WAYS TO CONNECT SENTENCES IN THE TEXT
The thought contained in a sentence is completed only relatively: the syntactic form, the structure of the sentence in which this thought is contained, is completed, but the thought itself is not completed and requires its own development. Continuation and development of thought is possible only in a similar syntactic form, that is, in another sentence. Several sentences linked together by a topic and main idea are called text(from Latin textum - fabric, connection, connection).
Obviously, all sentences separated by a period are not isolated from each other. Between two adjacent sentences of the text there is semantic connection. Moreover, not only sentences located nearby can be related, but also separated friend from a friend in one or more sentences. The semantic relations between sentences are different: the content of one sentence can be contrasted with the content of another; the contents of two or more sentences can be compared with one another; the content of the second sentence may reveal the meaning of the first or clarify one of its members, and the content of the third may reveal the meaning of the second, etc.
Thus, any text is a combination of sentences according to certain rules, i.e. sentences united by the development of one thought can be combined in the text chain or parallel communication
Chain link
One of the most common ways to connect independent sentences is chain link .
We speak and write, in particular we connect independent sentences according to separate rules. And their essence is quite simple: two adjacent sentences should talk about the same subject. The closest connection of sentences is expressed primarily in repetition. Repetition of one or another member of a sentence (this is structural correlation) - main feature chain link. For example, in sentences Behind the garden was forest. Forest was deaf, neglected The connection is built according to the “subject - subject” model, i.e. the subject named at the end of the first sentence is repeated at the beginning of the next; in sentences Physics is there the science. The science must use the dialectical method- model "predicate - subject"; in the example The boat has moored to the shore. Shore was strewn with small pebbles - model "circumstance - subject" and so on. Connections can be different, and they can also be expressed in different ways.
Let's consider three pairs of sentences:
I watched movie . Movie was amazing.
I watched movie . He was amazing.
I watched movie . Action was amazing.
All three pairs of sentences have the same connection model: “subject - object”. But this model is filled in different ways:
1) using lexical repetition;
2) through pronouns (instead of repetition);
3) by using synonyms (action movie).
Based on this, we identify a chain relationship expressed in lexical repetition, chain pronominal connection and chain synonymous connection.
However, repetition may be implied, but it is easily detected if one switches to the language of judgments. For example, in sentences the semantic connection is undeniable, and we intuitively feel and understand that the first sentence - This is a kind of frame for the picture painted in the second sentence. In the “language” of judgments it will sound something like this: I affirm that now (at this moment) morning has come. Morning— this is the time when the sun risesabove the horizon." The connection between judgments is obvious: it is a chain connection “subject - subject”, carried out thanks to lexical repetition. But natural ordinary language strives for economical, concise expression of thoughts and avoids repetition unless necessary. Therefore, in our example Morning. The sun is already above the horizon sentences are connected by implied, but not explicitly expressed, repetition.
Clean lexical repetition- a relatively rare phenomenon. Long tradition, coming from ancient rhetoric - the teachings of eloquence, teaches to avoid repetition of words, to strive for lexical diversity. And yet, we can note three most characteristic areas of use of chain communication through lexical repetition. The first area is the transmission of simple speech, for example, children's (the likelihood of such texts appearing on the Unified State Examination is very low, so we will not dwell on this).
The second area is scientific and business literature. It is known that lexical repetitions give speech accuracy, clarity, and rigor. The repetition of a word is also the strongest, most reliable connection between sentences. The prevalence of chain communication through lexical repetition in a scientific style is also associated with the stability of terminology and the undesirability (for the sake of accuracy) of synonymous substitutions.
For example:
Participle - a non-finite form of a verb, denoting a feature of a name associated with an action, and used attributively. IN communion the properties of a verb and an adjective are combined. Grammatically verbal participles in a number of languages it manifests itself in the presence of a category of voice, type, tense, and in the preservation of models of control and adjacency.
Proximity participles to an adjective is manifested in the presence of participles in a number of languages agreement categories gender, number, case. Like an adjective, a participle performs syntactic functions definitions or, less commonly, the nominal part of the predicate.
Name defined communion, can denote the subject of an action and the object of an action.
/N. Kozintseva/
The third area of use of lexical repetitions is journalism.
Chain connection through lexical repetition often has an expressive, emotional character, especially when the repetition is at the junction of sentences:
Aral disappears from the map of the Fatherland sea.
Whole sea!
/IN. Selyunin/
Chain synonymous connection does not differ in its structural (syntactic) essence from a chain connection through lexical repetition. Here the same structural relationships are common to all types of chain communication (models “subject - object”, “object - object”, etc.)
For example:
Having set out in swimming, I passed the pillars of Hercules and rode, accompanied by a favorable wind, to Western Ocean. The reason and reason for my trips They were partly curiosity, partly a passionate love for everything unusual and a desire to find out where the end of the ocean is and what kind of people live on the other side of it.
There is an object-object relationship between two sentences. But the corresponding members of neighboring sentences are expressed not by the same word, but by synonymous words (swimming— journey). The lexical similarity of these words serves as an indicator of the structural correlation of sentences.
However, synonymous vocabulary is not only a neutral, external indicator of the structural correlation (connection) of sentences. It allows you to express a variety of semantic relations between sentences: show the writer’s attitude to the content of the previous sentence, evaluate, comment on this content. A chain synonymous connection makes speech more flexible and varied, allowing you to avoid repetition of the same word.
In its own way stylistic function approaches a chain synonymous connection pronominal . Just like the first, it allows you to avoid repeating words. Instead of repetition or synonym, the second of the correlating members of the sentence is replaced by a pronoun. This is the simplest, most economical, durable and stylistically neutral way of communication.
There was a room in the house that had three names: small, walk-through and dark. In it stood a large old cupboard with medicines, gunpowder and hunting supplies. From here a narrow wooden staircase led to the second floor, where cats always slept. There were doors here: one to the nursery, the other to the living room. When Nikitin entered here, the door from the nursery opened and slammed so hard that both the stairs and the closet shook.
/A. Chekhov/
Combination is also possible various types chain connections in one case, for example, lexical repetition and pronominal connection:
But Baturin dream didn't tell. Hostility to this sleep scared his, He blushed and turned the conversation to another topic.
IN dreams He Of course, I didn’t believe it. But power their above him was amazing.
/TO. Paustovsky/
Chain links are used in all styles of speech. This is the most common way to connect sentences. Wide use chain connections due to the fact that they are in to the greatest extent correspond to the specifics of thinking, the peculiarities of combining judgments. Where thought develops linearly, sequentially, where each subsequent sentence develops the previous one, as if following from it, chain connections are inevitable. We meet them and in description, And in the story, and especially Vreasoning, i.e. in texts of various types.
The situation is somewhat different with styles. And yet, for some styles, chain connections are especially characteristic.
First of all, they are characteristic of scientific style . IN scientific text we encounter a strict sequence and close connection of individual parts of the text, individual sentences, where each subsequent one follows from the previous one. When presenting the material, the author consistently moves from one stage of reasoning to another. And this method of application is most suitable for chain connections.
Quite often used in scientific literature chain connection through lexical repetition. The need for it is often caused by the requirements of terminological accuracy of imposition. Repeating a word (or phrase) denoting the concept, phenomenon, or process being described is often more desirable than various kinds synonymous replacements (see example above about communion).
IN journalistic style All types of chain link are presented. But the tasks that most fully correspond to nature are journalistic style we should recognize chain synonymous, chain pronominal and chain pronominal synonymous connections with their wide possibilities for commenting and assessing the content of the statement:
Oleg Menshikov is the first Russian actor awarded Laurence Olivier Awards. This award was awarded to him in London in April 1992 for the role of Yesenin in the play “When She Danced,” where Oleg played opposite the famous Vanessa Redgrave. This prestigious annual award- something like the American Oscar for filmmakers. It represents a rather heavy bust of Olivier in the costume of HenryVand a framed diploma under glass. There are no dollars attached to the listed accessories, but prestige, of course, is more valuable than any money, those more for the actor who received this award first.
/From the newspaper/
IN artistic style, as in journalism, you can find almost all types of chain communication. The closest intercom between sentences literary text not only a law, but also one of the conditions of mastery.
Of course, the predominance of one or another type of chain connection largely depends on individual style the writer, his creative intentions, the genre of the work, the nature of the text and many other factors. But in general the basic principle of the language fiction in the area of complete sentences - this seems to be the desire to make syntactic connection between sentences is not as explicit and open as, for example, in scientific literature. This is the desire to avoid, if possible, so-called syntactic ties. And yet, some authors resort to lexical repetitions:
A behind the cemetery were smoking brick factories. Thick black smoke it came in large clouds from under long reed roofs, flattened to the ground, and lazily rose upward. The sky above the factories and the cemetery was dark, and there were large shadows from the clouds smoke crawled across the field and across the road. IN smoke People and horses covered with red dust moved near the roofs...
/A. Chekhov/
Parallel communication
At parallel communication, it is also sometimes called syntactic parallelism, sentences are not linked to one another, but are compared, and thanks to the parallelism of constructions, depending on the lexical “filling”, comparison or opposition is possible. Features of this type of connection are the same word order, the members of the sentence are usually expressed in the same way grammatical forms, or by repeating the first word of the sentences:
The blue boat washed ashore. The boat, which lost control, was smashed to pieces.
Here, structural correlation is expressed in complete parallelism of sentences: sentences are of the same type (both impersonal), have the same word order, members of sentences are expressed in the same grammatical forms. The fact that the connection between sentences is syntactic in nature is confirmed by the possibility of varied lexical “filling” of structurally related parallel sentences, for example:
Small branches were bent to the ground. Yellow leaves carried far to the side.
Parallel communication helps to draw as briefly as possible the most complete picture of what is happening and is usually used by authors when describing:
He sat with Berg for a long time open window. The stars blazed in the gaps of heavy foliage. The salty air flowed like a river. The bay hung in the night like a swarm of fiery bees that flew up and stopped. The steamer sounded warmly and gently into the sea.
/TO. Paustovsky/
And outside, God knows why, winter was still angry. Whole clouds of soft, coarse snow swirled restlessly above the ground and found no place for themselves. Horses, sleighs, trees, a bull tied to a post - everything was white and seemed soft and fluffy.
/A. Chekhov/
Very often, some members of the sentences being connected (often the first ones at the beginning of the sentence) have the same lexical expression. In this case, the parallel connection is enhanced anaphora , those . unanimity, repetition of the first word of sentences, and it can be called parallel anaphoric:
What is culture why is it needed? What's happened culture what is the value system? What is the purpose of that wide liberal arts education, which has always been in our tradition?
/IN. Nepomnyashchiy/
Not pillar , raised above your corruption, he will preserve your memory for future generations. Not a stone with the cutting off of your name will bring your glory in future centuries.
/A. Radishchev/
Here Two officers in white jackets walked along the street in the shade of the acacia trees, playing with whips. Here A bunch of Jews with gray beards and caps rode along the line. Here The governess is walking with the director's granddaughter... A catfish ran somewhere with two mongrels... And here Varya went out in a simple gray dress and red stockings.
/TO. Chekhov/
A striking example of a parallel anaphoric connection is the story of V. Dragunsky “What I love...”:
I love you very much lie on your stomach on daddy’s knee, lower your arms and legs and hang on your knee like laundry on a fence. More I love you very much play checkers, chess and dominoes, just to be sure to win. If you don't win, then don't.
I love listen to the beetle rummaging through the box. And I love on a day off, crawl into dad's bed to talk to him about the dog: how we will live prosperously and buy a dog, and we will exercise it, and we will feed it, and how funny and smart it will be, and how it will be steal sugar, and I will wipe up the puddles for her myself, and she will follow me like a faithful dog.
I I love also watch TV: it doesn’t matter what is shown, even if only tables.
I I love breathe through mom's noseearI especially love to sing and always sing very loudly.
I love you terribly stories about red cavalrymen, And so that they always win...etc.
But anaphora is not a necessary, although frequent, condition for parallel communication.
Descriptions often use this type of parallel communication, such as juxtaposition of sentences. In this case, several clauses with the same generic meaning are combined:
Wasnight. Frost crackled throughout the forest. The tops of centuries-old fir trees, ghostly illuminated by the races, glittered and smoked, as if they had been rubbed with phosphorus.
/IN. Kataev/
The cart entered the village. The huts and houses behind the front gardens seemed deserted. The fire was smoking. There were several corpses lying around,ohalf driven into the dirt. Here and there separate shots were heard,- Thisfinished off non-residents pulled out of cellars and haylofts. The convoy was in disarray in the square. The wounded were shouting from the carts. From somewherewith An animal scream and blows of whips were heard in the yard. The high horses galloped. Near the fence, a group of cadets were drinking milk from a tin bucket.
The sun shone ever brighter and bluer from the blue windy abyss. Between a tree and a telegraph pole, on an overturned pole, swaying in the wind... seven long corpses- communists from the revolutionary committee and the tribunal.
/ A. K. Tolstoy/
SELF-TEST TASKS
1. Determine the way the sentences are connected in the following text:
(1) What does it mean to leave your country for a long time, forever?(2) What does it mean to be a foreigner, an emigrant?(3) And what ultimately ends up on the scales when the issue of leaving is decided?
(4) Until recently, I could only theorize, trying to answer these questions.(5) My experience consisted of stories from business travelers and contract soldiers, from the grievances and disappointments of those who visited friends and relatives who had left long ago and, instead of the usual, beloved and tenderly cherished images of separation, met with other, often strangers, from the optimistic excited stories of newly-made citizens of friendly powers, as well as from the lamentations of those who, transplanted into the soil of a foreign culture, could not or did not want to part with the Russian habit of suffering, which imperceptibly grew into a need.
(6) With the exception of these last ones, the rest one way or another fit into the opposition.(7) Some stood up for human rights, healthy image life, by which they meant practical and material well-being, and therefore they left.(And others accused the West of lack of spirituality and cultural stagnation and therefore stayed or returned.(9) There are, however, third ones. (10) These are the so-called “new Russians” who view Russia as a country of great, mainly commercial, opportunities.
/A. Annenkova/
2. Determine the way the sentences are connected in the following text:
(1) The bad weather raged for two days and three nights, but calmed down on the third day.(2) The wind died down, and at once gave waynorthwestern Moscow and Novgorod Rus'tishina and frost.(3) The crimson solar ball touched the through south-eastern azure from below.(4) It floated up from behind the forest, shrinking and melting into gold.(5) This blinding golden clot quickly separated from the horizon. (6) The entire forest element took on an unprecedented fabulous image.(7) The boundless, immaculately pure blue azure was thicker the further from the sun.(On the other side of the sky the fawn twilight of the night was still dying.(9) The moon, clearly and clearly shaded by this bright twilight, paled over the forests when the snow sparkled all around.(10) The spruce trees, weighed down with white clouds of snow, changed their shape, but remained silent.(11) The crowns of the old pines proudly remained themselves.
(12) The steam from the damp lowlands rose to the level of the tree tops and froze and crumbled on the snow-free birch branches.(13) Countless scatterings of tiny beads sparkled in the sun.(14) With the last wave of fading autumn warmth, everything froze.(15) Frost began to slowly cut, forge, silver, and tin everything that had even the smallest amount of moisture.
(16) The forest river, which just yesterday was running towards the snowstorm, began to be squeezed by silver teeth.(17) Transparent ice confidently crawled into the middle of the stream, narrowing the water current with an indestructible ribbed shell.
(18) And everything around silently shone, sparkled, sparkled from the frosty light.
/IN. Belov/
3. Determine which method of communication predominates in the following text:
(1) Short dull days in late autumn.(2) Dawn and dusk seem to meet in the middle of a stormgood day.(3) Cloudy and foggy, and freezing at night.(4) The hazy, low sky frowns.(5) The cold light of the autumn sun rarely peeks through.
(6) The wastelands are monotonous and monotonous.(7) Gloomy autumn landscape.(In the silence of the forests, only fidgety tits squeak occasionally and a woodpecker decorated with a red slipper knocks with its beak.(9) In November, the storerooms of animals and birds in holes and hollows are full.(10) Seasoned broods of arrived wolves gather in packs.(11) November- "Wolf Moon"
(11)By folk calendar november— month of winds, month of sowing forest seeds.
(12) No snow, no ice on flowing rivers and fast-flowing streams. (13) November— last month living water.
(14) Neither autumn nor winter.(15) Pre-winter— That's what this time is called.(16) They say about November: “September’s grandson, October’s son, winter’s brother.”
/According to D. Zuev/
4. Determine which method of communication predominates in the following text:
(1) From time immemorial, bread was not just food.(2) It was a measure not only of social well-being, but also a measure of human conscience.(3) They greeted people with bread and salt.(4) They fought the enemy to the death for bread.(5) They swore by bread, as by the name of their mother.(6) Bread was a product that evoked a special, one might say, holy feeling.(7) Hundreds of people gave their lives for the bread that the starving children of workers in Moscow, Petrograd, and the Volga region needed during the revolution.
(Today, the question of bread, of course, does not stand as a question of life and death.(9) But still, he should be no less dear to us than to our fathers and children.(10) Here, I think, we need smart, high-level propaganda that reaches the human heart. moral value labor of a grain grower, flour miller, baker.(11) After all, in order for bread to become bread and reach our table, so that we can buy a loaf or loaf, representatives of almost one hundred and twenty specialties work: breeder, machine operator, chemist, mechanical engineer, agricultural aviation pilot and procurer, bakery worker.
(12) Of course, the souls of our people have not become hardened, and the overwhelming majority of them have a highly moral attitude towards bread.(13) Once, on the anniversary of our great Victory, baked bread was distributed (not sold!) to people in one of the parks in Ulyanovsk.(14) This was not the usual bread that we are used to seeing in the store, in the dining room, at home.(15) These were loaves of the same besieged Leningrad bread, which only resembled bread and true value which was at one time equal to the value of life.(16) People young and old came up, took this bread carefully, like a shrine, and tried it.(17) Many were crying.(18) These tears came from the depths of shock human consciousness, from the depths of the soul.
/N. Lavrov/
5. Determine which method of communication predominates in the following text:
(1) The opal distance of the sea is silent, the waves splash melodiously on the sand, and I am silent, looking into the distance of the sea.(2) There are more and more silver spots on the water from the moon's rays...(3) Our pot is quietly boiling.
(4) One of the waves playfully rolls onto the shore and, making a defiant noise, crawls towards Rahim’s head (...)
(5) The sea is so impressively calm, and one feels that in its fresh breath on the mountains, which have not yet cooled down from the heat of the day, a lot of powerful, restrained strength is hidden.(6) Something solemn is written across the dark blue sky with a golden pattern of stars, enchanting the soul, confusing the mind with the sweet expectation of some kind of revelation.
(7) Everything is dozing, but it is dozing intensely, sensitively, and it seems that in the next second everything will wake up and sound in a harmonious harmony of inexplicably sweet sounds.
Theoretical information
Based on the nature of the connection between sentences, all texts can be divided into three types:
texts with chain connections;
texts with parallel connections;
texts with connecting connections.
Chain (serial, linear) communication. Chain connections most closely correspond to the specifics of thinking and the peculiarities of connecting judgments. Where thought develops linearly, sequentially, where each subsequent sentence develops the previous one, as if following from it, chain connections are inevitable.
For example: an excerpt from a story by I.S. Turgenev "District Doctor":
One autumn, on the way back from the field I had left, I caught a cold and fell ill. Fortunately, the fever caught me in the county town, in a hotel; I sent for the doctor. Half an hour later the district doctor appeared, a man short stature, thin and black-haired. He prescribed me the usual diaphoretic, ordered me to put on a mustard plaster, very deftly slipped a five-ruble note under his cuff, and, however, coughed dryly and looked to the side, and was just about to go home, but somehow got into conversation and stayed.
In texts from parallel (centralized) communication sentences related in meaning usually have the same subject. Naming actions, events, phenomena located nearby, parallel connections by their very nature are intended for description and narration.
The most typical for texts with parallel communication is following structure. First comes the beginning, containing the idea-thesis of the entire text. Then follows a series of sentences that reveal this idea, and syntactic features of these sentences are the parallelism of their structure and the unity of the forms of expression of the predicates.
Only at the end is a change in the time plan and the absence of parallelism usually allowed.
For example: an excerpt from a story by I.S. Turgenev "Khor and Kalinich":
The two friends were not at all alike. Khor was a positive, practical man, an administrative head, a rationalist; Kalinich, on the contrary, belonged to the number of idealists, romantics, enthusiastic and dreamy people. Khor understood reality, that is: he settled down, saved up some money, got along with the master and other authorities; Kalinich walked in bast shoes and managed to get by somehow. The polecat bred a large family, obedient and unanimous; Kalinich once had a wife, whom he was afraid of, but he had no children at all. Khor saw right through Mr. Polutykin; Kalinich was in awe of his master. Khor loved Kalinich and provided him with protection; Kalinich loved and respected Khor... Khor spoke little, chuckled and reasoned to himself; Kalinich explained himself eagerly, although he did not sing like a nightingale, like a lively factory man...
The third type of connection between independent sentences is accession. This is a principle of constructing a statement in which part of it in the form of separate, additional information is attached to the main message, for example: Ephraim’s wife was reputed to be an intelligent woman -and not without reason(Turgenev); There's no need for me to make excusesand it’s not in my rules(Chekhov).
Connecting structures usually contain additional information - by association, in the form of an explanation, comment, etc. They imitate live speech with her ease, naturalness, etc.
Accession, unlike chain and parallel connections, has a narrower application in text formation and is usually not capable of independently forming texts.
Text, especially long-form text, is usually not constructed using any one type of communication. As a rule, their combination is observed in the text depending on the specific author’s tasks.
Practical exercises
Exercise 7. Determine what type of connection is used in excerpts from the works of Russian writers. If there are several types of communication, characterize each of them and determine what caused the change in type of communication.
I. What kind of opera can be composed from our national motifs! Show me a people who have more songs. Our Ukraine rings with songs. Along the Volga, from the upper reaches to the sea, barge haulers sing along the entire line of drawn barges. While singing, huts are being cut from pine logs all over Rus'. Bricks are thrown from hand to hand to the songs, and cities grow like mushrooms. A Russian man swaddles, marries and is buried to the songs of women. Everything on the road: nobility and non-nobility, flies to the songs of the coachmen. By the Black Sea, a beardless, dark-skinned Cossack with a resinous mustache, loading his arquebus, sings an old song; and there, at the other end, riding on a floating ice floe, a Russian industrialist is spearing a whale, starting to sing. Don't we have anything to compose our own opera from? (N.V. Gogol.)
II. Who hasn’t cursed the stationmasters, who hasn’t scolded them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write into it his useless complaint about oppression, rudeness and malfunction? Who did not consider them monsters of the human race, equal to the late clerks or, at least, the Murom robbers? However, let us be fair, we will try to enter into their position and, perhaps, we will begin to judge them much more leniently. What is a stationmaster? A real martyr of the fourteenth grade, protected by his rank only from beatings, and even then not always (I refer to the conscience of my readers). What is the position of this dictator, as Prince Vyazemsky jokingly calls him? Isn't this real hard labor? I have peace neither day nor night. The traveler takes out all the frustration accumulated during a boring ride on the caretaker. The weather is unbearable, the road is bad, the driver is stubborn, the horses are not moving - and the caretaker is to blame. Entering his poor home, a traveler looks at him as if he were an enemy; it would be good if he managed to get rid of the uninvited guest soon; but if the horses don’t happen?.. God! What curses, what threats will rain down on his head! In the rain and slush, he is forced to run along the roads; in a storm, in the Epiphany frost, he goes into the vestibule, just to rest for a minute from the screams and pushes of an irritated guest. The general arrives; the trembling caretaker gives him the last three, including the courier one. The general leaves without saying thank you. Five minutes later - the bell rings!.. and the courier throws his travel document on his table! Let us look into all this thoroughly, and instead of indignation, our hearts will be filled with sincere compassion. (A.S. Pushkin.)
III. This speech, as we later learned, was about Jesus Christ. The fact is that the editor ordered the poet to write a large anti-religious poem for the next book of the magazine. Ivan Nikolaevich composed this poem, and in a very short term, but, unfortunately, the editor was not at all satisfied with it. Bezdomny outlined the main character of his poem, that is, Jesus, in very black colors, and nevertheless, in the opinion of the editor, the entire poem had to be written anew. And now the editor was giving the poet something like a lecture about Jesus in order to highlight the poet’s main mistake. (M.A. Bulgakov.)
The sentences are interconnected not only in meaning, but also grammatically (repetition of the same words, pronouns, particles). Often sentences are connected by several means of communication at once.
Means of connecting sentences in the text:
Lexical repetition: It is important that the typical Chekhov hero is an unsuccessful defender of universal human truth, who imposed on himself a burden that he could neither bear nor throw off. All Chekhov's stories- this is a continuous stumble, but a person stumbles in them, looking at the stars (V. Nabokov);
Similar words: There was room for water to roam. The water chaos flew down, expanding in breadth;
Pronouns (personal, demonstrative, possessive): Genuine intelligence is essential. Without it it is difficult to imagine human existence (personal pronoun). We approached the well. The same one that they were looking for all day (demonstrative pronoun);
Pronominal adverbs (there, then): (1) I spent a long time looking for the street where I spent my childhood. (2) It was there that I first felt like a person. (the 1st and 2nd sentences are connected using the particle namely and the pronominal adverb there);
Synonyms: Assol shuddered and froze; then she jumped up sharply with her heart sagging dizzily, bursting into uncontrollable tears of inspired shock. Not remembering how she left the house, the girl was already running to the sea (A. Green);
Words with the meaning of part of a whole: I decided to vacation in Crimea this year. In Yalta, Alushta, Sevastopol - it didn’t matter;
Conjunctions (most often coordinating): (1) We will be away from home for a long time. (2) But all members of the expedition agreed with this. (1st and 2nd sentences are connected by a coordinating clause adversarial union but also a demonstrative pronoun");
Particles:
(1) - Will you write much then?
(2) - And it’s very good that it’s not much. (the 1st and 2nd sentences are connected by the particle I and the antonyms a lot - a little);
Introductory words: One of the American consumer protection societies held a competition for a stupid warning on labels and in instructions for products sold / However, lawyers point out that in Lately the number of absurd lawsuits against product manufacturers has greatly increased;
Unity of species and time forms: A miracle came out. Water ran out from under the shifting snow cover and began to scream (B. Pasternak);
Syntactic parallelism: I think about the century when these words did not exist: mine and yours. When people, sitting peacefully, as you and I are sitting now on the green grass, generously shared with each other what the gracious, never-denying nature sent them (Cervantes);
Incompleteness of sentences (including parcellation): How long did it take us to travel? Don't know.
There are two types of connections between sentences in a text: chain and parallel.
In a chain connection, the keyword is repeated, replaced by a synonym or synonymous phrase:
This is always the case with great artists. As soon as we pronounce the name of Blok, for example, Petersburg appears before our eyes. This city of canals and gray ghost houses. It is filled with a special fire and creates the world of Alexander Blok that surrounds us (V. Soloukhin).
In a parallel connection, sentences are not linked to one another, but rather compared. Parallel communication can be strengthened by introductory words: firstly, Secondly, finally. For the same purposes, adverbs of place (right, left, ahead) and time (first, then) are often used. participial phrases, subordinate clauses:
In many texts with a parallel connection, the first sentence is the main one, all subsequent ones develop and specify the main idea.
1. Read the text and complete the tasks for it.
(1) The trouble is that television focuses
all the world's cruelty. (2) As soon as we declared complete freedom to everyone, cargo planes took off for America and business people, some of them were recently major party workers, and brought this cinematic trash here. (3) There were also artistically made paintings, but they were more expensive, they were almost never taken. (4) They took what was not even shown on screens in America. (5) An avalanche of blood, cruelty... criminal friendship fell on the heads of people. (6) Madness has begun (A. German)
a) Indicate the type of connection between sentences in the text.
b) Indicate a sentence related to the previous one using a demonstrative pronoun and lexical repetition.
2. Indicate how the 1st and
2nd sentence:
(1) The night began to cover the forests and meadows with a black scarf, the night lit sad lights somewhere far below, now uninteresting and unnecessary for either Margarita or the Master, alien lights. (2) Night overtook the cavalcade, fell on top of it and threw out white specks of stars here and there in the thickened sky (M. Bulgakov)
a) lexical repetition
b) lexical repetition and unity of tense forms
c) lexical repetition and pronominal adverbs
d) lexical repetition and syntactic parallelism
The semantic and grammatical coherence of parts of the text is achieved using various means of communication. Lexical, morphological and syntactic means of connecting sentences in the text are distinguished. TO lexical means connections include:
| 1 | Words of one thematic group | Winter in these parts can be harsh and long. Frosts reach 60 degrees. Snow remains until June. And there are also snowstorms in April. |
| 2 | Lexical repetitions(repetitions of words and phrases), including repetitions keywords, use of cognates | We discussed the book we read for a long time. This book had what we were waiting for. And our expectations were not in vain. |
| 3 | Synonyms and synonymous replacements (including contextual synonyms, synonymous and descriptive phrases and generic designations) | Special meaning for the development of Russian literary language had the work of A. S. Pushkin. The great Russian poet managed in his works to organically combine high Old Slavonicisms, foreign language borrowings and elements of lively spoken language. |
| 4 | Antonyms (including contextual) | The enemy agrees. A friend is arguing. |
| 5 | Words and phrases with meaning logical connections sentences and summarizing words like this is why, therefore, it follows from this, let’s summarize, in conclusion, etc. | Sea water contains a lot of salt. This is why it is not suitable for cooking. |
Morphological means of communication include:
| 1 | Unions, allied words and particles at the beginning of sentences | The rain is noisy outside the window. But the house is warm and cozy. |
| 2 | Use of personal (in the 3rd l.), demonstrative and some other pronouns instead of words from previous sentences | Language is not inherited by a person. It develops only in the process of communication. |
| 3 | The use of adverbs of time and place, which in meaning can refer to several independent sentences at once | Mountains were visible to the left. The river shone in a narrow strip. Small groves turned green. Everywhere here it was quiet and calm. |
| 4 | Unity of tense forms of predicate verbs | Night came unexpectedly. It became dark. The stars lit up in the sky. |
| 5 | Using degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs | The place was wonderful. It couldn't have been better. We found ourselves above the clouds. There was nothing higher anymore. |
TO syntactic means connection proposals include:
| 1 | Syntactic parallelism, which assumes the same word order and the same morphological design of members standing nearby proposals | Youth is a time of hope. Maturity is the time for achievements. |
| 2 | Parcellation (division) of constructions, removal of any part from a sentence and its design (after a period) in the form of an independent incomplete sentence | Loving your homeland means living the same life with it. Rejoice when she has a holiday. To suffer when the Motherland is having a hard time. |
| 3 | Usage incomplete sentences | - Do you know what we argued about? - About literature, music, painting. |
| 4 | The use of introductory words and sentences, appeals, rhetorical questions | First, you need to decide what is most important right now. And secondly, you need to start taking action. Is it possible to forget the land where you grew up? |
| 5 | Using direct and reverse order words | I'll come in the evening. I will come to finally see you. |
In addition to those noted, the text can also use semantic and associative connections between parts: The evening was coming, the sun was already setting, but the stuffiness did not decrease. Ephraim was exhausted and barely listened to Kuzma. (A.P. Chekhov)
Attention! 1. The specified means of communication are not mandatory for all texts. Their use depends on the content of the topic of the text, the characteristics of the author’s style, the form of the narration, etc. 2. The connection of sentences in the text can be not only contact, but also distant (that is, sentences that are distant from each other can be connected). 3. The connection between individual sentences in the text should not be confused with the connection between parts of a complex sentence.
Semantic and grammatical means connections of sentences in the text are the basis for distinguishing between two main types (methods) of connection of sentences in the text: chain and parallel. A chain (sequential) connection reflects the sequential development of a thought, action, or event. In texts with such a connection, each new sentence is correlated with the words and phrases of the previous sentence; the sentences seem to be linked together. The “new” in each preceding clause becomes the “given” for the next clause. Finally we saw the sea. It was huge and very calm. But this calmness was deceptive. Means of chain communication are usually repetition, synonymous substitutions, pronouns, conjunctions, semantic correspondences and associations. In a parallel connection, sentences are not connected with each other, but are compared or contrasted. Parallel communication is based on parallel, i.e. identical or similar in structure, sentences in which predicate verbs of the same tense and type are usually used. In many texts with a parallel connection, the first sentence becomes “given” for all subsequent ones, which concretize and develop the thought expressed in the first sentence (in this case, the “given” in all sentences except the first one turns out to be the same).
Forests make the earth healthier. They are not only gigantic laboratories that provide oxygen. They absorb dust and poisonous gases. They are rightly called “the lungs of the earth.” The main means of parallel communication are: syntactic parallelism, introductory words(firstly, secondly, finally), adverbs of place and time (right, left, there, first, etc.).
Ex. 4 Read the text. What means of connecting sentences (lexical, morphological and syntactic) are used in this text?
I live in a small house on the dunes. All Riga seaside In the snow. It constantly flies from tall pines in long strands and crumbles into dust. It flies away because of the wind and the fact that squirrels are jumping on the pines. When it's very quiet, you can hear them peeling the pine cones. The house is located right next to the sea. To see the sea, you need to go behind the gate and walk a little along a path trodden in the snow past a boarded-up dacha. There are still curtains on the windows of this dacha from the summer. They move in a weak wind. The wind must be penetrating through invisible cracks into the empty dacha, but from afar it seems as if someone is lifting them and carefully watching you. The sea is not frozen. The snow lies all the way to the water's edge. The tracks of hares are visible on it. When a wave rises on the sea, what is heard is not the sound of the surf, but the crunch of ice and the rustle of settling snow. The Baltic is deserted and gloomy in winter. (Yu. V. Bondarev)
Ex. 5 Arrange the sentences in in the right order. Write down the resulting texts. Emphasize those linguistic means that serve to connect sentences.
I. 1) You barely look at the monument standing in the square, beautiful among the winter whiteness, and you cannot take your eyes off this lonely and proud figure. 2) In Odessa, on the boulevard there is a monument to Pushkin. 3) It is installed so that the poet’s profile is visible against the background of a double blazing blue: the sea and the sky. II. 1) Autumn, bright and quiet, came to us so peacefully and calmly that it seemed there would be no end clear days. 2) In this transparent blue one could discern the most distant mound in the steppe, on an open and spacious plain of yellow stubble. 3) She made the sky clean and meek, the distance soft blue and deep. III. 1) The sun rises higher - its color changes, more delicate pastel colors are used. 2) The fact that it is the purest, most transparent, almost distilled, is well known. 3) Its shades are countless. 4) It blew harder - the gray ridges lined this blue with foamy stripes. 5) I didn’t know: this water, in its kilometer thickness, is the most beautiful. 6) On a quiet summer morning in the shade of the shore, the water is blue, thick and juicy. 7) Water of Baikal! 8) A breeze blew - someone added blue to the lake.
Ex. 6 Write it down. Instead of dots, insert meaningful means of connecting sentences in the text, choosing from reference material. Justify your choice.
Kirill taught at the University of Constantinople for a short time. (...) this philosopher, who was an expert in Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Latin and Slavic languages, was sent to Bulgaria on an educational mission. (...) it turned out that it is impossible to educate the Slavs without books on their native language. (...) Kirill began to compose Slavic alphabet. (According to V.D. Yanchenko)
Reference material: soon, then, then; however, but, a; therefore, therefore, therefore.
Ex. 7 Determine the method of connection of sentences in the text (chain or parallel). Underline the means of connection between sentences with one line, write their names using reference material.
1) More than half a century ago, the first edition of the world famous “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov was published. There is probably no person in our country who has never consulted this reference book in his life. Moreover, the dictionary has become a reference tool for those who value and need the Russian language. This wonderful reference book, created by the great lexicographer of the 20th century Sergei Ivanovich Ozhegov, has long outlived its creator and compiler. (According to V.D. Yanchenko)
Reference material: personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, word repetition, synonym, introductory word.
2) The birthplace of the very first alphabetic letter was Ancient Phenicia. Then, in the era of Antiquity, alphabetic writing, invented by the ancient Phoenicians, was adopted by the Greeks. It is believed that the ancient Greeks borrowed writing from the Phoenicians, slightly changing and adding new letters to their alphabet. Moreover, if the Phoenician alphabet had 22 letters, then in Greek there were 24 of them. (According to V.D. Yanchenko)
Reference material: words of one thematic group, adverb of time, cognate words, demonstrative pronoun, word repetition.
Ex. 8 Determine the method of connection of sentences in the text (chain or parallel). Provide evidence.
1) Among the first minerals, open by man, it was gold. It very quickly became a symbol of power: the more of this metal was in the treasury of a leader or ruler, the higher their authority was. Gold not only surrounded monarchs in this world, but also accompanied them to another world. Suffice it to recall the tomb of Tutankhamun, in which many beautiful gold items were found. But what was most striking was the sarcophagus itself, made from a single block of gold weighing 110 kg. 2) We rented a dacha near the city for many years in a row. Plain gray plank house under a rusty iron roof. The ladder from the lower balcony goes straight into the lilac tree. Swing pillars; the old bench under the huge willow is barely visible - it’s so dense all around. In a high fence there is a gate to the road. If you stand facing the Oka, to the left there are flower beds, behind them there are raspberries, currants and gooseberries, behind the house there is a croquet court. (A.I. Tsvetaeva)
Based on the nature of the connection between sentences, all texts can be divided into three types:
- texts with chain links;
- texts with parallel connections;
- texts with connecting links.
Chain (serial, linear) communication, perhaps the most common way of connecting sentences (cf. sequential connection of subordinate clauses in a complex sentence). Wide use chain connections in all styles of speech is explained by the fact that they most closely correspond to the specifics of thinking, the peculiarities of connecting judgments. Where thought develops linearly, sequentially, where each subsequent sentence develops the previous one, as if following from it, chain connections are inevitable.
Among various types chain connection according to the method of expression are the most widespread:
- pronominal connections (nouns, adjectives, numerals are replaced in the subsequent sentence by pronouns and pronominal adverbs);
- lexical and syntactic repetitions;
- synonymous replacements.
As an example, let us give an excerpt from the story of I.S. Turgenev "District Doctor":
One autumn, on the way back from the field I had left, I caught a cold and fell ill. Fortunately, the fever caught me in the county town, in a hotel; I sent for the doctor. Half an hour later the district doctor appeared, a short man, thin and black-haired. He prescribed me the usual diaphoretic, ordered me to put on a mustard plaster, very deftly slipped a five-ruble note under his cuff, and, however, coughed dryly and looked to the side, and was just about to go home, but somehow got into conversation and stayed.
When building of this text each subsequent sentence develops the previous one, and most significant information in the previous sentence by various means is repeated in the subsequent one, becoming the basis for the introduction new information. And this new information is repeated again in the next sentence, becoming the basis for the next new information.
So, the first sentence: One day in the fall, on the way back from the field I had left, I caught a cold and fell ill.- can be divided into two parts according to the type of information transmitted. First a description is given general situation (one autumn, on the way back from the departing field), and then - the most significant part in terms of meaning, characterizing what, in fact, happened ( I caught a cold and was sick). In the second sentence: Fortunately, the fever caught me in the county town, in a hotel; I sent for the doctor- this information is repeated. Noun ( fever) correlates with information conveyed earlier by verbs of the same thematic series ( caught a cold and fell ill). What is new in this sentence and therefore most significant is the information that the narrator sent for the doctor. In the following sentence: Half an hour later the district doctor appeared, a short man, thin and black-haired.- this information is repeated again (for this a synonymous replacement is used: doctor → doctor), and what is new is the doctor's description. This is followed again by a reference to the previous text (for this purpose the pronoun is used He), and the doctor’s actions and behavior are reported as new information.
Chain connections are very typical for business, scientific, journalistic speech, that is, they are present wherever there is a linear, sequential, chain development of thought.
In texts from parallel (centralized) communication Sentences that are related in meaning usually have the same subject (cf. complex sentences with parallel connection subordinate parts). Naming actions, events, phenomena located nearby (adjacent), parallel connections by their very nature are intended for description and narration.
The most typical structure for texts with parallel communication is the following. First comes the beginning, containing the idea-thesis of the entire text. Then follows a series of sentences that reveal this idea, and the syntactic features of these sentences are:
- parallelism of their structure;
- unity of forms of expression of predicates.
Only at the end is a change in the time plan and the absence of parallelism usually allowed.
As an example, consider an excerpt from the story of I.S. Turgenev “Khor and Kalinich”, in which the author gives a comparative description of his heroes:
The two friends were not at all alike. Khor was a positive, practical man, an administrative head, a rationalist; Kalinich, on the contrary, belonged to the number of idealists, romantics, enthusiastic and dreamy people. Khor understood reality, that is: he settled down, saved up some money, got along with the master and other authorities; Kalinich walked in bast shoes and managed to get by somehow. The polecat bred a large family, obedient and unanimous; Kalinich once had a wife, whom he was afraid of, but he had no children at all. Khor saw right through Mr. Polutykin; Kalinich was in awe of his master. Khor loved Kalinich and provided him with protection; Kalinich loved and respected Khor... Khor spoke little, chuckled and reasoned to himself; Kalinich explained himself eagerly, although he did not sing like a nightingale, like a lively factory man...
The first sentence is the opening thesis: The two friends were not at all alike. Each following sentence contains a contrast between Khor and Kalinich (there are two subjects here, but they are united into one whole in the beginning - both friends) on any basis, and this opposition is given through the system parallel structures. The parallelism of structures is manifested, in particular, in the fact that sentences are complex non-union designs, the first part of which characterizes Khor, the second - Kalinich, and their names, repeating, open each part. This is usually followed by a predicate group, with all verbs usually in the past tense imperfect form: was, belonged, understood, got along, walked, was in awe etc. Since the purpose of the description is to prove complete opposite characters' characters, then I.S. Turgenev uses a system of parallel contextual antonyms: a practical person, an administrative head, a rationalist - an idealist, a romantic, an enthusiastic and dreamy person; understood reality, settled down, saved up some money - walked around in bast shoes, managed to get by somehow; he bred a large family - there were no children at all; saw right through Mr. Polutykin - was in awe of Mr. etc. Thus, narrative contexts reveal closely related phenomena.
The third type of connection between independent sentences is accession. This is a principle of constructing a statement in which part of it in the form of separate, additional information is attached to the main message, for example: Ephraim’s wife was reputed to be an intelligent woman - and not without reason(Turgenev); There's no need for me to make excuses and it’s not in my rules (Chekhov).
Connection structures usually contain Additional information- by association, in the form of an explanation, comment, etc. They imitate live speech with its ease, naturalness, etc. G.A. Solganik in his textbook “Text Stylistics” cites an excerpt from an essay by K.I. as a typical illustration of this type of connection. Chukovsky "Chekhov":
And to such an extent he was a team, choral person that he even dreamed of writing not alone, but together with others and was ready to invite the most unsuitable people to be his co-authors.
“Listen, Korolenko... We will work together. Let's write a drama. In four acts. In two weeks."
Although Korolenko never wrote any dramas and had nothing to do with the theater.
And to Bilibin: “Let's write a vaudeville in 2 acts together! Come up with the 1st action, and I’ll come up with the 2nd... The fee will be divided in half.”
And to Suvorin: “Let’s write a tragedy...”
And to him a few years later:
"Let's write two or three stories... You are the beginning, and I am the end."
note that accession, in contrast to chain and parallel connections, has a narrower application in text formation and is usually not capable of independently forming texts.
In addition, text, especially large ones, is usually not constructed using any one type of communication. As a rule, their combination is observed in the text depending on the specific author’s tasks.