as an indispensable condition state power. The convention remained supreme legislative body. Subordinate to him was a government of 11 people - the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Robespierre. The Committee of Public Safety of the Convention for the fight against and counter-revolution was strengthened, and revolutionary tribunals were activated.
The position of the new government was difficult. The war was raging. There were riots in most departments of France, especially the Vendée. In the summer of 1793, Marat was killed by a young noblewoman, Charlotte Corday, which had a serious impact on the course of further political events.
The Jacobins continued their attack on the Catholic Church and introduced a republican calendar. In June 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution, according to which France was declared a single and indivisible Republic; the supremacy of the people, equality of people in rights, and broad democratic freedoms were consolidated. The property qualification was abolished when participating in elections in government bodies; all men over the age of 21 received voting rights. Wars of conquest were condemned. This constitution was the most democratic of all French constitutions, but its introduction was delayed due to state of emergency in the country.
Jacobin dictatorship, which successfully used the initiative of the social lower classes, demonstrated a complete denial of liberal principles. Industrial production And Agriculture, finance and trade, public celebrations and private life citizens - everything was subject to strict regulation. However, this did not stop the further deepening of economic and social crisis. In September 1793 the Convention "put terror on the agenda."
The Committee of Public Safety carried out a number of important measures to reorganize and strengthen the army, thanks to which a fairly short time The republic managed to create not only a large but also a well-armed army. And by the beginning of 1794, the war was transferred to enemy territory. Decisive victory General J.B. Jourdan on June 26, 1794 at Fleurus (Belgium) over the Austrians gave guarantees of the inviolability of new property, the tasks of the Jacobin dictatorship were exhausted, and the need for it disappeared.
Internal divisions intensified among the Jacobins. Thus, Danton, from the autumn of 1793, demanded a weakening of the revolutionary dictatorship, a return to constitutional order, renunciation of the policy of terror. He was executed. The lower classes demanded deeper reforms. Most of bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with the policies of the Jacobins, who carried out a restrictive regime and dictatorial methods, switched to counter-revolutionary positions, dragging along significant masses of peasants.
On Thermidor 9 (July 27), 1794, the conspirators managed to carry out a coup, arrest Robespierre, and overthrow the revolutionary government. “The Republic has perished, the kingdom of robbers has come,” these were last words Robespierre at the Convention. On the 10th of Thermidor, Robespierre, Saint-Just, and their closest associates were guillotined.
Thermidorian coup and the Directory. In September 1794, for the first time in the history of France, a decree was adopted on the separation of church and state. Confiscations and sales of emigrant property did not stop.
In 1795, a new constitution was adopted, according to which power transferred to the Directory and two councils - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. Universal suffrage was abolished, and the property qualification (albeit a small one) was restored. In the summer of 1795, the republican army of General L. Ghosh defeated the forces of the rebels - the Chouans and royalists, who landed from English ships on the Quiberon Peninsula (Brittany). On October 5 (13 Vendemier), 1795, the republican troops of Napoleon Bonaparte suppressed the royalist rebellion in Paris. However, in the politics of the changing groups in power (Thermidorians, the Directory), the struggle with the masses of the people became increasingly widespread. Were suppressed popular uprisings in Paris April 1 and May 20-23, 1795 (12-13 Germinal and 1-4 Prairial). On November 9, 1799, the Council of Elders appointed Brigadier General Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) as commander of the army. Large-scale external aggression - Napoleonic Wars in Italy, Egypt, etc. – defended Thermidorian France both from the threat of restoration of the old order and from a new rise of the revolutionary movement.
The revolution ended on November 9 (18 Brumaire) 1799, when the Directory regime was “legally” eliminated and a new one was established public order– Consulate, which existed from 1799 to 1804. “Solid power” was established - the dictatorship of Napoleon.
The main results of the Great French Revolution
1. It consolidated and simplified the complex variety of pre-revolutionary forms of ownership.
2. The lands of many (but not all) nobles were sold to peasants in small plots (parcels) in installments over 10 years.
3. Abolished the privileges of the nobility and clergy and introduced equal social opportunities for all citizens. All this contributed to the expansion of civil rights in all European countries ah, the introduction of constitutions.
4. The revolution took place under the auspices of representative elected bodies: the National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791), Legislative Assembly(1791–1792), Convention (1792–1794) This contributed to the development of parliamentary democracy, despite subsequent setbacks.
5. The resolution gave birth to something new government structure- parliamentary republic.
6. Guarantor equal rights the state now acted for the citizens.
7. Was transformed financial system: the class nature of taxes was abolished, the principle of their universality and proportionality to income or property was introduced. The budget was declared open.
On July 14, 1789, in Paris, an armed crowd approached the walls of the Bastille. After four hours of firefight, having no prospects of withstanding the siege, the garrison of the fortress surrendered. The Great French Revolution began.
For many generations of French, the Bastille fortress, where the garrison of the city guard, royal officials and, of course, the prison were located, was a symbol of the omnipotence of kings. Although initially its construction was purely military in nature - it began in mid-XIV century, when in France there was hundred years war. After the devastating defeats at Cressy and Poitiers, the issue of defense of the capital was very acute and a boom in the construction of bastions and watchtowers began in Paris. Actually, the name Bastille came from this very word (bastide or bastille).
However, the fortress was immediately intended to be used as a place of detention. state criminals, which was quite common in the Middle Ages. Building separate structures for this was expensive and irrational. The Bastille acquired its famous outlines under Charles V, during whose time construction was especially intensive. In fact, by 1382 the structure looked almost the same as when it fell in 1789.
The Bastille was a long, massive, quadrangular building, facing the city on one side and the suburbs on the other, with 8 towers, a vast courtyard, and surrounded by a wide and deep moat, through which was thrown suspension bridge. All this together was still surrounded by a wall, which had only one gate on the side of the Saint-Antoine suburb. Each tower had three types of premises: at the very bottom - a dark and gloomy cellar, where restless prisoners or those caught trying to escape were kept; The length of stay here depended on the commandant of the fortress. The next floor consisted of one room with a triple door and a window with three bars. In addition to the bed, the room also had a table and two chairs. At the very top of the tower there was another roofed room (calotte), which also served as a place of punishment for prisoners. The commandant's house and the soldiers' barracks were located in the second, outer courtyard.
The reason for the storming of the Bastille was rumors about the decision of King Louis XVI to disperse the Constituent Assembly formed on July 9, 1789 and about the removal of the reformer Jacques Necker from the post of state controller of finance.
On July 12, 1789, Camille Desmoulins made his speech at the Palais Royal, after which an uprising broke out. On July 13, the Arsenal, the Invalides and the city hall were looted, and on the 14th an armed large crowd approached the Bastille. Gülen and Eli, both officers, were chosen to command the assault royal troops. The assault was not so much symbolic as practical meaning- The rebels were mainly interested in the Bastille arsenal, which could be used to arm volunteers.
True, at first they tried to resolve the matter peacefully - a delegation of townspeople invited the commandant of the Bastille, the Marquis de Launay, to voluntarily surrender the fortress and open the arsenals, to which he refused. After this, from about one o'clock in the afternoon, a shootout began between the defenders of the fortress and the rebels. Launay, knowing full well that there was nothing to count on for help from Versailles, and that he would not be able to withstand this siege for long, decided to blow up the Bastille.
But at the very time when he, with a lit fuse in his hands, wanted to go down into the powder magazine, two non-commissioned officers Beccard and Ferran rushed at him, and, taking away the fuse, forced him to convene a military council. Almost unanimously it was decided to surrender. Was raised White flag, and a few minutes later, along the lowered drawbridge, Gülen and Eli, and behind them big crowd, entered the courtyard of the Bastille.
The matter was not without atrocities, and several officers and soldiers, led by the commandant, were immediately hanged. Seven Bastille prisoners were released, among them the Count de Lorges, who had been imprisoned here for more than forty years. However, the reality of the existence of this prisoner is questioned by many historians. Skeptics believe that this character and his entire story are the figment of the imagination of the revolutionary-minded journalist Jean-Louis Kapp. But it is reliably known that the extremely interesting archive of the Bastille was looted, and only part of it has survived to our times.
The day after the assault, it was officially decided to destroy and demolish the Bastille. Work began immediately, which continued until May 16, 1791. Miniature images of the Bastille were made from broken fortress stones and sold as souvenirs. Most of the stone blocks were used to build the Concord Bridge.
1789-1804 – The French Revolution .
Stages of the Great French Revolution:
first – 07/14/1789-08/10/1792;
second – 08/10/1792-05/31/1793;
third – 06/02/1793-06/27/1794;
fourth – 06/27/1794-11/09/1799;
fifth – 09.11/1799-18.05/1804.
First stage
Troops loyal to the king gathered in Versailles and Paris. The Parisians spontaneously rose to fight. By the morning of July 14, most of the capital was already in the hands of the insurgent people.
14.07/1789 – storming of the Bastille.
08/26/1789 – acceptance Constituent Assembly French kingdom Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. It proclaimed the sacred and inalienable rights of man and citizen: personal freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, security and resistance to oppression. The right of property was declared just as sacred and inviolable, and a decree was promulgated declaring all church property national.
The Constituent Assembly approved a new administrative division of the kingdom into 83 departments, abolished the class division and abolished all titles of nobility and clergy, feudal duties, class privileges, abolished guilds, and proclaimed freedom of enterprise.
05.10/1789 – women's march to Versailles.
06/21/1791 – attempted escape of Louis XVI and his family abroad.
14.09/1791 – signing Louis XVI Constitutions of the Kingdom of France, dissolution Constituent Assembly of the Kingdom of France, convocation Legislative Assembly of the Kingdom of France.
Austria and Prussia entered into an alliance with each other and announced that they would prevent the spread of everything that threatened the monarchy in France and the security of all European powers.
1791-1797 – I Anti-French Coalition - Austria and Prussia, from 1793 - Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Naples and Tuscany, in 1795-1796 - Russia.
04/22/1792 – France declares war on Austria.
Second phase
10.08/1792 –insurrection Paris Commune .
During this period, the Paris Commune became the body of Parisian city self-government. She closed many monarchist newspapers, arrested former ministers, abolished the property qualification, and all men over the age of 21 received voting rights.
Under the leadership of the Paris Commune, preparations began for the assault on the Tuileries Palace, where the king was located. Without waiting for the assault, the king and his family left the palace and came to the Legislative Assembly of the Kingdom of France. The rebels captured the Tuileries Palace.
08/11/1792 – resolution of the Legislative Assembly of the Kingdom of France on the removal of the king from power and the convening of a new one supreme body authorities - National Convention of the French Kingdom. For trial "criminals of August 10" (supporters of the king) The Legislative Assembly of the Kingdom of France established Extraordinary Tribunal of the Kingdom of France.
09/20/1792 – defeat of the Prussians by the French in Battle of Valmy, opening National Convention of the French Republic.
Political leadership moved on to Girondins , representing predominantly the commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. They constituted the majority in the Convention. They were opposed Jacobins , which expressed the interests of the revolutionary-democratic bourgeoisie, acting in alliance with the peasantry and plebeians.
A sharp struggle developed between the Jacobins and Girondins. The Girondins were satisfied with the results of the revolution, opposed the execution of the king and opposed the further development of the revolution. The Jacobins considered it necessary to deepen the revolutionary movement.
09/21/1792 – proclamation French Republic.
01/21/1793 – execution of King Louis XVI.
Third stage
31.05-02.06/1793 – Jacobin rebellion– introduction Jacobin dictatorship led by M. Robespierre.
Power passed into the hands of radical strata of the bourgeoisie, which relied on the bulk of the urban population and the peasantry. At this moment, the grassroots had the greatest influence on the government.
The Jacobins recognized the centralization of state power as an indispensable condition. The National Convention of the French Republic remained the highest legislative body. The government was subordinate to him - Committee of Public Safety of the French Republic led by Robespierre. The Committee of Public Safety of the Convention was strengthened to combat counter-revolution, and revolutionary tribunals were activated.
The position of the new government was difficult. The war was raging. In most departments of France, especially the Vendée, there were riots.
1793-1795 – I Vendée mutiny.
1793 – adoption of the new French Republic by the National Convention constitution, - France was declared a single and indivisible republic, the supremacy of the people, equality of people in rights, broad democratic freedoms were consolidated, the property qualification for participation in elections to government bodies was abolished, all men over the age of 21 received voting rights, and wars of conquest were condemned. However, the introduction of the constitution was delayed due to the national emergency.
The Committee of Public Safety carried out a number of important measures to reorganize and strengthen the army, thanks to which, in a fairly short time, France managed to create a large and well-organized army. armed army. By the beginning of 1794, the war was transferred to enemy territory.
07/13/1793 – murder of J.-P. Marata.
10/16/1793 – execution of Queen Marie Antoinette.
1793 – introduction of the French Republic by the National Convention revolutionary calendar . The beginning new era September 22, 1792 was announced - the first day of the existence of the Republic. The month was divided into 3 decades, the months were named according to their characteristic weather, vegetation, fruits or agricultural work. Sundays were abolished. Instead of Catholic holidays, revolutionary holidays were introduced.
The Jacobin Union was held together by the need for a joint struggle against the foreign coalition and counter-revolutionary revolts within the country. When victory was won on the fronts and the rebellions were suppressed, the danger of the restoration of the monarchy diminished, and a rollback of the revolutionary movement began. Internal divisions intensified among the Jacobins. The lower classes demanded deeper reforms. Most of the bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with the policies of the Jacobins, who pursued a restrictive regime and dictatorial methods, switched to counter-revolutionary positions. The leaders Lafayette, Barnave, Lamet, as well as the Girondins, also joined the camp of the counter-revolution. The Jacobin dictatorship increasingly lost popular support.
1793-1794 – Jacobin terror.
1793 - an agreement between Russia and Austria, Great Britain and Prussia, obliging them to help them with troops and money in the fight against France.
1794 - conspiracy in the National Convention of the French Republic against the Jacobins.
Fourth stage
27.07/1794 – Thermidorian coup (Coup of 9 Thermidor).
Thermidorians Now they used terror at their own discretion. They released their supporters from prison and imprisoned Robespierre's supporters. The Paris Commune was immediately abolished.
1795 – adoption by the National Convention of the French Republic of the new constitution- power passed to Directories of the French Republic And Council of Five Hundred of the French Republic And Council of Elders of the French Republic.
1795-1800 – II Vendée Mutiny.
1795-1796 – Triple Alliance between Austria, Great Britain and Russia.
1796-1815 – Napoleonic Wars .
1796-1797 – Italian campaign French.
1797 – French capture of Malta.
1798-1799 – Egyptian expedition French.
1798-1802 – II Anti-French Coalition – Austria, Great Britain, Kingdom of Naples, Ottoman Empire and, until 1799, Russia.
1798 - defeat of the French by the British in naval battle under Abukir.
1799 – Russians capture the Ionian Islands, Corfu, Brindisi.
1799 – Italian and Swiss campaigns.
1799 – Russia’s alliance with France and severance of relations with Great Britain.
1799 - the existence of the Roman and Parthenopean Republic - on the site of the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples.
Fifth stage
09.11/1799 – Brumerian coup (Coup of 18 Brumaire)- appointment by the Council of Elders of the French Republic of Brigadier General Napoleon Bonaparte as commander of the army.
11/10/1799 – dissolution of the Directory of the French Republic, creation Consulates of the French Republic led by N. Bonaparte - regime Thermidorian reaction .
The consulate pursued policies in the interests of the big bourgeoisie. Laws were passed that assigned to the new owners the property they acquired during the revolution, and codes were drawn up to support the development of capitalist industry. Unions and strikes of workers were prohibited; in legal proceedings, the employer's testimony against workers was taken on faith.
1800 – French defeat of the Austrians in Battle of Marengo.
1800 – Convention on Armed Neutrality between Denmark, Prussia, Russia and Sweden.
1801 – preparation in Russia for Indian campaign.
1801 – Peace of Luneville between France and Austria - the south of the Benelux went to France, Austria recognized the Batavian, Helvenian, Ligurian and Cisalpine republics dependent on France, the transformation of the Tuscan Duchy into the Kingdom of Etruria.
1801 – Russia’s peace treaty with Great Britain and Russia’s peace treaty with France.
05/18/1804 – proclamation of N. Bonaparte Emperor of France Napoleon I.
The 18th century is considered to be the century of the Great French Revolution. Overthrow of the monarchy revolutionary movement and vivid examples of terror eclipsed even bloody events in their cruelty October revolution 1917. The French prefer to bashfully remain silent and in every possible way romanticize this period in own history. The French Revolution is difficult to overestimate. A striking example of how the most bloodthirsty and scary beast, dressed in the robes of Freedom, Equality and Brotherhood, is ready to sink his fangs into anyone, and his name is Revolution.
Prerequisites for the start of the revolution: socio-economic and political crisis
Upon ascending the throne in 1774, he appointed Robert Turgot as controller general of finances, but wide range The reforms proposed by this politician were rejected. The aristocracy strenuously clung to its privileges, and all extortions and duties fell heavily on the shoulders of the third estate, whose representatives in France numbered 90%.
In 1778, Turgot was replaced by Necker. He cancels serfdom in the royal domains, torture during interrogations limited court expenses, but these measures were only a drop in the bucket. Absolutism did not allow capitalist relations to develop in society. Therefore the change economic formations was only a matter of time. There was a deepening economic crisis, expressed in rising prices in the absence of production growth. Inflation, which hit the poorest segments of the population hard, was one of the catalysts that spurred growth revolutionary sentiments in society.
The US War of Independence also set an excellent example, inspiring hope in the revolutionary-minded French. If we talk briefly about the Great French Revolution (and about those prerequisites that were ripe), then it should be noted political crisis in France. The aristocracy considered itself located between a rock and a hard place - the king and the people. Therefore, she fiercely blocked all innovations that, in her opinion, threatened liberties and preferences. The king understood that at least something had to be done: France could no longer live in the old way.
Convocation of the Estates General on May 5, 1789
All three classes pursued their own goals and objectives. The king hoped to avoid economic collapse by reforming the tax system. The aristocracy wanted to maintain its position; it clearly did not need reforms. The common people, or the third estate, hoped that they would become the platform where their demands would finally be heard. Swan, crayfish and pike...
Fierce disputes and discussions, thanks to the enormous support of the people, were successfully resolved in favor of the third estate. Of the 1,200 parliamentary seats, 610, or the majority, went to representatives of the broad masses. And soon they had the opportunity to show their political force. On June 17, at the ball arena, representatives of the people, taking advantage of the confusion and vacillation among the clergy and aristocracy, announced the creation of the National Assembly, vowing not to disperse until a Constitution was developed. The clergy and part of the nobles supported them. The Third Estate showed that it must be taken into account.
Storming of the Bastille
The start of the Great French Revolution was landmark event- storming of the Bastille. The French celebrate this day as National holiday. As for historians, their opinions are divided: there are skeptics who believe that there was no capture: the garrison itself voluntarily surrendered, and everything happened because of the frivolity of the crowd. We need to clarify some points right away. There was a capture, and there were victims. Several people tried to lower the bridge, and it crushed these unfortunate people. The garrison could resist, it had guns and experience. There was not enough food, but history knows examples heroic defenses fortresses.
Based on the documents, we have the following: from the Minister of Finance Necker to the Deputy Commandant of the Pugeot fortress, everyone spoke out about the abolition of the Bastille, expressing general opinion. The fate of the famous fortress-prison was predetermined - it would have been demolished anyway. But history doesn't know subjunctive mood: On July 14, 1789, the storming of the Bastille took place, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.
A constitutional monarchy
The determination of the people of France forced the government to make concessions. City municipalities were transformed into a commune - an independent revolutionary government. A new one was accepted state flag- the famous French tricolor. The National Guard was led by de Lafayette, who became famous in the American War of Independence. The National Assembly began forming a new government and drafting a Constitution. On August 26, 1789, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was adopted - the most important document in the history of the French Revolution. It declared fundamental rights and freedoms new France. Now everyone had the right to freedom of conscience and resistance to oppression. Could openly express his opinion and be protected from attacks on private property. Now everyone was equal before the law and had equal obligations to taxation. the French Revolution was expressed in every line of this progressive document. While most European countries continued to suffer from social inequality, generated by the remnants of the Middle Ages.
And although the reforms of 1789-1791 many things changed radically, the adoption of a law to suppress any uprising was directed against the poor. It was also forbidden to form unions and conduct strikes. The workers have been deceived again.
On September 3, 1891, a new Constitution was adopted. It gave the right to vote only to a limited number of representatives of the middle strata. A new Legislative Assembly was convened, whose members could not be re-elected. All this contributed to the radicalization of the population and the possibility of the emergence of terror and despotism.
Threat of external invasion and fall of the monarchy
England was afraid that with the adoption of advanced economic reforms France's influence would increase, so all efforts were made to prepare for the invasion of Austria and Prussia. Patriotic French people supported the call to defend the Motherland. The French National Guard advocated the removal of the king's power, the creation of a republic and the election of a new national convention. The Duke of Brunswick issued a manifesto outlining his intentions: to invade France and destroy the revolution. After they learned about him in Paris, the events of the Great French Revolution began to develop rapidly. On August 10, the rebels went to the Tuileries and, having defeated Swiss Guards, the king's family was arrested. The illustrious persons were placed in the Temple fortress.
War and its impact on the revolution
If we characterize the Great French Revolution briefly, it should be noted that the mood in French society were an explosive mixture of suspicion, fear, mistrust and bitterness. Lafayette fled border fortress Longwy surrendered without a fight. Purges, arrests and mass executions began on the initiative of the Jacobins. The majority in the Convention were Girondins - they organized the defense and even won victories at first. Their plans were extensive: from the liquidation of the Paris Commune to the capture of Holland. By that time, France was at war with almost all of Europe.
Personal disputes and squabbles, a drop in living standards and an economic blockade - under the influence of these factors, the influence of the Girondins began to fade, which the Jacobins took advantage of. The betrayal of General Dumouriez served as an excellent reason to accuse the government of aiding its enemies and remove him from power. Danton headed the Committee of Public Safety - executive branch concentrated in the hands of the Jacobins. The significance of the Great French Revolution and the ideals that it stood for have lost all meaning. Terror and violence swept through France.
Apogee of terror
France was experiencing one of the most difficult periods in your own history. Her army was retreating, the southwest, under the influence of the Girondins, rebelled. In addition, supporters of the monarchy became more active. The death of Marat shocked Robespierre so much that he only thirsted for blood.
The functions of the government were transferred to the Committee of Public Safety - a wave of terror swept through France. After the adoption of the decree of June 10, 1794, the accused were deprived of the right to defense. The results of the Great French Revolution during the Jacobin dictatorship - approximately 35 thousand died and over 120 thousand fled into exile.
The policy of terror so consumed its creators that the republic, having become hated, perished.
Napoleon Bonaparte
France had been drained of blood by civil war, and the revolution had lost its momentum and grip. Everything changed: now the Jacobins themselves were persecuted and persecuted. Their club was closed, and the Committee of Public Safety gradually lost power. The Convention, defending the interests of those who enriched themselves during the years of the revolution, on the contrary, strengthened its positions, but its position remained precarious. Taking advantage of this, the Jacobins staged a rebellion in May 1795, which, although it was harshly suppressed, it accelerated the dissolution of the Convention.
Moderate Republicans and Girondins created the Directory. France is mired in corruption, debauchery and a complete breakdown of morals. One of the most prominent figures in the Directory was Count Barras. He noticed Napoleon Bonaparte and promoted him through the ranks, sending him on military campaigns.
The people had finally lost faith in the Directory and its political leaders, which Napoleon took advantage of. On November 9, 1799, the consular regime was proclaimed. All executive power was concentrated in the hands of the first consul - Napoleon Bonaparte. The functions of the other two consuls were only advisory in nature. The revolution is over.
Fruits of the revolution
The results of the Great French Revolution were expressed in a change in economic formations and changes in socio-economic relations. The church and aristocracy finally lost their former power and influence. France embarked on the economic path of capitalism and progress. Its people, seasoned in battle and adversity, possessed the most powerful combat-ready army of that time. The significance of the Great French Revolution is great: the ideals of equality and dreams of freedom were formed in the minds of many European peoples. But at the same time, there was also a fear of new revolutionary upheavals.
One of greatest events new history - - French revolution XVIII V. gave a powerful impetus social progress worldwide. In addition, she cleared the way for further development capitalism, which became a new stage in the history of world civilization, an advanced socio-political system for its time. Revolution 1789-1794 became a completely natural result of a long crisis, which became the main obstacle to the further development of France's absolute monarchy.
The commercial and industrial crisis caused by crop failures and famine led to increased unemployment and impoverishment of the urban lower classes and peasantry in the late 70s. XVIII century Massive peasant unrest began, which soon spread to the cities. The monarchy was forced to make concessions (Table 18).
Table 18.
Scientists conventionally divide the course of the French Revolution 1789-1794. to the following stages:
1. first stage - - creation of a constitutional monarchy(14 July 1789 - - 10 August 1792);
2. second stage - - establishment of the Girondin Republic(10 August 1792 - - 2 June 1793);
3. third stage - - establishment of the Jacobin Republic(2 June 1793 - - 27 July 1794).
The beginning first stage of the revolution counts July 14, 1789 when the rebel people stormed the royal fortress - the Bastille prison, which was destroyed within a year. The people removed the royal administration and replaced it with new elected bodies - - municipalities, which included the most authoritative representatives of the third estate.
In Paris and provincial cities the bourgeoisie created their own armed forces- - National Guard, territorial militia. Each National Guardsman had to purchase weapons and equipment at his own expense - a condition that denied access to national guard poor citizens (Table 19).
Table 19.
The first stage of the revolution became a period domination of the big bourgeoisie, since power in France was in the hands of a political group that represented the interests of the rich bourgeoisie and liberal nobles and did not strive for complete elimination old system. Their ideal was a constitutional monarchy Therefore, in the Constituent Assembly they received the name constitutionalists. The political activity of the big bourgeoisie was based on attempts to come to an agreement with the nobility on the basis mutual concessions(Table 20, Fig. 3, 4).
The Constituent Assembly on August 26, 1789 adopted the program document of the revolution - Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Art. 1 of the Declaration stated: “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.” As natural and inalienable rights in Art. 2 proclaimed: freedom; own; safety; resistance to oppression.
Freedom was defined as “the ability to do whatever does not cause harm to another (v. 4).” Articles 7, 9, 10 and 11 asserted personal freedom, freedom of conscience, religion, speech and press. Art. 9 proclaimed the principle of the presumption of innocence: accused persons, including those detained, are considered innocent until their guilt is proven established by law ok.