Everything about the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. General situation and plans of the parties

Causes of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 very diverse. If you look into historiography, many historians express different points of view on determining the causes of the war. This war is very interesting to study. It should be noted that this war was the last victorious for Russia. The question then arises, why then there was a series of defeats, why the Russian Empire no longer won wars.

The main battles remained in the memory of descendants as symbols of this particular Russian-Turkish war:

Shipka;
Plevna;
Adrianople.

One can also note the uniqueness of this war. For the first time in the history of diplomatic relations, a national issue became the reason for the outbreak of hostilities. Also for Russia, this war was the first in which the institute of war correspondents carried out work. Thus, all military actions were described on the pages of Russian and European newspapers. In addition, this is the first war where the Red Cross, which was created back in 1864, operates.

But, despite the uniqueness of this war, below we will try to understand only the reasons for its outbreak and partly the prerequisites.

Causes and prerequisites of the Russian-Turkish war

It is interesting that in pre-revolutionary historiography there is very little work about this war. Few people have studied the causes and prerequisites of this war. However, later historians began to pay increasing attention to this conflict. The lack of study of this Russian-Turkish war is most likely due to the fact that the command during its period was occupied by representatives of the Romanov dynasty. And it seems that it is not customary to delve into their mistakes. Apparently this was the reason for the lack of attention to its origins. We can conclude that the failure to study in a timely manner the successes and failures of the war subsequently led to the consequences in the following wars that the Russian Empire had later.

In 1875, events occurred on the Balkan Peninsula that caused confusion and anxiety throughout Europe. On this territory, that is, the territory of the Ottoman Empire, there were uprisings of the Slavic states that were part of it. These were the uprisings:

Serb uprising;
Bosnian uprising;
Uprising in Bulgaria (1876).

These events led to European states thinking about starting a military conflict with Turkey. That is, many historians and political scientists represent these uprisings of the Slavic peoples as the first cause of the Russian-Turkish war.

This Russian-Turkish war was one of the first wars where rifled weapons were used, and the soldiers used them very actively. For the army, this military conflict generally became unique in terms of innovation. This applies to weapons, diplomacy, and cultural aspects. All this makes the military conflict very attractive for study by historians.

Causes of the war of 1877-1878 with the Ottoman Empire

After the uprisings, the national question arises. This caused a great stir in Europe. After these events, it was necessary to reconsider the status of the Balkan peoples within the Ottoman Empire, that is, Turkey. Foreign media published telegrams and reports about events on the Balkan Peninsula almost daily.

Russia, as an Orthodox state, considered itself the patron of all Orthodox Slavic fraternal peoples. In addition, Russia is an empire that sought to strengthen its positions on the Black Sea. I also didn’t forget about the loss, it also left its mark. That is why it could not stay away from these events. In addition, the educated and intelligent part of Russian society constantly talked about these unrest in the Balkans, and the question arose: “What to do?” and “What should I do?” That is, Russia had reasons to start this Turkish war.

Russia is an Orthodox state that considered itself the patroness and protector of the Orthodox Slavs;
Russia sought to strengthen its position on the Black Sea;
Russia wanted to take revenge for the loss in .

Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)

The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It was caused by the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans. The brutality with which the April Uprising in Bulgaria was suppressed aroused sympathy for the plight of Ottoman Christians in Europe and especially in Russia. Attempts to improve the situation of Christians by peaceful means were thwarted by the stubborn reluctance of the Turks to make concessions to Europe, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey.

During the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return to Russia of the southern part of Bessarabia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batumi. The statehood of Bulgaria (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) was restored as the vassal Principality of Bulgaria; The territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire

Article 9 of the Paris Peace Treaty, concluded following the Crimean War, obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. The matter did not progress beyond the publication of the corresponding firman (decree) of the Sultan. In particular, evidence from non-Muslims (“dhimmis”) against Muslims was not accepted in courts, which effectively deprived Christians of the right to judicial protection from religious persecution.

1860 - in Lebanon, the Druze, with the connivance of the Ottoman authorities, massacred over 10 thousand Christians (mainly Maronites, but also Greek Catholics and Orthodox Christians). The threat of French military intervention forced the Porte to restore order. Under pressure from the European powers, the Porte agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was nominated by the Ottoman Sultan after agreement with the European powers.

1866-1869 - uprising in Crete under the slogan of unifying the island with Greece. The rebels took control of the entire island except for five cities in which the Muslims fortified themselves. By the beginning of 1869, the uprising was suppressed, but the Porte made concessions, introducing self-government on the island, which strengthened the rights of Christians. During the suppression of the uprising, the events at the Moni Arkadiou monastery became widely known in Europe, when over 700 women and children who took refuge behind the walls of the monastery chose to blow up the powder magazine rather than surrender to the besieging Turks.

The consequence of the uprising in Crete, especially as a result of the brutality with which the Turkish authorities suppressed it, was to draw attention in Europe (in Great Britain in particular) to the issue of the oppressed position of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

However little attention paid by the English to the affairs of the Ottoman Empire, and however imperfect their knowledge of all the details, enough information leaked out from time to time to produce a vague but firm conviction that the Sultans had not kept their “firm promises” to Europe; that the evils of the Ottoman government were incurable; and that when the time comes for another crisis affecting the “independence” of the Ottoman Empire, it will be absolutely impossible for us to again give the Ottomans the support we previously gave during the Crimean War.

Changing balance of power in Europe

Russia emerged from the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to abandon the maintenance of a fleet in the Black Sea and demolish the fortifications of Sevastopol.

Reviewing the results of the Crimean War has become the main goal of Russian foreign policy. However, it was not so simple - the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 provided for guarantees of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire from Great Britain and France. The openly hostile position taken by Austria during the war complicated the situation. Of the great powers, only Russia maintained friendly relations with Prussia.

It was on an alliance with Prussia and its chancellor Bismarck that Prince A. M. Gorchakov, appointed chancellor by Alexander II in April 1856, relied. Russia took a neutral position in the unification of Germany, which ultimately led to the creation of the German Empire after a series of wars. In March 1871, taking advantage of France's crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Russia, with the support of Bismarck, achieved international agreement to repeal the provisions of the Treaty of Paris that prohibited it from having a fleet in the Black Sea.

The remaining provisions of the Treaty of Paris, however, continued to apply. In particular, Article 8 gave the right to Great Britain and Austria, in the event of a conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, to intervene on the side of the latter. This forced Russia to exercise extreme caution in its relations with the Ottomans and coordinate all its actions with other great powers. A one-on-one war with Turkey, therefore, was only possible if the other European powers received carte blanche for such actions, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for the right moment.

Immediate causes of the war

The suppression of the uprising in Bulgaria and the reaction of Europe

In the summer of 1875, an anti-Turkish uprising began in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the main reason for which was exorbitant taxes imposed by the financially insolvent Ottoman government. Despite some tax cuts, the rebellion continued throughout 1875 and eventually sparked the April Uprising in Bulgaria in the spring of 1876.

During the suppression of the Bulgarian uprising, Turkish troops committed massacres of civilians, killing over 30 thousand people; The irregular units, the bashi-bazouks, were especially rampant. A number of journalists and publications launched a propaganda campaign against Disraeli, who pursued the pro-Turkish line of the British government, accusing the latter of ignoring the atrocities of Turkish irregular forces; A special role was played by the materials of an American journalist married to a Russian citizen, Januarius McGahan, published in the opposition Daily News. In July and August 1876, Disraeli was forced to repeatedly defend the government's policy on the Eastern Question in the House of Commons, as well as justify the false reports of the British ambassador in Constantinople, Sir Henry George Elliot. On August 11 of the same year, during his last debate in the lower house (he was elevated to the peerage the next day), he found himself completely isolated, being subjected to severe criticism from representatives of both parties.

Publications in the Daily News caused a wave of public outrage in Europe: Charles Darwin, Oscar Wilde, Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi spoke out in support of the Bulgarians.

Victor Hugo, in particular, wrote in August 1876 in the French parliamentary newspaper.

It is necessary to draw the attention of European governments to one fact, one very small fact that governments do not even notice... An entire people will be exterminated. Where? in Europe... Will there be an end to the torment of this small heroic people?

Public opinion in England was finally turned against the “Turkophile” policy of supporting the Ottoman Empire with the publication in early September 1876 of the opposition leader Gladstone of the pamphlet “The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East”, which was the main factor in English non-intervention on the side of Turkey when Russia declared war the following year. Gladstone's pamphlet, in its positive part, set out a program for granting autonomy to Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria.

In Russia, since the fall of 1875, a mass movement in support of the Slavic struggle developed, covering all social strata. A heated debate ensued in society: progressive circles substantiated the liberation goals of the war, conservatives talked about its possible political dividends, such as the capture of Constantinople and the creation of a Slavic federation led by monarchical Russia.

This discussion was superimposed on the traditional Russian dispute between Slavophiles and Westerners, with the former, in the person of the writer Dostoevsky, seeing in the war the fulfillment of a special historical mission of the Russian people, which consisted in uniting the Slavic peoples around Russia on the basis of Orthodoxy, and the latter, in the person of Turgenev, denied the significance religious aspect and believed that the goal of the war was not the defense of Orthodoxy, but the liberation of the Bulgarians.

A number of works of Russian fiction are devoted to the events in the Balkans and Russia during the initial period of the crisis.

In Turgenev's poem “Croquet at Windsor” (1876), Queen Victoria was openly accused of conniving at the actions of Turkish fanatics;

Polonsky's poem "Bulgarian" (1876) told the story of the humiliation of a Bulgarian woman, sent to a Muslim harem and living with a thirst for revenge.

The Bulgarian poet Ivan Vazov has a poem “Memories of Batak”, which was written from the words of a teenager the poet met - thin, in rags, he stood with his hand outstretched. “Where are you from, boy?” - “I am from Batak. Do you know Batak? Ivan Vazov sheltered the boy in his house and subsequently wrote beautiful poems in the form of a story by the boy Ivancho about the heroic episode of the struggle of the Bulgarian people against the Ottoman yoke.

Serbia's defeat and diplomatic maneuvering

In June 1876, Serbia, followed by Montenegro, declared war on Turkey (see: Serbian-Montenegrin-Turkish War). Representatives of Russia and Austria officially warned against this, but the Serbs did not attach much importance to this, since they were confident that Russia would not allow them to be defeated by the Turks.

June 26 (July 8), 1876 Alexander II and Gorchakov met with Franz Joseph and Andrássy at Reichstadt Castle, in Bohemia. During the meeting, the so-called Reichstadt Agreement was concluded, which provided that in exchange for support for the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Russia would receive Austria's consent to the return of southwestern Bessarabia, seized from Russia in 1856, and to the annexation of the port of Batumi on the Black Sea. sea. In the Balkans, Bulgaria received autonomy (according to the Russian version - independence). During the meeting, the results of which were kept secret, it was also agreed that the Balkan Slavs “under no circumstances can form one large state on the Balkan peninsula.”

In July-August, the Serbian army suffered several crushing defeats from the Turks, and on August 26, Serbia asked the European powers for mediation to end the war. The joint ultimatum of the powers forced the Porte to grant Serbia a one-month truce and begin peace negotiations. Turkey, however, put forward very harsh conditions for a future peace treaty, which were rejected by the powers.

On August 31, 1876, Sultan Murad V, declared incompetent due to illness, was deposed and Abdul Hamid II took the throne.

During September, Russia tried to negotiate with Austria and England on an acceptable peace settlement in the Balkans, which could be presented to Turkey on behalf of all European powers. Things did not work out - Russia proposed the occupation of Bulgaria by Russian troops and the entry of a united squadron of the great powers into the Sea of Marmara, and the first did not suit Austria, and the second did not suit Great Britain.

At the beginning of October, the truce with Serbia expired, after which Turkish troops resumed their offensive. Serbia's situation became critical. On October 18 (30), 1876, the Russian ambassador in Constantinople, Count Ignatiev, presented the Porte with an ultimatum to conclude a truce for 2 months, demanding a response within 48 hours; On October 20, in the Kremlin, Alexander II made a speech containing similar demands (the so-called Moscow speech of the emperor), and ordered a partial mobilization of 20 divisions. The Porte accepted the Russian ultimatum.

On December 11, the Constantinople Conference, convened at the initiative of Russia, began. A compromise draft solution was developed that would grant autonomy to Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina under the joint control of the great powers. On December 23, the Porte announced the adoption of a constitution proclaiming the equality of religious minorities in the empire, on the basis of which Turkey announced its refusal to recognize the decisions of the conference.

On January 15, 1877, Russia entered into a written agreement with Austria-Hungary, which guaranteed the latter's neutrality in exchange for the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other conditions of the previously concluded Reichstadt Agreement were confirmed. Like the Reichstadt Agreement, this written agreement was kept in the strictest confidence. For example, even major Russian diplomats, including the Russian ambassador to Turkey, did not know about him.

On January 20, 1877, the Constantinople Conference ended inconclusively; Count Ignatieff declared the responsibility of the Porte if it launched an offensive against Serbia and Montenegro. The Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper characterized the outcome of the conference as a “complete fiasco” that “could have been expected from the very beginning.”

In February 1877, Russia reached an agreement with Great Britain. The London Protocol recommended that the Porte accept reforms that were reduced even in comparison with the latest (shortened) proposals of the Constantinople Conference. On March 31, the protocol was signed by representatives of all six powers. However, on April 12, the Porte rejected it, saying that it viewed it as interference in the internal affairs of Turkey, “contrary to the dignity of the Turkish state.”

The Turks’ ignorance of the united will of the European powers gave Russia the opportunity to ensure the neutrality of the European powers in the war with Turkey. Invaluable assistance in this was provided by the Turks themselves, who through their actions helped to dismantle the provisions of the Treaty of Paris that protected them from a one-on-one war with Russia.

Russia's entry into the war

April 12 (24), 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey: after the parade of troops in Chisinau, at a solemn prayer service, Bishop of Chisinau and Khotyn Pavel (Lebedev) read the Manifesto of Alexander II on the declaration of war on Turkey.

Only a war in one campaign made it possible for Russia to avoid European intervention. According to reports from a military agent in England, an expeditionary army of 50-60 thousand people was being prepared. London needed 13-14 weeks, and another 8-10 weeks to prepare the Constantinople position. In addition, the army had to be transported by sea, skirting Europe. In none of the Russian-Turkish wars did the time factor play such a significant role. Türkiye pinned its hopes on a successful defense.

The war plan against Turkey was drawn up back in October 1876 by General N. N. Obruchev. By March 1877, the project was corrected by the Emperor himself, the Minister of War, the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich Sr., his assistant to the staff General A. A. Nepokoichitsky, and the assistant chief of staff Major General K. V. Levitsky.

In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania.

The troops of Romania, which acted on the side of Russia, began to act actively only in August.

The balance of forces between the opponents was in favor of Russia, and military reforms began to produce positive results. In the Balkans, at the beginning of June, Russian troops (about 185 thousand people) under the command of Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich (the Elder) concentrated on the left bank of the Danube, with their main forces in the Zimnitsa area. The forces of the Turkish army under the command of Abdul Kerim Nadir Pasha amounted to about 200 thousand people, of which about half were garrisoned fortresses, which left 100 thousand for the operational army.

In the Caucasus, the Russian Caucasian Army under the command of Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich had about 150 thousand people with 372 guns, the Turkish army of Mukhtar Pasha - about 70 thousand people with 200 guns.

In terms of combat training, the Russian army was superior to the enemy, but inferior to it in the quality of weapons (Turkish troops were armed with the latest British and American rifles).

The active support of the Russian army by the peoples of the Balkans and Transcaucasia strengthened the morale of the Russian troops, which included Bulgarian, Armenian and Georgian militia.

The Black Sea was completely dominated by the Turkish fleet. Russia, having achieved the right to the Black Sea Fleet only in 1871, did not have time to restore it by the beginning of the war.

General situation and plans of the parties

There were two possible theaters of combat: the Balkans and Transcaucasia. The Balkans were key, since it was here that one could count on the support of the local population (for the sake of whose liberation the war was fought). In addition, the successful exit of the Russian army to Constantinople brought the Ottoman Empire out of the war.

Two natural obstacles stood in the way of the Russian army to Constantinople:

Danube, the Turkish bank of which was thoroughly fortified by the Ottomans. The fortresses in the famous “quadrangle” of fortresses - Ruschuk - Shumla - Varna - Silistria - were the most protected in Europe, if not in the whole world. The Danube was a deep river, the Turkish bank of which was thoroughly swamped, which significantly complicated the landing on it. In addition, the Turks on the Danube had 17 armored monitors that could withstand an artillery duel with coastal artillery, which further complicated the crossing of the river. With proper defense, one could hope to inflict very significant losses on the Russian army.

The Balkan ridge, through which there were several convenient passages, the main of which was Shipkinsky. The defending side could meet the attackers in well-fortified positions both at the pass itself and at the exit from it. It was possible to go around the Balkan ridge along the sea, but then it would be necessary to take the well-fortified Varna by storm.

The Black Sea was completely dominated by the Turkish fleet, which forced the Russian army to organize supplies in the Balkans by land.

The war plan was based on the idea of a lightning victory: the army had to cross the Danube on the middle reaches of the river, in the Nikopol-Svishtov section, where the Turks had no fortresses, in an area populated by Bulgarians friendly to Russia. After the crossing, the army should have been divided into three equal groups: the first - blocking the Turkish fortresses in the lower reaches of the river; the second - acts against Turkish forces in the direction of Viddin; the third - crosses the Balkans and goes to Constantinople.

The Turkish plan provided for an active defensive course of action: concentrating the main forces (about 100 thousand people) in the “quadrangle” of fortresses - Rushchuk - Shumla - Bazardzhik - Silistria, luring the Russians who had crossed to the Balkans, deep into Bulgaria, and then defeating them by attacking them left flank of the message. At the same time, quite significant forces of Osman Pasha, about 30 thousand people, were concentrated in Western Bulgaria, near Sofia and Vidin, with the task of monitoring Serbia and Romania and preventing the connection of the Russian army with the Serbs. In addition, small detachments occupied the Balkan passes and fortifications along the Middle Danube.

Actions in the European theater of war

Crossing the Danube

The Russian army, by prior agreement with Romania, passed through its territory and in June crossed the Danube in several places. To ensure the crossing of the Danube, it was necessary to neutralize the Turkish Danube flotilla at the place of possible crossings. This task was accomplished by installing minefields on the river, covered by coastal batteries. Light mine boats transported by rail were also used.

On April 29 (May 11), Russian heavy artillery blew up the flagship Turkish corvette Lutfi Djelil near Brail, killing the entire crew;

On May 14 (26), the monitor “Khivzi Rakhman” was sunk by mine boats of lieutenants Shestakov and Dubasov.

The Turkish river flotilla was upset by the actions of the Russian sailors and could not prevent the crossing of Russian troops.

On June 10 (22), the Lower Danube detachment crossed the Danube at Galati and Braila and soon occupied Northern Dobruja.

On the night of June 15 (27), Russian troops under the command of General M.I. Dragomirov crossed the Danube in the Zimnitsa area. The troops wore winter black uniforms to remain unnoticed in the dark, but, starting from the second echelon, the crossing took place under fierce fire. Losses amounted to 1,100 people killed and wounded.

On June 21 (July 3), sappers prepared a bridge crossing over the Danube in the Zimnitsa area. The transfer of the main forces of the Russian army across the Danube began.

The Turkish command did not take active steps to prevent the Russian army from crossing the Danube. The first line on the way to Constantinople was surrendered without serious battles.

Plevna and Shipka

The main forces of the army that crossed the Danube were not enough for a decisive offensive across the Balkan ridge. For this purpose, only the advanced detachment of General I.V. Gurko (12 thousand people) was allocated. To secure the flanks, the 45,000-strong Eastern and 35,000-strong Western detachments were created. The remaining forces were in Dobrudja, along the left bank of the Danube or on the way. The advance detachment occupied Tarnovo on June 25 (July 7), and on July 2 (14) crossed the Balkans through the Khainkioi Pass. Soon the Shipka Pass was occupied, where the created Southern detachment (20 thousand people, in August - 45 thousand) was advanced. The path to Constantinople was open, but there were not sufficient forces for an offensive in the Balkans. The advance detachment occupied Eski Zagra (Stara Zagora), but soon the 20,000-strong Turkish corps of Suleiman Pasha, transferred from Albania, arrived here. After a fierce battle near Eski Zagra, in which the Bulgarian militia distinguished itself, the advance detachment retreated to Shipka.

Successes were followed by failures. From the moment of crossing the Danube, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich actually lost control of his troops. The western detachment captured Nikopol, but did not have time to occupy Plevna (Pleven), where Osman Pasha’s 15,000-strong corps approached from Vidin. The assaults on Plevna undertaken on July 8 (20) and July 18 (30) ended in complete failure and hampered the actions of the Russian troops

Russian troops in the Balkans went on the defensive. The insufficient strength of the Russian expeditionary force had an effect - the command did not have reserves to strengthen the Russian units near Plevna. Reinforcements from Russia were urgently requested, and Romanian allies were called in to help. It was possible to bring up the necessary reserves from Russia only by mid-to-late September, which delayed the course of hostilities for 1.5-2 months.

Lovcha (on the southern flank of Plevna) was occupied on August 22 (the losses of Russian troops amounted to about 1,500 people), but a new assault on Plevna on August 30-31 (September 11-12) ended in failure, after which it was decided to take Plevna by blockade. On September 15 (27), E. Totleben arrived near Plevna, who was tasked with organizing the siege of the city. To do this, it was necessary to take the strongly fortified redoubts of Telish, Gorny and Dolny Dubnyaki, which were supposed to serve as strongholds for Osman in the event of his withdrawal from Plevna.

On October 12 (24), Gurko stormed Gorny Dubnyak, which was occupied after a stubborn battle; Russian losses amounted to 3,539 people killed and wounded, Turks - 1,500 killed and 2,300 prisoners.

On October 16 (28), Telish was forced to surrender under artillery fire (4,700 people were captured). The losses of Russian troops (during the unsuccessful assault) amounted to 1,327 people.

Trying to lift the siege from Plevna, the Turkish command decided in November to organize an offensive along the entire front.

On November 10 (22) and November 11 (23), the 35,000-strong Sofia (western) Turkish army was repulsed by Gurko from Novachin, Pravets and Etropol;

On November 13 (25), the Eastern Turkish Army was repulsed by units of the Russian 12th Corps near Trestenik and Kosabina;

November 22 (December 4) The Eastern Turkish Army defeated the Eleninsky detachment of the 11th Russian Corps. There were 25 thousand Turks with 40 guns, Russians - 5 thousand with 26 guns. The eastern front of the Russian position in Bulgaria was broken through, the very next day the Turks could be in Tarnovo, capturing huge convoys, warehouses and parks of the 8th and 11th Russian corps. However, the Turks did not develop their success and spent the entire day of November 23 (December 5) inactive and dug in. On November 24 (December 6), the hastily moved Russian 26th Infantry Division restored the situation by shooting down the Turks near Zlataritsa.

On November 30 (December 12), the Eastern Turkish Army, not yet aware of the capitulation of Plevna, tried to attack at Mechka, but was repulsed.

The Russian command forbade counterattacks until the end of Plevna.

From mid-November, Osman Pasha's army, squeezed in Plevna by a ring of Russian troops four times larger than it, began to experience a shortage of food. At the military council, it was decided to break through the line of investment, and on November 28 (December 10), in the morning fog, the Turkish army attacked the Grenadier Corps, but after a stubborn battle it was repelled along the entire line and retreated to Plevna, where it laid down its arms. The Russian losses amounted to 1,696 people, the Turks who attacked in dense masses amounted to 6,000. 43.4 thousand people were taken prisoner. The wounded Osman Pasha handed his saber to the grenadier commander, General Ganetsky; he was given field marshal's honors for his valiant defense.

Raid through the Balkans

The Russian army, numbering 314 thousand people against over 183 thousand people of the enemy, went on the offensive. The Serbian army resumed military operations against Turkey. The western detachment of General Gurko (71 thousand people) crossed the Balkans in extremely difficult conditions and occupied Sofia on December 23, 1877 (January 4, 1878). On the same day, the troops of the Southern detachment of General F. F. Radetsky began the offensive (detachments of generals M. D. Skobelev and N. I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky) and in the battle of Sheinovo on December 27-28 (January 8-9) they surrounded and took Wessel Pasha's 30,000-strong army was captured. On January 3-5 (15-17), 1878, in the battle of Philippopolis (Plovdiv), the army of Suleiman Pasha was defeated, and on January 8 (20), Russian troops occupied Adrianople without any resistance.

Meanwhile, the former Rushchuk detachment also began an offensive, encountering almost no resistance from the Turks, who were retreating to their fortresses; On January 14 (26), Razgrad was occupied, and on January 15 (27), Osman Bazar was occupied. The troops of the 14th Corps, operating in Dobruja, occupied Hadji-Oglu-Bazardzhik on January 15 (27), which was heavily fortified, but also cleared by the Turks.

This concluded the fighting in the Balkans.

Actions in the Asian theater of war

Military actions in the Caucasus, according to Obruchev’s plan, were undertaken “to protect our own security and divert enemy forces.” Milyutin, who wrote to the Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Army, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich, shared the same opinion: “The main military operations are expected to take place in European Turkey; on the part of Asian Turkey, our actions should have the goal of: 1) covering the security of our own borders with an offensive - for which it would seem necessary to capture Batum and Kars (or Erzerum) and 2) if possible, distract Turkish forces from the European theater and prevent their organization.”

The command of the active Caucasian Corps was entrusted to Infantry General M. T. Loris-Melikov. The corps was divided into separate detachments according to operational directions. The Akhaltsykh detachment under the command of Lieutenant General F.D. Devel (13.5 thousand people and 36 guns) was concentrated on the right flank; in the center, near Alexandropol (Gyumri), the main forces were located under the personal command of M.T. Loris-Melikov ( 27.5 thousand people and 92 guns) and, finally, on the left stood the Erivan detachment led by Lieutenant General A. A. Tergukasov (11.5 thousand people and 32 guns), the Primorsky (Kobuleti) detachment of General I. D. Oklobzhio (24 thousand people and 96 guns) was intended for an offensive along the Black Sea coast to Batum and, if possible, further towards Trebizond. The general reserve was concentrated in Sukhum (18.8 thousand people and 20 guns)

Rebellion in Abkhazia

In May, the mountaineers, with the support of Turkish emissaries, started a rebellion in Abkhazia. After a two-day bombardment by the Turkish squadron and an amphibious landing, Sukhum was abandoned; by June, the entire Black Sea coast from Ochemchiri to Adler was occupied by the Turks. The June hesitant attempts of the head of the Sukhumi department, General P. P. Kravchenko, to recapture the city were unsuccessful. Turkish troops left the city only on August 19, after reinforcements from Russia and units withdrawn from the Primorsky direction approached the Russian troops in Abkhazia.

The temporary occupation of the Black Sea coast by the Turks affected Chechnya and Dagestan, where uprisings also broke out. As a result, 2 Russian infantry divisions were forced to stay there.

Actions in Transcaucasia

On June 6, the Bayazet citadel, occupied by a Russian garrison of 1,600 people, was besieged by the troops of Faik Pasha (25 thousand people). The siege (referred to as the Bayazet seat) lasted until June 28, when it was lifted by the returning detachment of Tergukasov. During the siege, the garrison lost 10 officers and 276 lower ranks killed and wounded. After this, Bayazet was abandoned by Russian troops.

The offensive of the Primorsky detachment developed extremely slowly, and after the Turks landed troops near Sukhum, General Oklobzhio was forced to send part of the forces under the command of General Alkhazov to help General Kravchenko, because of this, military operations in the Batumi direction took on a protracted positional character until the end of the war.

In July-August, there was a long period of inactivity in Transcaucasia, caused by the fact that both sides were waiting for reinforcements to arrive.

On September 20, upon the arrival of the 1st Grenadier Division, Russian troops went on the offensive near Kars; by October 3, Mukhtar's army (25-30 thousand people) opposing them was defeated in the Battle of Avliyar-Aladzhin and retreated to Kars.

On October 23, Mukhtar's army was again defeated near Erzurum, which was also besieged by Russian troops from the next day.

After this important event, the main target of action seemed to be Erzurum, where the remnants of the enemy army were hiding. But here the Turks’ allies were the onset of cold weather and the extreme difficulty of delivering all kinds of supplies along mountain roads. Among the troops standing in front of the fortress, disease and mortality reached terrifying proportions. As a result, by January 21, 1878, when a truce was concluded, Erzerum could not be taken.

Conclusion of a peace treaty

Peace negotiations began after the victory at Sheinov, but were greatly delayed due to the intervention of England. Finally, on January 19, 1878, preliminary peace terms were signed in Adrianople, and a truce was concluded defining demarcation lines for both warring parties. However, the basic conditions of peace turned out to be inconsistent with the claims of the Romanians and Serbs, and most importantly, they aroused strong fears in England and Austria. The British government demanded new loans from Parliament to mobilize the army. In addition, on February 1, Admiral Gornby's squadron entered the Dardanelles. In response to this, the Russian commander-in-chief moved troops to the demarcation line the next day.

The statement of the Russian government that, in view of the actions of England, it was intended to occupy Constantinople, prompted the British to compromise, and on February 4 an agreement followed, according to which Gornby's squadron was to move 100 km from Constantinople, and the Russians were obliged to return to their demarcation line.

On February 19 (O.S.), 1878, after another 2 weeks of diplomatic maneuvering, the preliminary San Stefano Peace Treaty with Turkey was finally signed.

From San Stefano to Berlin

The terms of the Treaty of San Stefano not only alarmed England and Austria, but aroused strong displeasure among the Romanians and Serbs, who felt deprived of the division. Austria demanded the convening of a European Congress that would discuss the Treaty of San Stefano, and England supported this demand.

Both states began military preparations, which prompted new measures on the Russian side to counter the threatening danger: new land and sea units were formed, the Baltic coast was prepared for defense, and an observation army was formed near Kyiv and Lutsk. To influence Romania, which had become openly hostile to Russia, the 11th Corps was transferred there, which occupied Bucharest, after which the Romanian troops retreated to Lesser Wallachia.

All these political complications encouraged the Turks, and they began to prepare for the resumption of the war: the fortifications near Constantinople were strengthened, and all remaining free troops were gathered there; Turkish and English emissaries tried to stir up a Muslim uprising in the Rhodope Mountains, hoping to divert some of the Russian troops there.

Such strained relations continued until the end of April, until Alexander II accepted Germany’s offer of mediation.

On June 1, meetings of the Berlin Congress opened under the chairmanship of Prince Bismarck, and on July 1, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which radically changed the Treaty of San Stefano, mainly in favor of Austria-Hungary and to the detriment of the interests of the Balkan Slavs: the size of the Bulgarian state, which gained independence from Turkey, and Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to Austria.

A contemporary of these events, the historian M.N. Pokrovsky pointed out that the Berlin Congress was an inevitable consequence of the Reichstadt secret agreement, reached between the Austrian and Russian emperors in June 1876 in Reichstadt and confirmed by the Budapest Convention of January 1877. “One of the Russian diplomats, a participant in the Berlin Congress,” the historian wrote, “and 30 years after the events he asked in bewilderment: “If Russia wanted to remain faithful to the convention with Austria, why did they forget about it when concluding the Treaty of San Stefano?” All that Britain and Austria wanted at the Berlin Congress, Pokrovsky pointed out, was Russia’s fulfillment of the Russian-Austrian convention of January 1877. But the Russian public, indignant at the “defective” Berlin Treaty and “betrayal” on the part of Austria and Germany, did not know this , because the agreement was kept in the strictest confidence.

Results of the war

Russia returned the southern part of Bessarabia, lost after the Crimean War, and annexed the Kars region, inhabited by Armenians and Georgians.

Britain occupied Cyprus; According to the agreement with the Ottoman Empire dated June 4, 1878, in exchange for this, it undertook to protect Turkey from further Russian advances in Transcaucasia. The occupation of Cyprus was to last as long as Kars and Batumi remained in Russian hands.

The borders established following the war remained in force until the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, with some changes:

Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia merged into a single principality in 1885;

In 1908, Bulgaria declared itself a kingdom independent of Turkey, and Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had previously occupied.

The war marked Britain's gradual retreat from confrontation in relations with Russia. After the Suez Canal came under British control in 1875, the British desire to prevent Turkey from further weakening at any cost waned. British policy shifted to protecting British interests in Egypt, which was occupied by Britain in 1882 and remained a British protectorate until 1922. The British advance in Egypt did not directly affect Russia’s interests, and accordingly, the tension in relations between the two countries gradually eased.

The transition to a military alliance became possible after the conclusion of a compromise on Central Asia in 1907, formalized by the Anglo-Russian Treaty of August 31, 1907. The emergence of the Entente, an Anglo-Franco-Russian coalition opposing the German-led alliance of the Central Powers, is counted from this date. The confrontation between these blocs led to the First World War of 1914-1918.

Memory

This war went down in Bulgarian history as the “Russian-Turkish Liberation War”. On the territory of modern Bulgaria, where the main battles of this war took place, there are over 400 monuments to the Russians who fought for the freedom of the Bulgarian people.

In the capital of the Russian Empire - St. Petersburg - in 1886, in honor of the exploits of the Russian troops who took part and won the war, the Monument of Glory was erected. The monument was a 28-meter column made of six rows of cannons captured from the Turks during the war. At the top of the column was a genius with a laurel wreath in his outstretched hand, crowning the winners. The pedestal of the monument was about 6½ meters high, on all four sides of which bronze plaques were embedded with descriptions of the main events of the war and the names of the military units that took part in it. In 1930, the monument was dismantled and melted down. In 2005 - restored to its original location.

In 1878, in honor of the victory in the Russian-Turkish War, the Yaroslavl tobacco factory began to be called “Balkan Star”. The name was returned in 1992, at which time the production of the cigarette brand of the same name began.

In Moscow (November 28), December 11, 1887, on the day of the tenth anniversary of the Battle of Plevna, a monument to the heroes of Plevna was unveiled on Ilyinskie Vorota Square (now Ilyinsky Square), erected with voluntary donations from the surviving grenadiers who took part in the Battle of Plevna.

Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia

The most famous foreign policy event under Emperor Alexander II was the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which ended successfully for our country.
The so-called eastern question, the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Ottoman Empire to gain independence, remained open. After the end of the Crimean War, the foreign policy climate on the Balkan Peninsula worsened. Russia was concerned about the weak defense of its southern borders near the Black Sea, and the inability to protect its political interests in Turkey.

Causes of the war

On the eve of the Russian-Turkish campaign, most of the Balkan peoples began to express discontent, as they were under almost five hundred years of oppression over the Turkish Sultan. This oppression was expressed in economic and political discrimination, the imposition of foreign ideology and the widespread Islamization of Orthodox Christians. Russia, being an Orthodox state, strongly supported such a national rise of the Bulgarians, Serbs and Romanians. This became one of the main factors that predetermined the start of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The situation in Western Europe also became the basis for the clash between the two sides. Germany (Austria-Hungary), as a new strong state, began to claim dominance in the straits of the Black Sea, and tried in every possible way to weaken the power of England, France and Turkey. This coincided with Russia's interests, so Germany became its leading ally.

Occasion

The stumbling block between the Russian Empire and the Turkish state was the conflict between the South Slavic population and the Turkish authorities in 1875-1876. More precisely, these were anti-Turkish uprisings in Serbia, Bosnia, and, later, annexed Montenegro. The Islamic country suppressed these protests using the most brutal methods. The Russian Empire, acting as the patron of all Slavic ethnic groups, could not ignore these events, and in the spring of 1877 declared war on Turkey. It was with these actions that the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires began.

Events

In April 1877, the Russian army crossed the Danube River and went to the side of Bulgaria, which at the time of the action still belonged to the Ottoman Empire. By the beginning of July, the Shipka Pass was occupied practically without much resistance. The Turkish side’s response to this was the transfer of an army led by Suleiman Pasha to take these territories. This is where the bloodiest events of the Russian-Turkish war unfolded. The fact is that the Shipka Pass was of enormous military importance; control over it provided free movement of the Russians to the north of Bulgaria. The enemy was significantly superior to the Russian army both in weapons and in human resources. On the Russian side, General N. Stoletov was appointed commander-in-chief. By the end of 1877, the Shipka Pass was taken by Russian soldiers.
But, despite the heavy defeats, the Turks were in no hurry to give up. They concentrated their main forces in the Plevna fortress. The siege of Plevna turned out to be a turning point in all armed battles of the Russian-Turkish war. Here luck was on the side of the Russian soldiers. Bulgarian troops also successfully fought on the side of the Russian Empire. The commanders-in-chief were: M.D. Skobelev, Prince Nikolai Nikolaevich and the Romanian King Carol I.
Also during this stage of the Russian-Turkish war the fortresses of Ardahan, Kare, Batum, Erzurum were taken; fortified area of the Turks Sheinovo.
At the beginning of 1878, Russian soldiers approached the Turkish capital, Constantinople. The previously powerful and warlike Ottoman Empire was unable to resist the Russian army and in February of the same year requested peace negotiations.

Results

The final stage of the Russian-Turkish conflict was the adoption of the San Stefano Peace Treaty on February 19, 1878. Under its terms, the northern part of Bulgaria received independence (an autonomous principality), and the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania was confirmed. Russia received the southern part of Bessarabia with the fortresses of Ardahan, Kars and Batum. Türkiye also obliged to pay indemnities to the Russian Empire in the amount of 1.410 billion rubles.

Only Russia was satisfied with the result of this peace treaty; everyone else was categorically dissatisfied with it, in particular, Western European countries (England, Austria-Hungary, etc.). Therefore, in 1878, the Berlin Congress was organized, at which all the terms of the previous peace treaty were revised. The Macedonian Republic and the eastern region of Romania were returned to the Turks; England, which did not take part in the war, received Cyprus; Germany received part of the lands that belonged to Montenegro under the Treaty of San Stefano; Montenegro was also completely deprived of its own navy; some of Russia's acquisitions were transferred to the Ottoman Empire.

The Berlin Congress (treaty) significantly changed the initial balance of power. But, despite some territorial concessions to Russia, the result for our country was victory.

1. The most significant foreign policy event of the reign of Alexander II was the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878, which ended in the victory of Russia. As a result of victory in this war:

- the prestige of Russia, which had been shaken after the Crimean War of 1853-1856, has increased and the position of Russia has been strengthened;

- the peoples of the Balkans were liberated from almost 500 years of Turkish yoke.

The main factors that predetermined the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878:

— the growth of Russia’s power as a result of ongoing bourgeois reforms;

— the desire to regain positions lost as a result of the Crimean War;

- changes in the international situation in the world in connection with the emergence of a single German state - Germany;

— the growth of the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples against the Turkish yoke.

On the eve of the war, a significant part of the Balkan peoples (Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians) were under the Turkish yoke for about 500 years, which consisted of economic exploitation of these peoples, preventing the formation of their statehood and normal independent development, suppression of culture, imposition of an alien culture and religion (for example, Islamization Bosnians and part of the Bulgarians). In the mid-1870s. In the Balkans, there was widespread dissatisfaction with the Turkish yoke and a high national upsurge, which Russia, as the leading Slavic state, claiming the protection of all Slavs, ideologically supported. Another factor that predetermined the war was the change in the situation in Europe due to the emergence of a new strong state in the center of Europe - Germany. Germany, united by O. von Bismarck in 1871 and defeating France during the war of 1870-1871, tried in every possible way to undermine the Anglo-French-Turkish system of European domination. This was in line with Russia's interests. Taking advantage of the defeat of France, the main ally of England and the enemy of Russia in the Crimean War, from Prussia, Russia in 1871 achieved the abolition of a number of conditions of the humiliating Treaty of Paris of 1856. As a result of this diplomatic victory, the neutral status of the Black Sea was canceled and Russia regained the right to restore the Black Sea Fleet .

2. The reason for the new Russian-Turkish war was the anti-Turkish uprising in Bosnia and Serbia in 1875 - 1876. Fulfilling the declared allied obligations to the “fraternal peoples,” Russia in April 1877 declared war on Turkey. Turkey, deprived of the help of its main allies - England and France, was unable to resist Russia:

- military operations were successful for Russia both in Europe and in the Caucasus - the war was fleeting and ended within 10 months;

- the Russian army defeated Turkish troops in the battle of Plevna (Bulgaria) and the Shipka Pass;

- the fortresses of Kare, Batum and Ardagan in the Caucasus were taken;

- in February 1878, the Russian army approached Constantinople (Istanbul), and Turkey was forced to ask for peace and make serious concessions.

3. In 1878, wanting to stop the war, Turkey hastily signed the Treaty of San Stefano with Russia. According to this agreement:

— Türkiye granted complete independence to Serbia, Montenegro and Romania;

— Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina remained part of Turkey, but received broad autonomy;

- Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina were obliged to pay tribute to Turkey in exchange for the complete demilitarization of these autonomies - Turkish troops were withdrawn from Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Turkish fortresses were destroyed - the actual presence of the Turks in these countries ceased;

— Russia returned Kare and Batum, it was allowed to culturally patronize the Bulgarians and Bosnians.

4. All leading European countries, including Russia’s main ally in Europe in the 1870s, were dissatisfied with the results of the San Stefano Peace Treaty, which sharply strengthened Russia’s position. - Germany. In 1878, the Berlin Congress was convened in Berlin on the issue of Balkan settlement. Delegations from Russia, Germany, England, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Turkey took part in the congress. The purpose of the congress was to develop a pan-European solution to the Balkans. Under pressure from leading European countries, Russia was forced to give in and abandon the San Stefano Peace Treaty. Instead, the Berlin Peace Treaty was signed, which significantly reduced the results of victory for Russia. According to the Berlin Treaty:

- the territory of the Bulgarian autonomy was reduced by about 3 times;

— Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary and was part of it;

— Macedonia and Eastern Romania were returned to Turkey.

5. Despite Russia's concessions to European countries, victory in the war of 1877 - 1878 had great historical significance:

- the expulsion of Turkey from the European continent began;

- Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, and in the future - Bulgaria, were liberated from the 500-year Turkish yoke and gained independence;

— Russia has finally recovered from its defeat in the Crimean War;

- the international prestige of Russia and Emperor Alexander II, who received the nickname Liberator, was restored;

- this war was the last major Russian-Turkish conflict - Russia finally gained a foothold in the Black Sea.

Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878(Turkish name: 93 Harbi, 93 war) - a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It was caused by the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans. The brutality with which the April Uprising in Bulgaria was suppressed aroused sympathy for the plight of Christians in the Ottoman Empire in Europe and especially in Russia. Attempts to improve the situation of Christians by peaceful means were thwarted by the stubborn reluctance of the Turks to make concessions to Europe, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey.

During the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return to Russia of the southern part of Bessarabia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) was restored as the vassal Principality of Bulgaria; The territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Background to the conflict

[edit] Oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire

§ 1860 - in Lebanon, the Druze, with the connivance of the Ottoman authorities, massacred over 10 thousand Christians (mainly Maronites, but also Greek Catholics and Orthodox). The threat of French military intervention forced the Porte to restore order. Under pressure from the European powers, the Porte agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was nominated by the Ottoman Sultan after agreement with the European powers.

§ 1866-1869 - uprising in Crete under the slogan of unifying the island with Greece. The rebels took control of the entire island except for five cities in which the Muslims fortified themselves. By the beginning of 1869, the uprising was suppressed, but the Porte made concessions, introducing self-government on the island, which strengthened the rights of Christians. During the suppression of the uprising, events in the Moni Arkadiou monastery became widely known in Europe ( English), when over 700 women and children, hiding behind the walls of the monastery, chose to blow up the powder magazine rather than surrender to the besieging Turks.

The consequence of the uprising in Crete, especially as a result of the brutality with which the Turkish authorities suppressed it, was to attract attention in Europe (the Russian Empire in particular) to the issue of the oppressed position of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

Russia emerged from the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to abandon the maintenance of a fleet in the Black Sea and demolish the fortifications of Sevastopol.

Reviewing the results of the Crimean War has become the main goal of Russian foreign policy. It was, however, not so simple - the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 provided for guarantees of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire from Great Britain and France. The openly hostile position taken by Austria during the war complicated the situation. Of the great powers, only Russia maintained friendly relations with Prussia.

The beginning of hostilities. The Russian army in the Balkans, led by the Tsar's brother Nikolai Nikolaevich, numbered 185 thousand people. The Tsar was also at the army headquarters. The strength of the Turkish army in Northern Bulgaria was 160 thousand people.

On June 15, 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and launched an offensive. The Bulgarian population enthusiastically greeted the Russian army. Bulgarian voluntary squads joined it, showing high fighting spirit. Eyewitnesses said that they went into battle as if they were “on a merry holiday.”

Russian troops quickly moved south, hastening to capture the mountain passes through the Balkans and reach southern Bulgaria. It was especially important to occupy the Shipka Pass, from where the most convenient road to Adrianople led. After two days of fierce fighting, the pass was taken. The Turkish troops retreated in disarray. It seemed that a direct path to Constantinople was opening.

Counter-offensive of Turkish troops. Battles on Shipka and near Plevna. However, the course of events suddenly changed dramatically. On July 7, a large Turkish detachment under the command of Osman Pasha, having completed a forced march and ahead of the Russians, occupied the Plevna fortress in Northern Bulgaria. There was a threat of a flank attack. Two attempts by Russian troops to drive the enemy out of Plevna ended unsuccessfully. The Turkish troops, who could not withstand the onslaught of the Russians in open battles, were doing well in the fortresses. The movement of Russian troops through the Balkans was suspended.

Russia and the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples. In the spring of 1875, an uprising began against the Turkish yoke in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A year later, in April 1876, an uprising broke out in Bulgaria. Turkish punitive forces suppressed these uprisings with fire and sword. In Bulgaria alone they massacred more than 30 thousand people. Serbia and Montenegro began a war against Turkey in the summer of 1876. But the forces were unequal. The poorly armed Slavic armies suffered setbacks.

In Russia, the social movement in defense of the Slavs was expanding. Thousands of Russian volunteers were sent to the Balkans. Donations were collected throughout the country, weapons and medicine were purchased, and hospitals were equipped. The outstanding Russian surgeon N.V. Sklifosovsky led the Russian sanitary detachments in Montenegro, and the famous general practitioner S.P. Botkin headed the Russian sanitary detachments in Serbia. Alexander II contributed 10 thousand rubles in favor of the rebels. There were calls for Russian military intervention from everywhere.

However, the government acted cautiously, recognizing Russia's unpreparedness for a major war. Reforms in the army and its rearmament have not yet been completed. They did not have time to recreate the Black Sea Fleet.

Meanwhile, Serbia was defeated. The Serbian prince Milan turned to the king with a request for help. In October 1876, Russia presented Turkey with an ultimatum: immediately conclude a truce with Serbia. Russian intervention prevented the fall of Belgrade.

Through secret negotiations, Russia managed to ensure the neutrality of Austria-Hungary, although at a very high cost. According to the Budapest Convention, signed in January 1877, Russia

agreed to the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austro-Hungarian troops. Russian diplomacy managed to take advantage of the indignation of the world community over the atrocities of the Turkish punitive forces. In March 1877, in London, representatives of the great powers agreed on a protocol in which Turkey was invited to carry out reforms in favor of the Christian population in the Balkans. Türkiye rejected the London Protocol. On April 12, the tsar signed a manifesto declaring war on Turkey. A month later, Romania entered the war on the side of Russia.

Having seized the initiative, Turkish troops ousted the Russians from Southern Bulgaria. In August, bloody battles for Shipka began. The five thousand strong Russian detachment, which included Bulgarian squads, was led by General N. G. Stoletov. The enemy had a fivefold superiority. The defenders of Shipka had to repel up to 14 attacks per day. The unbearable heat increased thirst, and the stream was under fire. At the end of the third day of fighting, when the situation became desperate, reinforcements arrived. The threat of encirclement has been eliminated. A few days later the fighting died down. The Shipka Pass remained in Russian hands, but its southern slopes were held by the Turks.

Fresh reinforcements from Russia were arriving at Plevna. Its third assault began on August 30. Using thick fog, the detachment of General Mikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev (1843-1882) secretly approached the enemy and broke through the fortifications with a swift attack. But in other areas, attacks by Russian troops were repulsed. Having received no support, Skobelev’s detachment retreated back the next day. In three assaults on Plevna, the Russians lost 32 thousand, the Romanians - 3 thousand people. The hero of the Sevastopol defense, General E.I. Totleben, came from St. Petersburg. After examining the positions, he said that there was only one way out - a complete blockade of the fortress. Without heavy artillery, a new assault could only lead to new needless victims.

The fall of Plevna and the turning point during the war. Winter has begun. The Turks held Plevna, the Russians held Shipka. “Everything is calm on Shipka,” the command reported. Meanwhile, the number of frostbite cases reached 400 per day. When a snowstorm broke out, the supply of ammunition and food stopped. From September to December 1877, the Russians and Bulgarians lost 9,500 people on Shipka, frostbitten, sick and frozen. Nowadays, on Shipka there is a monument-tomb with the image of two warriors bowing their heads - a Russian and a Bulgarian.

At the end of November, food supplies ran out in Plevna. Osman Pasha made a desperate attempt to break through, but was driven back to the fortress. On November 28, the Plevna garrison surrendered. 43 thousand people, led by the most talented Turkish military leader, were captured in Russian captivity. During the war, a turning point occurred. Serbia began hostilities again. In order not to lose the initiative, the Russian command decided to go through the Balkans without waiting for spring.

On December 13, the main forces of the Russian army, led by General Joseph Vladimirovich Gurko (1828-1901), began their journey to Sofia through the difficult Churyak pass. The troops moved day and night along steep and slippery mountain roads. The rain that started turned to snow, a blizzard swirled, and then frosts hit. On December 23, 1877, the Russian army entered Sofia in icy overcoats.

Meanwhile, troops under the command of Skobelev were supposed to remove the group blocking the Shipka Pass from the fight. Skobelev crossed the Balkans west of Shipka along an icy sloping cornice above the abyss and reached the rear of the fortified Sheinovo camp. Skobelev, who was nicknamed the “white general” (he had the habit of appearing in dangerous places on a white horse, in a white tunic and a white cap), valued and cherished the life of a soldier. His soldiers went into battle not in dense columns, as was customary then, but in chains and quick runs. As a result of the battles near Shipka-Sheinovo on December 27-28, the 20,000-strong Turkish group capitulated.

A few years after the war, Skobelev died suddenly, in the prime of his strength and talent, at the age of 38. Many streets and squares in Bulgaria are named after him.

The Turks gave up Plovdiv without a fight. A three-day battle south of this city ended the military campaign. On January 8, 1878, Russian troops entered Adrianople. Pursuing the randomly retreating Turks, the Russian cavalry reached the shore of the Sea of Marmara. A detachment under the command of Skobelev occupied the town of San Stefano, a few kilometers from Constantinople. It was not difficult to enter the Turkish capital, but, fearing international complications, the Russian command did not dare to do so.

Military operations in Transcaucasia. Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich, the youngest son of Nicholas I, was formally considered the commander of the Russian troops in the Transcaucasian theater of military operations. In fact, the command was exercised by General M. T. Loris-Melikov. In April - May 1877, the Russian army took the fortresses of Bayazet and Ardahan and blocked Qare. But then a series of failures followed, and the siege of Kars had to be lifted.

The decisive battle took place in the fall in the Aladzhin Heights area, not far from Kars. On October 3, Russian troops stormed the fortified Mount Avliyar, a key point of Turkish defense. In the Battle of Aladzhin, the Russian command used the telegraph for the first time to control troops. On the night of November 6, 1877, Kare was captured. After this, the Russian army reached Erzurum.

Treaty of San Stefano. On February 19, 1878, a peace treaty was signed in San Stefano. Under its terms, Bulgaria received the status of an autonomous principality, independent in its internal affairs. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained complete independence and significant territorial increments. Southern Bessarabia, seized under the Treaty of Paris, was returned to Russia, and the Kars region in the Caucasus was transferred.

The provisional Russian administration that ruled Bulgaria developed a draft constitution. Bulgaria was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Personal and property rights were guaranteed. The Russian project formed the basis of the Bulgarian Constitution, adopted by the Constituent Assembly in Tarnovo in April 1879.

Berlin Congress. England and Austria-Hungary refused to recognize the terms of the Peace of San Stefano. At their insistence, in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Congress was held with the participation of six powers (England, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey). Russia found itself isolated and was forced to make concessions. The Western powers categorically objected to the creation of a unified Bulgarian state. As a result, Southern Bulgaria remained under Turkish rule. Russian diplomats only managed to achieve that Sofia and Varna were included in the autonomous Bulgarian principality. The territory of Serbia and Montenegro was significantly reduced. The Congress confirmed the right of Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. England bargained for the right to lead troops to Cyprus.

In a report to the Tsar, the head of the Russian delegation, Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov, wrote: “The Berlin Congress is the darkest page in my career.” The king noted: “And in mine too.”

The Berlin Congress, undoubtedly, did not brighten the diplomatic history of not only Russia, but also the Western powers. Driven by petty momentary calculations and envy of the brilliant victory of Russian weapons, the governments of these countries extended Turkish rule over several million Slavs.

And yet the fruits of the Russian victory were only partially destroyed. Having laid the foundations for the freedom of the fraternal Bulgarian people, Russia has written a glorious page in its history. Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 entered into the general context of the era of Liberation and became its worthy completion.

Related information.