What happened in 1871. year of formation of the German Empire

On October 8, 1871, at half past nine in the evening, unprecedentedly powerful fires broke out simultaneously, hundreds of miles apart, in the states of Wisconsin, Michigan and Illinois. 24 cities were damaged, 16 cities were completely destroyed. The climate factor is obvious: here is a map clearly showing a titanic cyclone over US territory - just at the time of the fire.

CITY OF PESHTIGO

Residents of the village heard a terrible roar, and at that very moment the sky was filled with clouds of flame. Witnesses claim that the fire did not go down gradually - from forest fire or something else. A whirlwind of flame fell from above. Many died instantly, barely inhaling the hot air.

Witness testimony:
“I can’t describe this tornado, it hit and devoured the village. It seemed as if the fiery demons of hell had descended.”
“It was as if the sky was covered with a fiery tarpaulin.”
“The heavens opened and fire began to rain.”
"A merciless rain of fire and sand."

The atmosphere was on fire. They talked about big fireballs. The fire flew through roofs and trees, and lit up all the streets at once.
Some hid in wells and died there.
Many rushed to the river and managed to jump into the water. The man who survived said it was almost impossible to lift his head to breathe. People died barely taking a breath. Dozens of townspeople - side by side with the fleeing animals - rushed across the bridge, but others ran towards them from the other side, seeking salvation on this bank. The bridge caught fire and collapsed.
The entire area burned out in an hour and a half.
The next day it rained in Peshtigo.

INVESTIGATION OF THE FIRE AREA

In the city of Peshtigo, according to various estimates, from 800 to 1200 people died. The mass grave contains the remains of 350 people. Between 1,200 and 2,400 people died in the county. The exact number is unknown, since Indians and lumberjacks were not included in the 1870 census. Of some, only bones remained, while other bodies were untouched by fire. The river is littered with corpses.
Many were found dead on roads and open spaces, in safe places, away from buildings, trees or other flammable materials, without any signs of fire, and their clothes were not burned. At Sugar Bush, the corpses lay in compact masses, as if people had watched together and died together.
"...we have copper cents taken from the pocket dead person in Peshtigo Sugar Bush... one cent is partially melted but still round and the inscription is legible. Other coins in the same pocket were partially melted, but neither the clothes nor the body were charred."
Judging by the descriptions, the fire tornado was accompanied by electrical phenomena, and the incredible heat left behind a somewhat strange picture. The brass fire bell melted. The spoons in the store merged into a solid mass. Partially melted iron remained from the railway cars. The factory's masonry was reduced to ruins. Brick pipes crumbled.
At the same time as the city of Peshtigo and 22 other cities, Chicago was also on fire.

GREAT CHICCASA FIRE OF 1871

The fire was spontaneous. The story about Mrs. Catherine O'Leary's cow setting Chicago on fire by hitting a kerosene lantern turned out to be a hastily concocted fake by the frightened administration.

The fire marshal testified, "We got the fire under control and it wouldn't go any further, but I soon learned that St. Paul's Church, two blocks north, was also on fire."
Firefighters rushed to the church, but “the next thing I knew there was a fire at Bateham's Mill.”

The fire very quickly became widespread, uncontrolled by anyone and took on absolutely surreal features.
“Huge stone and brick buildings melted and melted like a snowflake in water and almost as quickly. The six-story building, once occupied, disappeared five minutes later, according to the clock. Strange, fantastic lights of blue, red and green played on the eaves of the buildings.”
Athenian marble burned like coal!

People fled from the city.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE CHICAGO FIRE

The fire that destroyed most of Chicago was of an unusual nature. The fire consumed 17,450 buildings. A third of the city's million population was left homeless.
The fire melted the building stone, which was previously considered fireproof. Iron, glass, granite were sintered into a grotesque conglomerate, as if they had passed through a blast furnace.
Several hundred tons of cast iron were stacked in the courtyard of one of the large agricultural factories. The distance from the metal to any building is two hundred meters. To the south is a river, 150 feet wide. But the heat was such that this pile of cast iron melted and turned into a single mass.”

However, only 250 people died in the fire that destroyed a third of the city.

OTHER FIRES

Allison Weaver, near Port Huron (Michigan), managed to build a shelter in a hole. The roar was terrible. They saw how the animals, sensing danger, tried to hide, and then rushed away. The roar grew, the air became heavy, the clouds of dust and ash suddenly settled, and he could see the flames through the trees. It didn't walk on the ground or jump from tree to tree, it came like a tornado. When he got out in the morning, there were no trees, no house, no mill, everything seemed to have been shaved off and swept away.
Uniontown, Wisconsin. People saw a black mass approaching them from the direction of the wall of flame. It was a stampede of cows and horses. The last to arrive was a lone horse with a boy in the saddle. He gave his name - Patrick Burns - and said: “I'm dying. Is there a hell worse than this?
In the state of Wisconsin, at Williamson's enterprises, 32 people, cut off by fire, tried to escape in the water, but all died.
In northwest Michigan, fires have engulfed the city of Manistee. A thousand townspeople were left homeless, about 200 people died.
In eastern Michigan, fires destroyed the cities of Grindstone, Huron City, Port Hope and White Rock. About 50 people died.
In southwest Michigan, fires raged around the town of Holland. Most of the city was destroyed. 210 homes, 90 businesses, 5 churches, 3 hotels and boats burned. 1 person died - an elderly widow.
Witnesses reported seeing fire craters in the sky full of debris, remains of buildings, and even railroad cars.
On the same day, October 8, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Chicago burned. The states of Iowa, Minnesota, Indiana, and Illinois were devastated by fires. At the same time, terrible fires raged in the Rocky and Allegheny Mountains, in the Sierra on the Pacific Coast and in the northern Red River.

ANALYSIS OF THE INCIDENT

According to Laura Knight-Jadczyk, all these cities were burned by gases from the separated part of the tail of comet Biela. Well, comets are often blamed for cataclysms, and this drawing, dated 1870 (just a year before the fires), couldn't come at a better time.

But I do not share this version, and not because no cosmic events were recorded in 1871. The true nature of these fires is clearly indicated by eyewitness accounts and the chronology of surrounding events. Let's look at them all, along with physical characteristics fires.

FIRE SPEED

The speed of ground fire movement in the wind is 0.3-1 km/h. Sometimes 5 km/h.
The speed of a crowned coniferous fire is 2-3 km/h in calm conditions and 20-25 km/h in windy conditions. It reaches up to 70 km/h.
The fact that horses and even cows managed to escape indicates a speed in the range of 15-55 km/h. This is not an ordinary ground fire (5 km/h) and - most definitely - not a comet. For example, the stream of Comet Halley rushes at a speed of 41.6 km/sec, the Earth - 29.8 km/sec. If the gas from the comet's tail could overcome the dense layers of the atmosphere, it would - at such oncoming speed - kill before it was seen.
The crown fire could have developed a suitable speed, especially since a “fire tornado” was noticed in Peshtigo, which is famous for its timber production. But the fires in all 24 cities had clearly defined common features, and Illinois, for example, is 60% prairie.
CONCLUSION: The unusually high fire rate is due to other factors.

FIRE TEMPERATURE

Now let’s compare the maximum temperatures with the combustion temperatures during fires.

Melted: copper, glass, brass, iron, cast iron, granite.
Scattered: stone, brick, fire brick.
Burnt: marble.

TEMPERATURE LIMITS

800-1400° C - glass melting temperature
880-950° C - melting point of brass
900-1200° C - limestone firing temperature
950° C - melting temperature of granite
1200 °C is the melting point of cast iron.
1300° C - fire-resistant fireclay brick
1400° C - melting point of iron
1500-1580° C refractory periclase brick
1690-1720° C - refractory silica brick for electric furnaces

COMBUSTION TEMPERATURES

400-900°C – combustion temperature during a ground fire.
800-900 °C - temperature inside residential buildings and public buildings
900-1200 °C – combustion temperature during a crown pine fire.
1000-1250 °C - for external fires for flammable solids
1100-1300 °C - for external fires for flammable liquids
1200-1350 °C - for external fires for flammable gases

It is clearly seen that NOT ONE case fits. Brass, glass, granite and even cast iron can be melted by prolonged exposure to the temperature of a crown fire, but it was not the pine crowns that burned in Chicago. Temperatures of urban fires are significantly lower than necessary. And in 24 affected cities, iron melted and brick crumbled. Well, it is simply impossible to create a maximum temperature at a distance of 200 meters in order to melt several hundred tons of cast iron under standard conditions. The atmosphere is not a blast furnace, it does not hold the temperature.

MAIN ELEMENT

Eyewitnesses claim that Athens marble burned like coal. But marble is limestone - Ca(CO)3, and how can one not remember that in white-stone, that is, limestone Moscow in 1571, “stones were burning”? And I have a suitable formula to explain why marble, also known as limestone, burned so well.

First option: Ca(CO)3 + 2HF = CaF2 + CO2 + H2O
Second option (in case of involuntary firing): CaO + 2HF = CaF2 + H2O

In both cases, the result is CaF2 - calcium fluoride (fluorite), and it is COMBUSTIBLE.
Moreover, fluorite also glows when heated - exactly like a burning coal. It is from its name that the term “fluorescence” comes from. Here it is - luminous fluorite.

For any of these reactions to proceed successfully, only one element is needed - HF (hydrogen fluoride), one of the volcanic gases.

Of course, there are quite a lot of volcanic gases, including quite aggressive ones, capable of forming and sulfuric acid, and salt and nitrogen. Below is their list. However, flammable calcium fluoride from marble is formed only with the help of HF compounds.

VOLCANIC GASES

Water vapor (H2O),
Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Carbon monoxide (CO),
Nitrogen (N2),
Sulfur dioxide (SO2),
Sulfur oxide (SO),
Sulfur gas (S2),
Hydrogen (H2),
Ammonia (NH3),
Hydrogen chloride (HCl),
Hydrogen fluoride (HF),
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
Methane (CH4),
Boric acid (H3BO3),
Chlorine (Cl),
Argon (Ar),
Converted H2O and CO2.
Alkali metal and iron chlorides are also present.

DIRECT INDICATIONS TO HF

FIRST: Unprecedented heat and drought immediately before the fire. It was precisely such heat and drought that occurred before the spontaneous combustion of cities in the Middle Ages - immediately after eruptions. Reason: hydrogen fluoride readily absorbs atmospheric moisture, forming hydrofluoric acid, with a fair amount of heat (59.1 kJ/mol). Result: already at the approach of the cloud, an acute moisture deficit forms, and the air temperature rises steadily.

SECOND: widespread “spontaneous combustion.” The resulting hydrofluoric acid is an excellent arsonist for everything in the world. Paper in its presence is charred instantly, and in forests and cities - a lot suitable material for conducting a school experiment “spontaneous combustion of a fire” - from dry leaves to house dust. I'm not even talking about first aid kits, a real storehouse of chemical elements, even in the 13th century, even in the 19th.

THIRD: a lot of indications of the chemical nature of fires, for example, “fantastic lights of blue, red and green on the eaves of buildings”, the appearance of flames right in the air - not in the crowns of trees, but ABOVE them, where due to the heat a fair amount has already accumulated pine fumes.
Definitely the chemical nature of the melting of car metal and hundreds of tons of pig iron in Chicago. It is clear that it is impossible to heat this entirely with a city fire, but the acid does not need to heat the entire mass; it freely comes into contact with the surface and, coupled with the temperature, easily melts.
"Melting buildings" in Chicago also indicate hydrofluoric acid; It is precisely this that is known for its ability to act extremely easily on silica to form the volatile gas SiF4, which is why it is not stored in glass containers. In fact, all that remains from silicates is water and volatile gas. Remember, six-story buildings melted like snowflakes in water - and just as quickly.

Plus, if an ordinary fire requires continuous temperature and oxygen “feeding,” then a cloud of acid vapor can fly as long as it wants in a “cold” state and ignite again as soon as oxygen appears.
The same chemical nature of the fire is indicated by the instant death of those who inhaled the air of an atmospheric fire: hydrofluoric acid is one of the most dangerous for humans.

FOURTH: relatively low number of casualties. Atmospheric currents are whimsical. Clouds of hydrofluoric and hydrogen fluoride vapors, passing at a height of 5-15 meters, are capable of setting the entire city on fire without ever touching pedestrians. It is also important to remember the time when this fire started - just when the evening dew falls. And if droplet formation is very active on roofs and window sills, and even with a low concentration of hydrofluoric acid it is quite enough to start a fire, then this does not happen on warm human skin, and you can do without burns.

FIFTH: temperature objectively achieved in a series of fires. A chemical fire freely exceeds the limits of the given scales and easily burns everything that even a crown fire could not cope with.

SIXTH: ascending currents, literally tornadoes of fire, are produced by a temperature of about 2000° C, and this requires powerful metabolic processes. Hydrogen fluoride and hydrofluoric acid are exactly what is needed for this purpose.

SEVENTH: It looks like the "fire tornado" may have another cause besides heat. While observing the eruption of Mount Pinatubo (Philippines, 1991), scientists discovered ( Nature magazine) something that no one expected from volcanoes. The resulting ash column ROTATING- just like a cyclone does. Moreover, scientists are confident that such a rotating column actually acts as a cyclone, leading, for example, to the formation of dense clouds and the movement of electric charges in the atmosphere.

Judge for yourself, this is a tornado pillar.

And this is a volcano pillar.

There is no fundamental difference between them: the same electrical effects, the same difference in temperature and pressure inside and outside, and the same rotation caused by this difference. There is only one difference: the cyclone moves at a speed of 60 to 360 km/h, plus, the cyclone is an extremely stable structure that can transfer its contents (be it stones, frogs, ash or gases) anywhere, even to another continent.
Actually, volcanic clouds can easily move up to one and a half thousand km, but if it turns out that the “peduncle” of the pillar is capable of breaking away from its “stump” and moving on an independent flight, this will undoubtedly expand our ideas about world harmony. It is perhaps worth recalling the statements of eyewitnesses that they saw craters of fire in the sky. Well, those mentioned electrical phenomena more than appropriate here.
Exactly the same thing happened during ancient cataclysms. Here is the historical eruption of Vesuvius - one of many, strangely coinciding in time with Great and inexplicable fires hundreds and thousands of kilometers away.

And here are parts of a graph demonstrating the chronological connection between historical fires and volcanic eruptions. Not all of them coincide in time - a certain number of eruptions did not cause fires, but in general, large series of events clearly overlap.

EIGHTH: The location of the fire spots is extremely symptomatic: the ocean coast, the Great Lakes, the Allegheny, Rocky and Sierra mountains. It is in such places, on the border between water and land and in the foothills, that atmospheric flows tend to produce precipitation. If volcanic hydrogen fluoride was brought from afar, it fell into the lower layers of the atmosphere exactly where it usually happens. The time of the simultaneous start of fires is also symptomatic - 9-10 pm; Just at this time the fog falls.

AND THE NINTH INDICATION: a series of large eruptions recorded in the coming years around the world, and the climatic consequences associated with the eruptions.

ERUPTIONS:
1867 Mauna Loa (Hawaiian Islands)
1870 in Mexico Pochutla volcano
1872 Vesuvius(on the picture)

1872 MERAPI Java (Indonesia)
1872 SINARKA, Kuril Islands
1873 GRIMSVOTN, northern Iceland

EARTHQUAKES:
1868 Chile, Peru, Ecuador, California
1872 California

HURRICANE:
1869 devastating hurricane in the Bay of Fundy in Canada
1871 Hurricane in Labrador, 300 people killed
1872 October 25: storm from the Gulf of Mexico moved all the way to the Appalachians

And, of course, the same colossal and also inexplicable fires:

FIRES:
1868 Russia. Drought. Peat fires
1869 deadly fire in Pennsylvania
1870 Fire of Constantinople (pictured)

1871 numerous fires in Paris
1872 Boston fire

Here is a fragment of the Boston panorama after the fire. The city looks like it was after a bombing.

1872 Fire in London

1872 Japan

If we remember the six large eruptions that accompanied these simultaneous fires, then the version of their volcanogenic origin seems acceptable. Moreover, you begin to understand the strangeness of other fires.
Here is a very characteristic drawing of the Newcastle fire in 1843. Note that buildings are burning on both banks of a fairly wide river, although the wind is not very strong. It is also important that the city was developed directly from the river, from the cleaned-up center, and not from the outskirts littered with garbage. It's simple: volcanic gases are heavier than air, and therefore tend to accumulate in lowlands and river valleys.

And here is the fire in Hamburg in 1842. It happened a year before the Newcastle fire, and it is also unusual.

Note the burning piles sticking out of the river. If they caught fire from the thermal radiation of a fire, they would start side surfaces. But the top end is burning - worst place for heating from a nearby flame and best for settling acid mist.

Large-scale spontaneous combustion of fleets, for example, in Lisbon after the earthquake and tsunami of 1755, also becomes understandable.

Moreover, these are not volcanic bombs or cometary “hail of fire,” otherwise we would encounter meteorite fragments or volcanic bombs on every square meter. Still, this is a rather rare event. But hydrogen fluoride (HF) leaves no traces. It is clear that if the fleet got into a cloud of volcanic hydrogen fluoride, the sails will take up the fire first. And it is very tempting to attribute the victory over the fleet to yourself, who owns the secret “Greek fire” - so that they will be respected.

Here is the right place to doubt the history of the burning of the great Library of Alexandria. Soviet historians have already established the falsity of the letter from Caliph Omar ibn Khattab, who allegedly arrogantly taught Amr: “If these books say what is in the Koran, then they are useless. If they say anything else, then they are harmful. Therefore, in both cases they must be burned.” There are a lot of stretches in other versions, attributing this terrible act of vandalism to Caesar, Aurelian, or Theophilus, depending on the current political situation. But the truth seems to be that no one burned it; just a cloud of hydrogen fluoride from Santorini, Vesuvius, Etna, Vulcano or Stromboli (to choose from) reached the coast of Egypt - along with the ash repeatedly mentioned in the Alexandrian chronicles.

HAZARD ASSESSMENT
In 1783, the Icelandic volcano Laki emitted 122 megatons of sulfur dioxide, 11.6 tons per square kilometer Europe. If we imagine that this is hydrogen fluoride and disperse it in the atmosphere over Europe up to 1 km altitude, the MPC will be exceeded 2 million times. Fortunately, hydrogen fluoride is released during eruptions many times less. But you know, you don’t need a fuel tanker to start a fire; a match is enough...

IMPORTANT ADDENDUM:
During the eruption of the Pelee volcano in Martinique (May 8, 1902) in the city of Saint-Pierre, two survived, one of them was the young shoemaker Léon Compere-Léandre. Here is his testimony:
"I felt a terrible wind blowing, the earth began to tremble, and the sky suddenly became dark. I turned to go into the house, with great difficultuy climbed the three or four steps that separated me from my room, and felt my arms and legs burning, also my body. I dropped upon a table. At this moment four others sought refuge in my room, crying and writhing with pain, although their garmets showed no sign of having been touched by flame. At the end of 10 minutes one of these, the young Delavaud girl, aged about 10 years, fell dead; the others left. I got up and went to another room, where I found the father Delavaud, still clothed and lying on the bed, dead. He was purple and inflated, but the clothing was intact. Crazed and almost overcome, I threw myself on a bed, inert and awaiting death. My feelings returned to me in perhaps an hour, when I was held the roof burning. With sufficient strength left, my legs bleeding and covered with burns, I ran to Fonds-Sait-Denis, six kilometers from St. Pierre."

AND HERE IS THE MACHINE TRANSLATION:
(note: Father Delavaud was burned, but his clothes remained intact - the same picture as in the description of the consequences of the fire in Peshtigo)

"I felt terrible wind, the earth shook, and the sky suddenly became dark. I turned to go into the house, and with great difficulty covered the three or four steps that separated me from my room, and felt that my arms and legs were on fire, as was my body. I threw it on the table. At this moment, four others sought refuge in their room, crying and writhing in pain, although their garmets (apparently garments) showed no signs of touching the flames. After 10 minutes, a young Delavaud girl, about 10 years old, fell dead; others left. I got up and went into another room, where I found Father Delavaud, still dressed, and lying on the bed, dead. It was purple and swollen, but the clothes were intact. Distraught and almost defeated, I threw myself on the bed, inert and awaiting death. My senses came back to me maybe an hour later when I saw that the roof was on fire. Gathering the last of my strength, on bleeding, burnt legs, I ran to Fonds-Sait-Denis, six kilometers from Saint-Pierre."
CONCLUSION: The fire in Peshtigo is volcanic and, in fact, chemical in nature.

IMPORTANT ADDENDUM 2:
Data source: book by corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences Nalivkin D.V. “Hurricanes, storms and tornadoes”, 1969.

1854 Huge fires create whirlwinds approaching the strength of tornadoes. F. A. Batalia (1854) describes how a whirlwind that arose in Stockbridge (England) during a very strong fire broke large trees and lifted them into the air.

Fire whirls and sometimes tornadoes accompanied large forest fires (Graham, 1952), city fires during bombing (Landsberg, 1947) and even large fireworks displays (Glaser, 1959), explosions of large releases of flammable gas in the Sahara (Deesens, 1963).
Vertical vortices were obtained during special experiments with oil combustion (Dessens, 1962). In all these cases, vertical vortices and, more rarely, clouds with tornadoes hanging from them were formed.

Even such relatively small phenomena as burning stacks of straw in the fields cause the formation of cumulus clouds up to 500 m high (Fig. 220). In England, such burning occurs frequently and is always accompanied by the formation of cumulus clouds. Fire whirls and sometimes tornadoes often form (Bide, 1965).
1840 USA Redfield described the fiery vertical whirlwinds that arose during combustion large masses dry brushwood. The flames pulled together from all sides, forming a huge column, 45-60 m. Even higher, it turned into a smoke whirlwind. The vortex rotated with amazing speed and a loud noise, reminiscent of thunder. The whirlwind lifted quite large trees into the air. The day was cloudless and quiet.
1952 in Oregon, a fire column up to 30 m formed over a forest fire. Rotating at enormous speed, it sucked in more and more new fires. At the top it was replaced by an even larger and taller smoke column with a diameter of about 9 m. The whirlwind stood almost motionless. The whirlwind easily broke trees and lifted them into the air. Graham (1952), who observed the phenomenon, called it “a fiery whirlwind of tornado intensity.”
Landsberg (1947) described how during the bombing of Hamburg in last war the fire broke out at three points. The fiery columns that rose to the sky at first stood separately, but then merged into one huge, furiously rotating, vertical fire-smoke whirlwind. Its height was about 4000 m, and its width at the base was about 2000 m. The rotation near the ground was so strong that it uprooted large trees.
1945.08.06. On August 6, 1945, during the fire that arose after the atomic explosion in Hiroshima, a huge fire and smoke whirlwind also formed, lifting the trunks of large trees into the air and sucking water out of ponds.
Graham (1955) cites a case where, during a large forest fire, the fire columns of several points merged with each other, forming one wildly rotating fire whirlwind. At the same time, the strength of the fire increased so much that the people putting out the fire were forced to flee. The diameter of the whirlwind reached several hundred meters, and the height was 1200 m. The whirlwind freely broke and lifted large trees into the air.
Fire whirls are so strong, numerous and distinctive that Lawrence (1963) proposed a special name for them - fumulus, and for the clouds they create - cumulofumulus.

Artificial huge fire whirlwinds and tornadoes were obtained by Dessens the father and described by his son (Dessens, 1962). They invented special oil nozzles that produced huge flames and called them “meteotrons.” The simultaneous burning of 15 and sometimes 40 meteotrons produced amazing results. Not only fire whirlwinds were obtained, but Fire tornadoes descended from artificial clouds.

The experiments were carried out on the outskirts of the desert, in the south of Algeria, where the spurs of the mountains passed into the Sahara. The experiments were carried out under various meteorological conditions. A group of 15 meteorons, located steeply, produced a rotating column of fire, a real fire whirlwind with a diameter of 40 m. At the top, the fire column turned into a smoke column, crowned with a newly formed cloud.

Then the number of meteotrons was increased to forty. The resulting giant pillar of fire was accompanied by a black cloud, the size of which was not inferior to the cloud of the oil fire in California. The artificial oil fire was not inferior in size to the natural one in terms of the size of the flame and cloud. The results were immediately noticeable: the smoke cloud, under the influence of a slight wind, tilted in the same way as happened in California and during eruptions. At first, short and small funnels hung from the leeward side of the cloud, but soon they reached the ground, forming a real tornado.

SUMMARY: experiments by father and son Dessens showed that the main fire whirlwind can be generated by a volcano, and a daughter fire whirlwind can descend from a cloud at some distance. With 40 nozzles we're talking about about tens or hundreds of meters, but with 40 volcanoes?

AND THE LAST QUOTE: Ash vertical hot vortices often occur during volcanic eruptions, especially over hot lava flows. Wegener (1917, p. 8) gives a number of examples observed during the eruptions of Vesuvius, Santorini and Iceland.

There was no Kaiser Germany! This means that there was no US corporation before 1913-1919, nor the Russian and German empires.

Before 1916, no government anywhere in the world collected income taxes. A reasonable question arises:

If the government did not collect taxes, there is no way it can support the military industrial complex, the army, and the domestic security forces.

Before 1913-1919, there was only one megastate on the entire planet. So rich that it did not indulge in money-grubbing and did not collect taxes from the population. Was completely different financial system.

Upon request "Russian Empire in 1871 " the search engine gives "German Empire", unification of Germany and several other important events.

When asked by an English-language search engine "Founding United States in 1871" it returns
"German Empire", "Unification of Germany", "THE UNITED STATES BECAME A FOREIGN CORPORATION IN 1871", "District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871".

(To a request in an English search engine "Founding of the United States in 1871" it outputs:
German Empire, German Unification, "The United States became a foreign corporation in 1871," Organic Law of the District of Columbia 1871).

The Russian Empire/USSR, the USA and Germany are closely connected. Until 1933, they represented one state, or rather, one corporation. How was it formed, could it exist and on what means?

In 1871, according to official history, there is global change power, an offensive across the planet: in the USA, Japan, Turkey, Russia, England, the establishment of the power of the British Empire, disguised as the German Empire and the 2nd Reich, is underway.

As such, there was neither Turkey, nor Germany, but the Russian Empire, nor the United States in 1971. These are new states.
When examining the history of 1871, glaring inconsistencies are striking. All these events could not have happened simultaneously in 1871!

See for yourself:

The District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871

Organic Act of the District of Columbia 1871 is an act of Congress that repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown and created a new territorial government for the entire District of Columbia. Although Congress abolished the territorial government in 1874, the legislation was the first to create a unified municipal government for the federal district.
The District of Columbia is an independent territory that is not part of any state. It was formed in 1790 by the Seat Act and included the city of Georgetown, as well as the city of Alexandria (until 1846). The city of Washington was founded in 1791 and named after George Washington, the first American president. In 1871, the cities of Washington and Georgetown and Washington County were formally abolished as independent administrative units and merged with the District of Columbia.

Washington, DC

Open Wikipedia and look at 2 diagrams with right side: US Federal Government taxes and income:
Income tax in the United States

If Washington, D.C. was not part of any of the states, who funded it and why?

The US government began collecting federal, state, local income and estate taxes only in 1916.

US Inheritance Tax

The US federal government levied excise taxes and trade duties, which until 1916 were in the range of 2-6% of annual gross income; with this money it is difficult to support even internal law enforcement agencies, and especially the military-industrial complex.

It is not clear how much money was spent Civil War North and South, if there was no taxation as such in the United States. Congress attempted for the first time to impose an income tax of 3% on income exceeding $800 in annual income, in 1862 this law was repealed and in 1862 replaced by another tax, but it did not say which one, in what amount, what the department was authorized to collect it and what powers this department had.

What do we have? The American Civil War of 1861-65, a US foreign corporation formed in 1871, took place according to official history.

Federal, state, local taxes, inheritance tax, tax service, law enforcement agencies ensuring tax collection, military-industrial complex - did not exist.

How did the US corporation remain in power if, at the time of 1871, it did not have legal income to support the military-industrial complex and law enforcement agencies? This means that at the time of 1871 there was no US corporation yet, which means that neither Kaiser’s Germany nor the 2nd Reich existed on US territory either. It follows from this that in 1871 there was no Kaiser Germany and the Russian Empire as regions of Kaiser Germany, the 2nd Reich.

If anyone wants to dispute this, please do so. Show at the expense of what funds the US corporation (aka Kaiser's Germany, the 2nd Reich) existed before 1916, their military-industrial complex and law enforcement agencies. Or show how any government can keep power, territory and people in obedience for a long time, without having either a military-industrial complex or security forces, no money.

The most likely time for the formation of the so-called USA Corporation (aka the Weimar Republic) is 1913-1919, when the Federal Reserve System was formed and the printing press was captured. In 1916, taxes began to be collected in the United States, providing the government with revenue. But here again there are a lot of inconsistencies, the consideration of which deserves a separate post.

Open Wikipedia: IRS Criminal Investigation Division - the criminal investigation of the tax service was formed in 1919. The population and businesses resisted paying taxes! They didn’t want to pay voluntarily, they had to force them, they created an agency that requires expenses for its maintenance.

1871 - formation of the German Empire.

Proclamation of the German Empire in Versailles. Bismarck in white is in the center of the picture.

The German Empire is the name adopted in Russian historiography for the German state in 1871-1918.
The official name of the German state in 1871-1945 was Deutsches Reich ( German Reich) , which is also translated as “German Empire” or “German State” (since 1943 - Großdeutsches Reich, “Great German State”, “Great German Empire”). In historiography, this period of time is usually divided into the German Empire (Kaiser Germany) (1871-1918), the Weimar Republic (1918-1933) and the Third Reich (Nazi Germany) (1933-1945). Thus, the term "German Empire" is applied mainly to the Kaiser's Germany, which corresponds to the German historiography term Deutsches Kaiserreich. The Weimar Republic and the Third Reich, despite formal correctness, to this concept usually not included.
The founders of the German Empire are considered to be Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I of Hohenzollern. Sometimes it is called the “Second Reich” (see “First” and “Third”). The German Empire ceased to exist in 1918 as a result of the November Revolution.

As it turned out, in 1871 the Kaiser’s Germany did not exist, nor did the corporations of the USA and the Russian Empire.
There was no military-industrial complex in the USA, which means it also could not exist in Germany and Russia.

Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles - how could Bismarck conquer France in 1871, if at that time there was no military-industrial complex and taxes were not collected, without which it is impossible to maintain the army and the military-industrial complex?

We open Wikipedia - “German Empire”, it is written in black and white:

“Germany before the First World War. At the same time, a progressive income tax was introduced (when the tax rate increases as income grows,” it turns out that taxes were not collected in Germany either until 1915-16?

Military production in Germany in the 19th century, and therefore the existence of the German army, is a myth. Therefore, in 1871, Bismarck could not capture Paris, proclaim the Kaiser’s Empire there and impose indemnities on France and take away lands, and therefore Germany did not have the resources and money to create its own military industry(MIC) and the maintenance of the army until the so-called 1st World War - officially this is 1914.

The existence of German colonies before 1919 is a myth, an invention of the intelligentsia.

Germany entered the colonial race very late - in the mid-1880s. However, this did not prevent her from acquiring quite significant possessions in Africa, Asia and Oceania.

“The victory over France gave Germany Alsace and Lorraine with rich reserves of iron ore, other minerals and a developed cotton industry. The French received a colossal indemnity of 5 billion francs, which immediately found capitalist use. The formation powerful base for the development of industry: metallurgical, mechanical engineering, metalworking.
Germany ranked first in the world in military industry."
http://mirovaja-ekonomika.ru/razvitie-ekonomiki-germanii/

There were no German colonies, Franco-German war, 5 billion indemnity and confiscation of lands and France.

Those who lived in the USSR felt firsthand what taxes, the maintenance of the army and the military-industrial complex were.
No taxes, no military-industrial complex, no army.

1871 Banning of the Ku Klux Klan in the USA.

145 years ago, on October 12, 1871, US President Ulysses Grant signed a law passed by Congress banning the Ku Klux Klan, a racist organization. terrorized blacks and local authorities in the South. The law gave the president the authority to to abolish the right of personal integrity and resort to arms to enforce laws, because "Klansmen break into the homes of black people to rob, rape and kill law-abiding citizens." A state of siege was declared in nine counties in North and South Carolina. Hundreds of Ku Klux Klan activists were imprisoned by military tribunals.

Since the so-called US corporation - the Weimar Republic - was formed only in 1919, this whole story with the KKK is also transferred to 1919, when black clones appeared on the planet, which the government tried to legalize under the guise of people and give them voting rights, but white , knowing that blacks are not people, fiercely opposed this. Blacks were cannon fodder and servants of the British Empire (Weimar Republic).

The Great Chicago Fire lasted from October 8 to October 10, 1871. The fire destroyed much of the city of Chicago, killing hundreds of city residents. Although the fire was one of the largest disasters of the 19th century, the city immediately began to rebuild, which was the impetus for Chicago to become one of the most significant cities in the United States.

Burnt buildings in downtown Chicago, 1871

Map of Chicago 1871. The dark part was destroyed by fire.

Fires, floods, earthquakes, hurricanes are the use of climate weapons to clear territories. The year 1871 is controversial, like the entire history of the so-called United States.

Land speculators and business owners immediately began rebuilding the city. In 1871, Joseph Medill was elected mayor of the city, who actively took up the reconstruction of the city and solving the problems that arose. The whole country helped the city with money, clothing, food, furniture. The first load of wood for construction arrived on the day the last burning building was extinguished. Just 22 years later, 21 million people descended on the city for the World's Fair.

The autumn of 1871 was hot, dry and windy.On the same day, three more large fires occurred on the shores of Lake Michigan. 400 miles (600 km) north of Chicago, the Prairie Fire destroyed the town of Peshtigo, Wisconsin, along with a dozen neighboring villages. The number of victims of this fire ranged from 1,200 to 2,500 people. Although the Peshtigo fire claimed the largest number of human lives in US history, at that time it went almost unnoticed due to the considerable remoteness of the region. On the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, a fire destroyed the town of Holland, and 100 miles (160 km) north of Holland, a huge fire burned the lumber camp of Manistee.

Alternative version.

The fact that four major fires on the shores of Lake Michigan occurred on the same day suggests a single cause. There is a hypothesis according to which the fires were caused by the collision of the Earth with fragments of decayed comet Biela.(3D/Biely-Wikipedia) The abnormally rapid spread of the fire and the testimony of some eyewitnesses about “fire falling from the sky” were cited as arguments in favor of this version. However, this hypothesis has not received confirmation or recognition.

By 1871, the US authorities had decided that treaties with the Indians were no longer required and that no Indian nation or tribe should be considered an independent nation or state.
By 1880, as a result of the mass shooting of the American bison, almost its entire population disappeared, and the Indians lost their main fishery. The authorities forced the Indians to give up familiar image life and live only on reservations. Many Indians resisted this. One of the leaders of the resistance was Sitting Bull, the chief of the Sioux tribe. The Sioux dealt several stunning blows to the American cavalry in their victory at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876. But the Indians could not live on the prairies without bison and, exhausted by hunger, they eventually submitted and moved to reservations.

Indians are indigenous people planet that has been cleared. Subsequently, British Empire-Weimar Republic - created primitive red-skinned hybrid clones of Negroid and Mongoloid races, labeled them Indians and presented them to the whole world as the indigenous population of America. Another gross fake.

Elsewhere, the United States has used three legal instruments, depriving local residents their lands. Until 1871, treaties played a major role, but then Congress voted to abandon this practice. Often such land cession agreements were concluded under pressure or secured by bribes, after which they were violated, despite the provisions on perpetuity and inviolability. However, they were based on interethnic relations, which today are the formative principle in American policy towards the Indians. Less well known are two other ways to dispossess indigenous peoples of their lands: federal laws and presidential decrees.

From 1776 to the present, the United States has taken approximately 1.5 billion acres of land (600 million hectares) from the indigenous people of North America, an area 25 times larger than Great Britain.

The federal government of the so-called USA, in fact it is the British Empire represented by the Weimar Republic, took away the lands not from the Indians, but from the white indigenous population of the planet.

1871-Wikipedia

Events of 1871 on a global scale:

January 18 - at the Palace of Versailles near Paris, after the defeat by the French Franco-Prussian War, the creation of the German Empire was proclaimed.
January 28 - surrender of Paris.
Completion of the unification of Italy.

Creation of the Central Committee of the Republican National Guard in Paris.
February 8 - elections to the French National Assembly.
February 26 - preliminary peace treaty between France and Prussia.

March.
March 1 - German troops entered Paris for three days. They were withdrawn immediately after receiving news of the ratification by the French National Assembly of a preliminary peace treaty with Germany.
March 18 - the Central Committee of the National Guard took power in Paris, the government of Adolphe Thiers fled to Versailles. The beginning of the Paris Commune.
March 23 - Gaston Cremieux rebelled in Marseille. The Marseille Commune was proclaimed.

May 10 - Peace is concluded between France and Germany in Frankfurt am Main, ending the Franco-Prussian War.
May 28 - fall of the Paris Commune.

June 3 - in Guatemala, liberals who began armed struggle for power, congressional deputy Miguel García Granados was proclaimed interim president of the country.
June 29 - In Guatemala, the liberal army occupied the capital of the country. The regime of Marshal Vicente Serna was overthrown.

August 29— Administrative reform in Japan (one of the most important reforms of the Meiji era): the government published a decree in the name of the Emperor on the liquidation of principalities and the formation of prefectures.

September.

September 7 - Grand Vizier died in Erenkeni Ottoman Empire Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha. Mahmud Nedim Pasha became the new grand vizier.
September 17 - 23 - London Conference of the First International.

November 16 - start of movement on the Moscow-Brest Railway through Minsk.
November 30 - in Marseille, the leader of the Marseille commune, Gaston Cremieux, was shot by a military court.

Events without exact dates:

The legal “Journal of Civil and Trade Law” began to be published in St. Petersburg.
The main base of the Siberian Army was transferred from Nikolaevsk-on-Amur to Vladivostok military flotilla, the residence of the military governor and other maritime institutions.
Francis Herbert Wenham, a member of the Royal Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, created the world's first closed wind tunnel.
Yellow fever epidemic in Buenos Aires.

As you understand, this is by no means an exhaustive list of all the events that occurred in 1871.
And they are all fake, a literary hoax, an invention of the cocaine-sniffed intelligentsia.

These events did not occur in 1871.

Everything was different and at a different time.

If no government in the world collected income taxes before 1916, a reasonable question arises:
Did these governments themselves exist or were they all phantoms, figments of the imagination of the paid intelligentsia?

No government collected taxes, there was no military industrial complex, there was no army, there was no Kaiser's Germany.

The Weimar Republic appeared only in 1919. What happened before her?

Before 1913-1919, there was only one megastate on the entire planet. So rich that it did not indulge in money-grubbing and did not collect taxes from the population. There was a completely different financial system , but more on that next time.

There are a lot of inconsistencies, contradictions, and fakes. Let's try to figure it all out and restore our history.

There was no Kaiser Germany! This means that there was no US corporation before 1913-1919, nor the Russian and German empires.

Before 1916, no government anywhere in the world collected income taxes. A reasonable question arises:

If the government did not collect taxes, there is no way it can support the military industrial complex, the army, and the domestic security forces.

Before 1913-1919, there was only one megastate on the entire planet. So rich that it did not indulge in money-grubbing and did not collect taxes from the population. It was a completely different financial system.

Upon request "Russian Empire in 1871 " the search engine gives "German Empire", unification of Germany and several other important events.

The Russian Empire/USSR, the USA and Germany are closely connected. Until 1933, they represented one state, or rather, one corporation. How was it formed, could it exist and on what means?

In 1871, according to official history, there is a global change of power, an offensive across the planet: in the USA, Japan, Turkey, Russia, England, the establishment of the power of the British Empire, disguised as the German Empire and the 2nd Reich, is underway.

See for yourself:

The District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871

Organic Act of the District of Columbia 1871 is an act of Congress that repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown and created a new territorial government for the entire District of Columbia. Although Congress abolished the territorial government in 1874, the legislation was the first to create a unified municipal government for the federal district.
The District of Columbia is an independent territory that is not part of any state. It was formed in 1790 by the Seat Act and included the city of Georgetown, as well as the city of Alexandria (until 1846). The city of Washington was founded in 1791 and named after George Washington, the first American president. In 1871, the cities of Washington and Georgetown and Washington County were formally abolished as separate administrative divisions and merged with the District of Columbia.

Washington, DC

Open Wikipedia and look at the 2 diagrams on the right side: taxes and income of the US Federal Government:
Income tax in the United States

If Washington, D.C. was not part of any of the states, who funded it and why?

The US government began collecting federal, state, local income and estate taxes only in 1916.

US Inheritance Tax

It is unclear how much money the Civil War between the North and South was fought on, if there was no taxation as such in the United States. Congress attempted for the first time to impose an income tax of 3% on income exceeding $800 in annual income, in 1862 this law was repealed and in 1862 replaced by another tax, but it did not say which one, in what amount, what the department was authorized to collect it and what powers this department had.

What do we have? The American Civil War of 1861-65, a US foreign corporation formed in 1871, took place according to official history.

Federal, state, local taxes, inheritance tax, tax service, law enforcement agencies ensuring tax collection, military-industrial complex - did not exist.

1871 - formation of the German Empire.

Proclamation of the German Empire in Versailles. Bismarck in white is in the center of the picture.

The German Empire is the name adopted in Russian historiography for the German state in 1871-1918.
The official name of the German state in 1871-1945 is Deutsches Reich (German Reich), which is also translated as “German Empire” or “German State” (since 1943 - Großdeutsches Reich, “Great German State”, “Great German Empire”). In historiography, this period of time is usually divided into the German Empire (Kaiser Germany) (1871-1918), the Weimar Republic (1918-1933) and the Third Reich (Nazi Germany) (1933-1945). Thus, the term "German Empire" is applied mainly to the Kaiser's Germany, which corresponds to the German historiography term Deutsches Kaiserreich. The Weimar Republic and the Third Reich, despite formal correctness, are usually not included in this concept.
The founders of the German Empire are considered to be Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I of Hohenzollern. Sometimes it is called the “Second Reich” (see “First” and “Third”). The German Empire ceased to exist in 1918 as a result of the November Revolution.

We open Wikipedia - “German Empire”, it is written in black and white:

Military production in Germany in the 19th century, and therefore the existence of the German army, is a myth. Therefore, in 1871, Bismarck could not capture Paris, proclaim the Kaiser’s Empire there and impose indemnities on France and take away lands, and therefore Germany did not have the resources and money to create its own military industry (MIC) and maintain an army up to the so-called 1st World War II - officially it is 1914.

The existence of German colonies before 1919 is a myth, an invention of the intelligentsia.

Germany entered the colonial race very late - in the mid-1880s. However, this did not prevent her from acquiring quite significant possessions in Africa, Asia and Oceania.

“The victory over France gave Germany Alsace and Lorraine with rich reserves of iron ore, other minerals and a developed cotton industry. The French received a colossal indemnity of 5 billion francs, which immediately found capitalist use. A powerful base was formed for the development of industry: metallurgical, mechanical engineering, metalworking.
Germany ranked first in the world in military industry."
http://mirovaja-ekonomika.ru/razvitie-ekonomiki-germanii/

There were no German colonies, Franco-German war, 5 billion indemnity and confiscation of lands and France.

Those who lived in the USSR felt firsthand what taxes, the maintenance of the army and the military-industrial complex were.
No taxes, no military-industrial complex, no army.

1871 Banning of the Ku Klux Klan in the USA.

Burnt buildings in downtown Chicago, 1871

Map of Chicago 1871. The dark part was destroyed by fire.

Fires, floods, earthquakes, hurricanes are the use of climate weapons to clear territories. The year 1871 is controversial, like the entire history of the so-called United States.

The autumn of 1871 was hot, dry and windy.On the same day, three more large fires occurred on the shores of Lake Michigan. 400 miles (600 km) north of Chicago, the Prairie Fire destroyed the town of Peshtigo, Wisconsin, along with a dozen neighboring villages. The number of victims of this fire ranged from 1,200 to 2,500 people. Despite the fact that the Peshtigo fire claimed the largest number of lives in US history, it went almost unnoticed at the time due to the considerable remoteness of the region. On the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, a fire destroyed the town of Holland, and 100 miles (160 km) north of Holland, a huge fire burned the lumber camp of Manistee.

Alternative version.

By 1871, the US authorities had decided that treaties with the Indians were no longer required and that no Indian nation or tribe should be considered an independent nation or state.
By 1880, as a result of the mass shooting of the American bison, almost its entire population disappeared, and the Indians lost their main fishery. The authorities forced the Indians to abandon their usual way of life and live only on reservations. Many Indians resisted this. One of the leaders of the resistance was Sitting Bull, the chief of the Sioux tribe. The Sioux dealt several stunning blows to the American cavalry in their victory at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876. But the Indians could not live on the prairies without bison and, exhausted by hunger, they eventually submitted and moved to reservations.

The Indians are the indigenous population of the planet, which was cleared. Subsequently, the British Empire - the Weimar Republic - created primitive red-skinned clones-hybrids of the Negroid and Mongoloid races, labeled them Indians and presented them to the whole world as the indigenous population of America. Another gross fake.

Elsewhere, the United States used three legal instruments to dispossess local people of their lands. Until 1871, treaties played a major role, but then Congress voted to abandon this practice. Often such land cession agreements were concluded under pressure or secured by bribes, after which they were violated, despite the provisions on perpetuity and inviolability. However, they were based on interethnic relations, which today are the formative principle in American policy towards the Indians. Less well known are two other ways to dispossess indigenous peoples of their lands: federal laws and presidential decrees.

1871-Wikipedia

Events of 1871 on a global scale:

January 18 - at the Palace of Versailles near Paris, at the end of the Franco-Prussian War lost by the French, the creation of the German Empire was proclaimed.
January 28 - surrender of Paris.
Completion of the unification of Italy.

Creation of the Central Committee of the Republican National Guard in Paris.
February 8 - elections to the French National Assembly.
February 26 - preliminary peace treaty between France and Prussia.

May 10 - Peace is concluded between France and Germany in Frankfurt am Main, ending the Franco-Prussian War.
May 28 - fall of the Paris Commune.

June 3 - in Guatemala, liberals who began an armed struggle for power proclaimed congressman Miguel García Granados interim president of the country.
June 29 - In Guatemala, the liberal army occupied the capital of the country. The regime of Marshal Vicente Serna was overthrown.

August 29 - Administrative reform in Japan (one of the most important reforms of the Meiji era): the government published a decree in the name of the Emperor on the liquidation of principalities and the formation of prefectures.

September.

September 7 - Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha died in Erenkeni. Mahmud Nedim Pasha became the new grand vizier.
September 17 - 23 - London Conference of the First International.

November 16 - start of movement on the Moscow-Brest Railway through Minsk.
November 30 - in Marseille, the leader of the Marseille commune, Gaston Cremieux, was shot by a military court.

Events without exact dates:

The legal “Journal of Civil and Trade Law” began to be published in St. Petersburg.
The main base of the Siberian Military Flotilla, the residence of the military governor and other maritime institutions were transferred from Nikolaevsk-on-Amur to Vladivostok.
Francis Herbert Wenham, a member of the Royal Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, created the world's first closed wind tunnel.
Yellow fever epidemic in Buenos Aires.

As you understand, this is by no means an exhaustive list of all the events that occurred in 1871.
And they are all fake, a literary hoax, an invention of the cocaine-sniffed intelligentsia.

These events did not occur in 1871.

Everything was different and at a different time.

No government collected taxes, there was no military industrial complex, there was no army, there was no Kaiser's Germany.

The Weimar Republic appeared only in 1919. What happened before her?

There are a lot of inconsistencies, contradictions, and fakes. Let's try to figure it all out and restore our history.

13:24 — REGNUM

Members of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. Photography from the 70s. 19th century

1871 On November 29 (November 17, old style) in St. Petersburg, at the Imperial Academy of Arts, the first exhibition of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions or Peredvizhniki opened. The exhibition was attended by V.F.Ammon, S.N.Ammosov, A.P.Bogolyubov, N.N.Ge, K.F.Gun, L.L.Kamenev, F.F.Kamensky (sculptor), M K. K. Klodt, M. P. Klodt, I. N. Kramskoy, V. M. Maksimov, G. G. Myasoedov, V. G. Perov, I. M. Pryanishnikov, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. .Shishkin.

Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich in Peterhof. N.N.Ge. 1871 State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow.

"The discussion of the charter began immediately, and a year later, on November 2, 1870, the charter was signed by Perov, Myasoedov, Kamenev, Savrasov, Pryanishnikov, Kramskoy, barons M.K. and M.P. Klodt, Shishkin, K.E. and V .E. Makovsky, Jacobi, Korzukhin and Lemokh was approved by the government, and then, our concerns, says G. G. Myasoedov in his report on the fifteen years of the exhibitions, took on a completely definite character. We needed paintings, we needed money. The first were the Partnership, which was born without half a share, had few, the latter were not at all. Each participant had to lend from his own pocket, whoever could, for his initial expenses. The business was attractive to everyone, they believed him, and it did not deceive: for the very first exhibition opened in In 1871, in the halls of the Imperial Academy of Arts, St. Petersburg brought 2,303 rubles, which immediately ensured the possibility of our movement to the provinces."

Portrait of the artist Grigory Grigorievich Myasoedov. I.E.Repin. 1886 State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow.

But in the complaint about the lack of paintings one can see rather modesty, or can this be understood in comparison with the number of them at subsequent exhibitions. In fact, 46 works by ten members of the Association and five exhibitors were exhibited here. In terms of content, the exhibition was absolutely brilliant. N.N.Ge exhibited his famous painting “Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich”, V.G.Perov - “Hunters’ Halt” and “Fisherman” and three portraits, I.N.Kramskoy - portraits of M.M.Antokolsky, F .A.Vasiliev and Baron M.K.Klodt and "Scene from May night Gogol", K.F. Gun - "the head of a Huguenot", I.M. Pryanishnikov - "Burnt" and "Empty", G.G. Myasoedov - "Scene in a tavern on the Lithuanian border", A.K. Savrasov - " The rooks have arrived,” in addition, there were landscapes by Shishkin, M.K. Klodt, A.P. Bogolyubov and the sculptural group by F.F. Kamensky “For Mushrooms”; in a word, I repeat, the exhibition was a success.

As I have already indicated, the public reacted with complete sympathy to this enterprise. This is also confirmed by the fact that the Partnership not only has not disintegrated to this day, but, on the contrary, is prospering more and more every year, and followers have been found to follow their example.

Although there were zoiles in the press who did not stop shouting about the decline of art, but most of the press, and especially the provincial one, reacted sympathetically."

Quoted from: Novitsky A. The Peredvizhniki and their influence on Russian art. M,: Publication of the bookstore Grosman and Knebel, 1897. p.51-52

History in faces

M.M. Saltykov-Shchedrin:

This year was marked by a very remarkable phenomenon for Russian art - some Moscow and St. Petersburg artists formed a partnership. From now on, works of Russian art, hitherto confined to St. Petersburg alone, within the walls of the Academy of Arts, or buried in galleries and museums of private individuals, are made available to everyone. Art ceases to be a secret, ceases to distinguish the invited from the uninvited, calls on everyone and recognizes for everyone the right to judge the deeds they have accomplished.

Quoted from: Novitsky A. The Peredvizhniki and their influence on Russian art. M,: Publication of the bookstore Grosman and Knebel, 1897. p.52

The world at this time

In 1871, the war between France and Prussia ended with the signing of the Frankfurt Peace Treaty. As a result of this war, Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg and South Hesse-Darmstadt join the North German Confederation, thus realizing Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's idea of creating a united Germany. In addition, Prussia annexed Alsace-Lorraine, which belonged to France. The Second French Empire disintegrates and the Third French Republic is created.

Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles. A. von Werner. 1871

“The Frankfurt Peace Treaty confirmed the basic conditions that had been established in the Versailles preliminaries of February 26. France ceded Alsace and part of Lorraine to Germany and pledged to pay 5 billion indemnities. However, the help of the Prussians against the Commune was bought by Thiers at the cost of worsening the conditions for paying indemnities and delaying the withdrawal German troops from French territory.

It was a predatory world. What reasons prompted Bismarck to seize French territory?

The main reason for the annexation was strategic considerations. Both Bismarck and Moltke were convinced that the war of 1870-1871. does not eliminate the centuries-old antagonism between Germany and France. Confident in the inevitability new war with France, they sought to use their victory to provide Germany with the most advantageous strategic border. “I have no illusions,” Bismarck frankly explained to a French diplomat three months after the signing of the Frankfurt Peace. - “It would be absurd for us to take Metz from you, which is French. I didn’t want to leave it to Germany. But General base asked me if I could guarantee that France would not take revenge. I replied that, on the contrary, I was quite convinced that this war was only the first of those that would break out between Germany and France, and that it would be followed by whole line others. I was told that in that case Metz would be a glacis behind which France could accommodate one hundred thousand men. We had to keep it. I will say the same about Alsace and Lorraine: it would be a mistake to take them from you if the peace were destined to last, since these provinces are a burden to us." "They will become, as it were, a new Poland,” answered the Frenchman, “ Poland, with France behind it.” “Yes,” agreed the German Chancellor, “Poland, with France behind it.”

The capture of Alsace and Lorraine, under the conditions of that time, really gave Germany serious strategic benefits. As long as the French were in control of Alsace, they could from there carry out an invasion of southern Germany with relative ease. The Catholic South was the most vulnerable spot newly created single German state. His loyalty to imperial unity seemed rather dubious at that time. After Alsace passed to Germany, the French found themselves driven back beyond the Vosges. Now between France and Germany, in addition to the Rhine line, there was also a chain of Vosges mountains, difficult to pass for big army. Thus, Alsace had serious defensive importance.

On the contrary, the strategic importance of Lorraine was rather offensive. In Lorraine, the Germans acquired a bridgehead that brought them closer to Paris and greatly facilitated the repetition of the “experience” of 1870 - an attack on Paris through the so-called “Vosges hole,” that is, the flat space between the Vosges in the south and the Ardennes in the north. The strategic key to it was the fortress of Metz, which was now in German hands.

Under the terms of the preliminary treaty of February 26, 1871, the ore-rich areas of Lorraine, located west of Thionville, remained with France. During the negotiations for the final peace treaty, Bismarck, given the importance of the ore wealth, proposed the following exchange to the French: Germany would agree to rectify the border at Belfort, which, for strategic reasons, the French were extremely keen on, and in return they would cede to Germany the ore basin west of Thionville. At first Bismarck met with refusal. It is interesting that Bismarck, who bargained mercilessly about the timing of payment of each billion, took this refusal calmly. “If necessary,” he wrote, “I would rather refuse to expand our border than disrupt the entire agreement because of this.” Soon, however, the French changed their minds, and the exchange took place. France received a correction of the border at Belfort and gave Germany the iron ore region. This entire episode shows that the ore wealth of Lorraine was taken into account when concluding peace. But it also testifies that it was not they who played the decisive role, but strategic considerations. This is not surprising: one only needs to remember that in 1871 Lorraine ore did not yet have its current significance. She received it only in the late 70s, after the discovery of a cost-effective method for processing ores rich in phosphorus.

Bismarck was quite clear that the annexation of French territory would further complicate Franco-German relations. The created objective situation forced Bismarck to solve the following political problem: is it worth trying to defuse the tension in Franco-German relations? If this attempt was hopeless, wouldn’t it be more expedient to take care of creating the most profitable theater for future war? Bismarck resolved the issue precisely in the latter sense.

Of course, it was not the annexation of the two provinces that gave rise to Franco-German antagonism. And before this annexation, the most diverse French governments fought against German national unity for centuries. After this unity was achieved in 1871, bourgeois France would dream of weakening Germany even if Alsace and Lorraine remained French. But the annexation gave the revenge movement a somewhat defensive appearance, and with it gave it such strength within France that it would never have acquired without it. This is exactly how Marx looked at the matter. “If French chauvinism,” he wrote, “while the old state order was maintained, found a certain material justification in the fact that since 1815 the capital of France, Paris, and thus France itself, after a few lost battles, found itself defenseless, then what Will this chauvinism receive rich food as soon as the border passes in the east - at the Vosges, and in the north - at Metz? The Peace of Frankfurt was an act of great historical significance- it contained the first seeds of the war of 1914-1918.

At the very beginning of the war, Marx gave a profound analysis of its consequences. In a letter to the Committee of German Social Democracy, Marx wrote:

"The military camarilla, professors, burghers and tavern politicians argue that this [the seizure of Alsace and Lorraine by Prussia] is a means to forever protect Germany from war with France. On the contrary, this is the surest way to turn this war into a European institution. This is truly the best way to perpetuate in the renewed Germany military despotism as necessary condition domination over western Poland - Alsace and Lorraine. This is a surefire way to turn future world into a simple truce until France is strong enough to demand back the territory taken from her... Anyone who is not completely deafened by the current uproar or is not interested in deafening the German people must understand that the war of 1870 "is as inevitably fraught with war between Russia and Germany as the war of 1866 was fraught with the war of 1870."

The Franco-Prussian War completed a series of profound changes in the political situation of Europe. The national unification of Germany was achieved, although without the German regions of Austria. The unification of Italy ended, however, without Trieste and Triente. Previously, France's eastern neighbors were powerless small states, and Russia's western neighbor was a relatively small Prussia, moreover, absorbed in continuous rivalry with Austria.

Now a powerful power arose on the borders of Russia and France - the German Empire.

For France, the situation has changed not only on the eastern, but also on its southeastern border. And here, after the wars of 1859 - 1871, instead of eight small Italian states, France found itself adjacent to the united Kingdom of Italy. Austria-Hungary underwent similar changes. In short, previously, between the great powers of the continent there was a loose layer of weak, small states. It was a kind of buffer that somewhat softened the shocks when the great powers came into contact. Now the territories of these powers are closely adjacent to each other.

For this reason alone, the international situation has become more tense. Moreover, such tension was not a passing phenomenon: it became an integral property of the new international relations". Quoted from: History of Diplomacy. Vol. 1 / Compiled by: Bakhrushin S.V., Efimov A.V., Kosminsky E.A., Narochnitsky A.L., Sergeev V.S., Skazkin S.D. ,

Tarle E.V., Khvostov V.M.; Edited by: Potemkin V.P. - M.: Sotsekgiz, 1941

History is full of mysterious cases that excite the imagination and force more and more new versions to be put forward. One of them is the mystery of the Chicago fire of 1871, during which almost the entire city burned out. What reasons for its occurrence were not mentioned then!

It was Sunday, and the weather was surprisingly good. The public was relaxing, and law enforcement officers, including firefighters, were on duty. There were no signs of trouble, and yet she was already knocking on the door.

It was beginning to get dark when the first alarm signal came - a house caught fire in the northwestern part of the city. Before the firefighters had time to respond to him, calls began to arrive one after another. Two hours later, Chicago was a sea of raging fire. Maddened residents rushed through the streets in horror, finding their deaths in the flames and under the rubble of collapsing houses.

But many of those people who managed to escape from the fiery hell of the city were not spared by death: hundreds of corpses were later discovered in the vicinity of Chicago. Moreover, what looked quite strange, no damage could be found on the bodies.

For many years, it was believed that the Chicago fire, which killed more than a thousand residents and reduced a thriving city to ashes, was an accident. According to one hypothesis, this unfortunate event was caused by... a cow. They say that a cow, while in the barnyard, knocked over a kerosene lamp. This first set the straw on fire, the stall ignited, then the houses nearby. And then the whole city burned down.

125 thousand people were left homeless. The damage caused by the fire was estimated at $150 million. And this is because of one cow!

In those years, city fires were not uncommon. History mentions many large cities that burned to the ground. They especially helped the fire strong winds and the fact that most of the buildings and various structures were wooden. So the fire in Chicago could be considered a completely common occurrence. And the root cause is clear - an unreasonable animal.

But there were people who did not believe this version. And among them is fire major, chief of the Chicago fire department Medill. This is what he wrote then: “When we received the first message that one of the houses had caught fire, almost immediately came news of a fire that had started in St. Paul's Church, located two miles from the site of the first fire. Continue alarms began to come from various parts of the city, so that we did not even know where to extinguish them before... Reports of fires came in like an avalanche. It seemed as if hundreds of attackers were simultaneously setting fire to buildings in various places in the huge city."

Over time, the circumstances of the Chicago fire were increasingly forgotten. And in our time, they would hardly have interested anyone if a young researcher had not accidentally discovered the following: simultaneously with the fire in Chicago, fires arose in the forests and prairies of the states of Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, on the Pacific coast. That is, they passed in a wide strip across the entire North America.

As Chamberlain studied the materials, more and more incomprehensible facts accumulated. Thus, many buildings caught fire from the inside, as if spontaneously. The damage caused by the fire also looked quite unusual. For example, a metal slipway that stood alone on the river bank was actually fused into one piece. From what? After all, the nearest buildings were a hundred meters away from him. According to the recollections of the surviving townspeople (they were recorded), on that terrible evening even the marble burned, like simple coal, which is used to heat fireplaces. And the houses, standing at a great distance from each other, flared up as if by magic.

Hundreds of corpses of people who fled from the fire and were later found in the vicinity of Chicago lay in fields and near roads, that is, in places where the fire could not overtake them. It was also surprising that no fatal wounds or burns were found either on the bodies of the dead or on the corpses of animals.

“It seemed as if the sky itself was on fire,” Chamberlain read in one of the newspapers. “Fire fell like rain. Fire stones fell like firebrands flying from a fire,” was printed in another.

Chamberlain found similar messages in newspapers in cities nearby Chicago. What happened?

Chamberlain took up the work of astronomer Ignatius Donnelly, which described all the comets and meteorite impacts observed in the 19th century. Among others, a comet discovered in 1826 by the Austrian scientist Wilhelm von Biela was described. Based on its movement, astronomers calculated the comet's orbital period to be 6 years and 9 months. And completely in accordance with these calculations, Comet Biela appeared in the sky in 1839. At the same time, there was a strong meteor shower, seen in many parts of the United States.

The comet then appeared in 1846. Her tail this time was completely different: it was split and resembled a huge horseshoe. In 1852, Comet Biela appeared again, but it completely changed its shape and split up.

Now two tailed stars were moving in the sky. She appeared in the same form in 1859. Only the tail of one of them became larger; it had a ray-like shape. This was sure evidence that the comet had begun to disintegrate. With all the greater interest scientists awaited her next appearance.

But in 1866 they waited for her in vain. Did this mean that it changed its trajectory, and therefore its orbital period? If so, then there could be a danger to the Earth.

On the night of November 27, 1872, meteor showers occurred in various parts of Europe. Astronomers have established that the point in the sky from which the meteor shower came coincides with the point from which the last time they waited in vain for Comet Biela.

Klinker-flues, a professor at the Berlin Observatory, suggested that the meteor shower was the remnants of the disintegrated double comet Biela. However, due to bad weather in Europe he could not verify his assumption with observations. But his colleague M. Pogson from the Madras Observatory (India) discovered, as he said, the heads of both departing comets - the comets were devoid of tails. Did these tails fall to Earth?

In December 1872, this question was posed to astronomers in scientific journal. But this question was asked more than a year late.

Chamberlain's now discovered relationship between the fire in Chicago and fires elsewhere allowed him to assert with almost absolute certainty that both of the "lost" tails of the double comet Biel, in accordance with their calculated orbital period, fell on North America. The mysterious "flying fire" thus represents the hot meteorites that set Chicago on fire.

Then the unusual heat that caused the marble to melt (after all, passing through earth's atmosphere heavenly stones heat up to very high temperatures), and a large number of fires.

Now the most common idea is that comet nuclei consist of frozen water, ammonia, carbon dioxide and some other volatile compounds, interspersed with metal and stone fragments. Based on the spectra of comet tails, scientists have determined that there are substances there that are far from safe for health.

Then the death of people who fled the city becomes clear. They were poisoned by poisonous gases released from fire-breathing fragments or formed during the passage of “fragments” of the comet through the atmosphere. Perhaps the concentration of these gases, especially near the places where the “heavenly fire” fell to the ground, was so high that it led to the death of many people.

So, it seems that it has become clear what could have caused the fire in Chicago. The charge of arson against the innocent cow was also dropped, and all responsibility for the incident fell on the shoulders of Biela's comet, which gave birth to the meteor shower. Still, maybe it was not for nothing that our ancestors attributed various atrocities to comets?

But I think this is just a version. Haven't we been taught that comet debris should completely burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground? But, if it was not a comet that caused such catastrophic fires, then what was it?

Source e-reading.link