This cognitive theory developed in the 1970s and suggests that learning depends largely on how the stimuli presented to the individual are understood and interpreted. Social learning therapy uses a variety of teaching and treatment techniques, including “playing out” situations that are difficult for the client or situations in which the client behaves in undesirable ways. Therapy is designed to help the client find and try more appropriate ways of responding to individual situations.
Bandura (1977) formulated the principle of “self-mastery,” according to which a treatment is effective to the extent that it changes a person's perception of his ability to solve his problems.
Cognitive approach offers us a number of “techniques” of work, for example, observing the client own behavior and creating their own ways of strengthening behavior or “weaning off” unwanted
New actions, performing certain tasks, which can be defined as personal therapy under the general guidance of a specialist (for example, all kinds of diets). Another technique is reframing problematic situation, often using group therapy, where the group acts as a means of control.
Meichenbaum’s methods (Meichenbaum, 1985) are also known for overcoming stress and gradually instructing oneself as one approaches stressful situations, Beck's methods of working with depression (Beck, 1990). Below we describe how cognitive behavior therapies have gradually evolved into short-term task therapies.
IN THE FIELD OF SOCIAL WORK
Problem solving models in social work in the period preceding learning theory
Therapies associated with learning theory came to the attention of social work in the 60s, when criticism of social work reached its peak, and interest in short-term techniques that provided solutions to problems in the here-and-now emerged.
Pioneers in this area were Perlman and Thomas (Barber, 1991; Payne, 199I), representing the problem-solving and casework model traditions, respectively.
Helen Perlman anticipated the emergence of a problem-solving tradition in social work. Perlman defines casework as “a process initiated by individual social welfare agencies to assist citizens in effective solution problems with the implementation of their social function" (Perlman, 1957:4).
The social worker should therefore strive to strengthen internal forces client without taking control of his life. The essence of the casework is defined by her as follows: “A person with a problem comes to an institution / where a qualified specialist assists him, initiating the appropriate process” (ibid.). Perlman's model is based on four concepts: person, problem, place and process, which we will briefly comment on. Human
Social work is not about everything age groups, aims to help clients with certain social and emotional aspects of life.
P problem
Perlman understands life as continuous process problem solving, which, as a rule, occurs without any particular difficulties for a person, that is, without disrupting his social function. Particularly severe cases are usually caused by one or more of the following:
1. Weakened motivation for purposefully overcoming life’s problems.
2. Deterioration of relevant abilities and skills.
3. Reduced ability to troubleshoot problems.
Problems arise when the client’s relationships with other people, groups, or his behavior in certain situations are inadequate.
M place or social institution
A social protection institution aims to facilitate decisions by individuals in own life, the normal functioning of them or their families. The goals of the organization are directly realized in the activities of its employees.
Process
By process, Perlman understands a sequence of actions aimed at solving a problem. The goal of the work is to make the client able to solve his problems independently.
It is noteworthy that Perlman herself does not belong to the tradition of learning theory, but to the psychology of the “ego,” placing on the client the role of an active agent of changing her own situation.
Short-term models focused on solving problems in the period after the formation of learning theory
Perlman's methodology greatly facilitated the introduction of learning theory into social work in the 1960s (Barber, 1964, Howe, 1987). According to Thomas (1970:83), the goal of social work is to modify the behavior of the client or other people, but often the quality of the change itself is difficult to measure, so the use of learning theory necessarily involves detailed planning of the change, the establishment of intermediate goals and evaluation of the achieved results over time. every stage.
Bandura (1969) pointed out the effectiveness of model learning, teaching social skills using role-playing games or real-life situations for educational purposes.
Epstein and Reid (1972) introduced the concept of task centered casework, which they developed over twenty years. Problem solving is based on cognitive psychology, behaviorism, psychodynamic theories, and especially ego psychology (Epstein, 1992:90).
Epstein (1992:92) provides a comparison table comparing the problem-solving model with psychodynamic models:
| Psychodynamic models | Problem Solving Model |
| 1 ■ Individual assessment client. | I ■ Overall rating problematic context. |
| psychotic problems social situation. | |
| 2- Diagnosis by type | 2- Defining the problem and highlighting it |
| psychopathological. | borders. |
| Z-Process of working with a client: | 3- Process of working with the client: |
| work with intrapsychic and | using a set of strategies |
| interpersonal conflicts - | changes, choice of complex social |
| research, analysis, identification | problems, discussion of difficulties and |
| mechanisms of protection, repression, re- | alternatives, assessment of work progress |
| experience, mental processing | and problems, counseling, reassessment |
| experience, all combined with control over | problems, control over others |
| environmental conditions. | conditions, strengthening internal |
| client resources. | |
| 4- Goal: relative flexibility. | 4- Goal: accomplishing the intended tasks. |
IN last years In Norway, several models have emerged based on the theory of Reid and Epstein, in which work is goal-oriented, divided into stages and occurs within a limited time frame. Purposefulness involves clarity and agreement between the client and the social worker about the goals of the work. This type of working method is increasingly being used in social work in Norway.
Change in inappropriate behavior, according to learning theory, arises as a result of the individual’s experience and his or her understanding of the experience. Goldstein (1981) reduces the approach under consideration to the following formulations:
A person is in constant search and movement towards chosen goals;
Man controls his own model of reality based on what he has learned;
A person gains a sense of confidence through adaptation to the environment, that is, learning to overcome problems;
The degree of adaptation is influenced by our understanding of ourselves, which in turn determines our vision of the world.
The main question in short-term techniques is: “What in the behavior, thoughts and feelings of the client or other people associated with him needs to be changed and how best to do this?”
Group therapy of this type is also possible, when a person, together with people who have the same problems as him, discusses the goals of joint work, chooses strategies and methods of work, or, seeing “brothers in misfortune,” learns from their experience (model learning), sometimes using role-playing games.
It is highly advisable to use group therapy to teach social skills with goal setting and reporting at group meetings (for example, alcohol abusers, difficult teenagers, delinquents, etc.) with an emphasis on mutual assistance and mutual support of those being educated. It is acceptable to use this method in natural groups - in the family, in the classroom to change inappropriate behavior,
Social work has an ambivalent relationship with learning theory. On the one hand, the work methodology developed in line with this tradition was very positively received in the 1960s as a reaction to psychodynamic models. On the other hand, it is quite difficult to change classical ideas about a person. Watson argued that a person cannot develop from within, but almost exclusively under the influence of external factors. He believed that it was possible for a child to grow with almost no internal limitations, and compared the development of humans and animals (Watson, 1924).
Watson's views were in deep contradiction with the prevailing idea in social work about the uniqueness of each person, which required recognition and respect: “People cannot be considered as categories, everyone is unique,” said most methodological manuals on social work, regardless of their affiliation with one or another. another theoretical direction. When Watson (ibid.) suggests we stop having children after 20 years (except for experimental purposes), this speaks volumes about what he sees as human behavior something that can be done down to the smallest detail
Manage via external influences. Aldous Huxley in 1931 described in the dystopia “Beautiful new world» a precisely planned society, with people subject to genetic manipulation and carrying out their limited functions. This is a terrifying prospect; forced society to reconsider its attitude towards behaviorism. The dreamer was not interested in society, but in objective scientific knowledge.
Gradually, the view of a person as “ Blank sheet"was significant
but weakened by the recognition of the role of mental processes, which, however
are inaccessible to us until they manifest themselves in behavior. Skinner!
believed that the ability to learn and its speed is innate-1
Noah. He was also interested in external, observable behavior as a fact-|
torus influencing the learning process. I
Learning theory has increasingly used mental processes to change the processes of learning new behavior, “unlearning” a certain behavior, or correcting it. Gradually, the mental aspects began to occupy a dominant position in learning theory and made it more suitable for social work.
Most methods assume high activity of the individual in changing his situation and creating better conditions, which was most clearly manifested in short-term models and the techniques used in them. Despite the importance of mental processes, the general idea of a person continues to remain deterministic. Classical psychoanalysis is based on biological determinism. Learning theory sees determinism in the environment and is influenced (like behaviorism and social learning theory) by Darwinian evolution (Atkinson, 1993). The learning process in learning theory is considered as a process of choosing the most appropriate method of behavior in the opinion of the individual, designed to optimally ensure his survival. In the same way it happened natural evolution species. The learning theory gives grounds to talk about a “planned society”, with the desired behavior of its members ensured. In 1971, Skinner wrote Beyond Freedom and Dignity, an attempt to apply learning theory to society and advocated a "planned society."
Relationship between client and social worker, focused on learning and problem solving
In this subsection we will highlight the features of learning models in social work. First of all, this understanding of causality
ness social problems. At the center of these models are problem behaviors that a person learns by interacting with the environment.
Just one more characteristic feature of these models is the focus on change problem behavior and the social relations that gave rise to it. The main role is given to teaching new behavior. The social worker acts here as a teacher in a significantly to a greater extent than in other models. Below we provide an overview of some models related to learning theory.
Behavior that is learned through environmental reinforcement One of the features of models based on learning theory is the low role of diagnostics. It's about rather about “appropriate” and “inappropriate” behavior than about disease diagnoses. It is assumed that the client has learned his current behavior. Next, you need to establish why he learned this behavior. It is believed that this method of behavior was the most appropriate for the client's situation at the time of learning. Later, or in an environment with different norms, such behavior may not be appropriate. From these positions, both normal and deviant behavior are considered.
A typical example is a child crying to achieve something. At home, this may be reasonable behavior to achieve one's goals. This is the only way his parents will hear him. The child comes to school and begins to behave the same way. Here, such behavior will be immediately assessed as problematic and will entail other consequences for the child, that is, it will be inappropriate for him, while continuing to remain appropriate at home.
This group of models does not aim to find the ultimate causes of problem behavior. It is believed that their roots go far back. a person’s past and they are difficult to change. The situation here is much more important, here-and-now, that is, it is necessary to establish what contributes to the maintenance of problem behavior.
"Disease" in understanding diagnostic methods corresponds here to the concept of “inappropriate behavior”. In the psychodynamic tradition, it is primarily determined driving forces problem behavior, and in learning theory models the latter is considered in connection with learning. Phobias, for example, can be understood as a reaction and withdrawal from a situation associated with fear or certain reactions of other people. This also includes various objects, as in the case of Albert, the rat and the unpleasant sound (Atkinson et al., 1993).
In the presented understanding we note three key points that need to be installed in order to properly work with problem behavior:
1. Understanding and unity about the nature of the problem behavior and what needs to change.
2. The situational context of the problem behavior.
3. The interaction of a person with his situation, since this is the “key” to understanding inappropriate behavior.
The father believes that his ten-year-old son is creating problems for himself with his behavior. He is concerned about the situation and wants to change it. But no matter what he offers his son, he refuses to do it. The father is forced to apply more effort To everyday communication. For example, he calls his son to dinner several times, but he does not come, and the father becomes angry, worried and despairing even before the son comes to the table, and when the boy sits down, the father is in a bad mood and does not speak to him.
In the light of learning theory, we conclude that the boy's behavior is reinforced by his father's greater attention to him in relation to everyday things. When the boy does do them, the father becomes angry and does not speak to his son and does not want to interact with him in a pleasant way. the latter way. The boy needs his father's attention, but to get it, he resists his father. He organizes his behavior in such a way as to satisfy his need for attention. Both enter a vicious circle, from which you can only get out of it by changing your behavior.
Social learning theory also considers a person's attitude towards his experiences - present, past and future. Negative attitude it is often indicated by a person’s behavior in vicious circle inappropriate actions. The experience of being problematic only perpetuates the idea of oneself as a failure.
Of primary importance here is the here-and-now situation and, to a lesser extent, the previous learning for the reason that only it can be worked with, that is, changed. Situations are analyzed to reach agreement on what needs to change and how it can be done.
Related information.
The concept of social learning shows how a child adapts to modern world how he learns habits and norms modern society. Representatives of this school of thought believe that, along with classical conditioning and operant conditioning there is also learning through imitation and imitation. Such learning began to be considered in American psychology as a new, third form of learning. It should be noted that in the theory of social learning, the problem of development is posed from the position of the initial antagonism of the child and society, borrowed from Freudianism.
Scientists have introduced such a concept as socialization. Socialization is the process and result of assimilation and active reproduction by an individual social experience carried out in communication and activity. Socialization can occur both in conditions of spontaneous influence on the individual of various circumstances of life in society, which sometimes have the nature of multidirectional factors, and in conditions of upbringing, i.e. purposeful formation personality. Education is the leading and determining beginning of socialization. This concept was introduced into social psychology in the 1940s and 1950s. in the works of A. Bandura, J. Kohlman and others. In various scientific schools the concept of socialization has received different interpretation: in neobehaviorism it is interpreted as social learning; At school symbolic interactionism- as a result social interaction; V " humanistic psychology- as self-actualization of the “I-concept”. The phenomenon of socialization is multidimensional, therefore each indicated directions focuses attention on one of the aspects of the phenomenon being studied.
American psychologists A. Bandura, R. Sears, B. Skinner and other scientists dealt with the problem of social learning. Let's look at some of the theories they put forward in more detail.
A. Bandura (1925) believed that in order to form new behavior, reward and punishment are not enough. Therefore, he opposed the transfer of results obtained on animals to the analysis of human behavior. He believed that children acquire new behavior through observation and imitation, that is, imitating people significant to them, and identification, that is, by borrowing the feelings and actions of another authority figure.
Bandura conducted research on childhood and youth aggressiveness. A group of children were shown films in which different patterns of adult behavior were presented (aggressive and non-aggressive), which had different consequences (reward or punishment). So, the film showed how an adult aggressively handles toys. After watching the film, the children were left alone and played with toys similar to those they had seen in the film. As a result aggressive behavior in children who watched the film, it increased and appeared more often than in children who did not watch it. If aggressive behavior was rewarded in the film, the children's aggressive behavior also increased. In another group of children who watched a film where aggressive behavior from adults was punished, it decreased.
Bandura identified the stimulus-response dyad and introduced four intermediate processes into this framework to explain how imitation of a model leads to the formation of new behavior in children:
1) attention to the action of the model;
2) memory of the influences of the model;
3) motor skills that allow you to reproduce what you see;
4) motivation, which determines the child’s desire to reproduce what he saw.
Thus, A. Bandura recognized the role cognitive processes in the formation and regulation of behavior based on imitation.
The famous American psychologist R. Sears (1908–1998) proposed the principle of dyadic analysis of personality development. This principle lies in the fact that many personality traits are initially formed in so-called “dyadic situations”, because a person’s actions depend on and are oriented towards another person. Dyadic relationships include those of mother and child, teacher and student, son and father, etc. The scientist believed that there are no strictly fixed and unchanging personality traits, since human behavior always depends on personal properties another member of the dyad. Sears identified three phases of child development:
1) the phase of rudimentary behavior - based on innate needs and learning in early childhood, in the first months of life);
2) the phase of primary motivational systems - learning within the family (the main phase of socialization);
3) phase of secondary motivational systems - learning outside the family (goes beyond early age and is associated with school enrollment).
Obviously, Sears considered the influence of parents on the upbringing of children to be the most important in the process of socialization.
Sears considered dependence to be the central component of learning.
E. a child's need that cannot be ignored. It is known that the first dependence that arises in a child is dependence on the mother, the peak of which falls on early childhood. Sears identified five forms of addictive behavior.
1. “Seeking negative attention” - the child tries to attract the attention of adults through quarrels, disobedience, and breakups. The reason for this may be low requirements and insufficient restrictions in relation to the child.
2. “Seeking constant confirmation” is apologies, requests, excessive promises or a search for protection, comfort, consolation. The reason is excessive demands on the child, especially regarding his achievements, on the part of both parents.
3. “Seeking positive attention” - expressed in the search for praise, the desire to join or leave the group.
4. “Staying Nearby” – permanent presence near another child or group of children or adults. This form can be called "immature" passive form manifestations of positive dependence in behavior.
5. Touch and hold is the non-aggressive touching, hugging, or holding of others. Here we can talk about an “immature” dependent form of behavior.
R. Sears believed that parents need to find a middle path in education. Gotta stick next rule: not too strong, not too weak dependence; not too strong, not too weak identification.
The role of reward and punishment in the formation of new behavior was considered by the American neobehaviorist psychologist B. Skinner (1904–1990). The main concept of his concept is reinforcement, i.e. decreasing or increasing the likelihood that a given behavior will be repeated. He also considered the role of reward in this process, but shared the role of reinforcement and reward in the formation of new behavior, believing that reinforcement strengthens behavior, and reward does not always contribute to this. In his opinion, reinforcement can be positive and negative, primary (food, water, cold) and conditional (money, signs of love, attention, etc.).
B. Skinner opposed punishment and believed that it could not give a stable and lasting effect, and ignoring bad behavior may replace punishment.
American psychologist J. Gewirtz great attention devoted to studying the conditions for the emergence of social motivation and attachment of an infant to an adult, and an adult to a child. It was based on achievements in the field social psychology and the ideas of Sears and Skinner. Gewirtz came to the conclusion that the source of motivation for a child’s behavior is the stimulating influence of the environment and learning based on reinforcement, as well as the child’s various reactions, for example, laughter, tears, smiling, etc.
American psychologist W. Bronfenbrenner believed that the results laboratory research must be tested in natural conditions, i.e. in a family or peer group. Special attention he paid attention to family structure and other social institutions How the most important factors development of children's behavior. Therefore, he conducted his research by observing families.
Bronfenbrenner studied the origins of the phenomenon of "age segregation" in American families. This phenomenon is that young people cannot find their place in society. As a result, a person feels disconnected from the people around him and even experiences hostility towards them. Having finally found something he likes, he does not receive satisfaction from the work, and interest in it soon fades away. This fact of isolation of young people from other people and the real matter in American psychology is called alienation.
Bronfenbrenner sees the roots of alienation in the following features modern families:
Mothers' work;
An increase in the number of divorces and, accordingly, in the number of children growing up without fathers;
Lack of communication between children and fathers due to the latter being busy at work;
Insufficient communication with parents due to the advent of televisions and separate rooms;
Rare communication with relatives and neighbors.
Social learning theory
The concept of social learning shows how a child adapts to the modern world, how he learns the habits and norms of modern society. Representatives of this school of thought believe that along with classical conditioning and operant conditioning, there is also learning by imitation and imitation. Such learning began to be considered in American psychology as a new, third form of learning. It should be noted that in the theory of social learning, the problem of development is posed from the position of the initial antagonism of the child and society, borrowed from Freudianism.
Scientists have introduced such a concept as socialization. Socialization- ϶ᴛᴏ the process and result of the individual’s assimilation and active reproduction of social experience, carried out in communication and activity. Socialization can occur both in conditions of spontaneous influence on the individual of various circumstances of life in society, sometimes having the nature of multidirectional factors, and in conditions of education, i.e., purposeful formation of personality. Education is the leading and determining beginning of socialization. This concept was introduced into social psychology in the 1940-1950s. in the works of A. Bandura, J. Kohlman and others.
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In different scientific schools, the concept of socialization has received different interpretations: in neobehaviorism it is interpreted as social learning; in the school of symbolic interactionism - as a result of social interaction; in “humanistic psychology” – as self-actualization of the “I-concept”. The phenomenon of socialization is multifaceted; therefore, each of these areas focuses attention on one of the aspects of the phenomenon being studied.
American psychologists A. Bandura, R. Sears, B. Skinner and other scientists dealt with the problem of social learning. Let's look at some of the theories they put forward in more detail.
A. Bandura (1925) believed that in order to form new behavior, reward and punishment are not enough. For this reason, he opposed the transfer of results obtained from animals to the analysis of human behavior. He believed that children acquire new behavior thanks to observation and imitation, that is, imitating people who are significant to them, and identification, that is, by borrowing the feelings and actions of another authority figure.
Bandura conducted research on childhood and youth aggressiveness. A group of children were shown films in which different patterns of adult behavior were presented (aggressive and non-aggressive), which had different consequences (reward or punishment). So, the film showed how an adult aggressively handles toys. After watching the film, the children were left alone and played with toys similar to those they 30 seen in the film. As a result, aggressive behavior in children who watched the film increased and manifested itself more often than in children who did not watch it. If aggressive behavior was rewarded in the film, the children's aggressive behavior also increased. In another group of children who watched a film where aggressive behavior from adults was punished, it decreased.
Bandura identified the stimulus-response dyad and introduced four intermediate processes into this diagram to explain how imitation of a model leads to the formation of new behavior in children:
1) attention to the action of the model;
2) memory of the influences of the model;
3) motor skills that allow you to reproduce what you see;
4) motivation, which determines the child’s desire to reproduce what he saw.
However, A. Bandura recognized the role of cognitive processes in the formation and regulation of behavior based on imitation.
The famous American psychologist R. Sears (1908–1998) proposed the principle of dyadic analysis of personality development. This principle essentially lies in the fact that many personality traits are initially formed in so-called “dyadic situations”, because a person’s actions depend on and are oriented towards another person. Dyadic relationships include the relationship between mother and child, teacher and student, son and father, etc.
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The scientist believed that there are no strictly fixed and unchangeable personality traits, since a person’s behavior always depends on the personal properties of the other member of the dyad. Sears identified three phases of child development:
1) the phase of rudimentary behavior - based on innate needs and learning in early childhood, in the first months of life);
2) the phase of primary motivational systems - learning within the family (the main phase of socialization);
3) the phase of secondary motivational systems - learning outside the family (extends beyond the early age and is associated with entering school).
Obviously, Sears considered the influence of parents on the upbringing of children to be the main thing in the process of socialization.
Sears believed that the central component of learning is addiction, i.e., a child's need that cannot be ignored. It is known that the first dependence that arises in a child is dependence on the mother, the peak of which occurs in early childhood. Sears identified five forms of addictive behavior.
1. “Seeking negative attention” – the child tries to attract the attention of adults through quarrels, disobedience, and breakups. The reason for this may be low requirements and insufficient restrictions in relation to the child.
2. “Seeking constant confirmation” - ϶ᴛᴏ apologies, requests, unnecessary promises or seeking protection, comfort, consolation. The reason is excessive demands on the child, especially regarding his achievements, on the part of both parents.
3. “Seeking positive attention” – expressed in the search for praise, the desire to join or leave the group.
4. “Staying nearby” – constant presence near another child or group of children or adults. This form can be called “immature”, a passive form of manifestation of positive dependence in behavior.
5. ʼʼTouch and Holdʼʼ - ϶ᴛᴏ non-aggressive touching, hugging or holding others. Here we can talk about an “immature” dependent form of behavior.
R. Sears believed that it was extremely important for parents to find a middle path in education. We must adhere to the following rule: not too strong, not too weak dependence; not too strong, not too weak identification.
The role of reward and punishment The formation of new behavior was considered by the American neobehaviorist psychologist B. Skinner (1904–1990). The main concept of his concept is reinforcement, i.e., decreasing or increasing the likelihood that a given behavior will be repeated. He also considered the role of reward in this process, but separated the role of reinforcement and reward in the formation of new behavior, believing that reinforcement strengthens behavior, and reward does not always contribute to this. In his opinion, reinforcement can be positive and negative, primary (food, water, cold) and conditional (money, signs of love, attention, etc.).
B. Skinner opposed punishment and believed that it could not give a stable and lasting effect, and ignoring bad behavior could replace punishment.
The American psychologist J. Gewirtz paid much attention to the study of the conditions for the emergence of social motivation and the attachment of an infant to an adult, and an adult to a child. It was based on advances in social psychology and the ideas of Sears and Skinner. Gewirtz came to the conclusion that the source of motivation for a child’s behavior is the stimulating influence of the environment and learning based on reinforcement, as well as the child’s various reactions, for example, laughter, tears, smiling, etc.
American psychologist W. Bronfenbrenner believed that it is extremely important to test the results of laboratory research in natural conditions, that is, in a family or peer group. He paid special attention to the structure of the family and other social institutions as the most important factors in the development of children's behavior. For this reason, he conducted his research by observing families.
Bronfenbrenner studied the origins of the phenomenon of “age segregation” in American families. This phenomenon essentially means that young people cannot find their place in society. As a result, a person feels disconnected from the people around him and even experiences hostility towards them. Having finally found something he likes, he does not receive satisfaction from the work, and interest in it soon fades away. This fact of isolation of young people from other people and the real matter in American psychology was called alienation.
Bronfenbrenner sees the roots of alienation in the following features of modern families:
‣‣‣ mothers' work;
‣‣‣ an increase in the number of divorces and, accordingly, the number of children growing up without fathers;
‣‣‣ lack of communication between children and fathers due to the latter being busy at work;
‣‣‣ insufficient communication with parents due to the advent of televisions and separate rooms;
‣‣‣ rare communication with relatives and neighbors.
All these and many others, even more unfavourable conditions affect mental development child, which leads to alienation, the reasons for which are the disorganization of the family. At the same time, according to Bronfenbrenner, disorganizing forces initially arise not in the family itself, but in the way of life of the entire society and in the objective circumstances that families face.
Social learning theory - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Social Learning Theory" 2017, 2018.
Julian Rotter's social learning theory is an attempt to explain how behavior is learned through interactions with other people and elements of the environment.
Rotter focused on how behavior is learned in a social context. In addition, he believed that behavior is mainly determined by our unique ability think and foresee. According to him, predicting what people will do in certain situation, we must take into account cognitive variables such as perception, expectation and values. In Rotter's theory, there is also a position that human behavior is goal-directed, that is, people strive to move towards expected goals. According to Rotter, human behavior is determined by the expectation that a given action will ultimately lead to future rewards. Integrating the concepts of expectancy and reinforcement within the same theory - unique property Rotter systems.
The focus of Rotter's theory of social learning is the prediction of human behavior in difficult situations. Rotter believes that the interaction of the four variables needs to be carefully analyzed. These variables include behavioral potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and psychological situation.
Behavior potential.
Rotter argues that the key to predicting what a person will do in a given situation lies in understanding the potential of the behavior. This term means the probability this behavior, “occurring in some situation or situations in connection with some single reinforcement or reinforcements.” Let's imagine, for example, that someone insults you at a party. How will you react? From Rotter's point of view, there are several responses. You can say that this is crossing all boundaries and demand an apology. You can ignore the insult and move the conversation to another topic. You can punch the offender in the face or simply walk away. Each of these reactions has its own behavioral potential. If you decide not to pay attention to the offender, this means that the potential for this reaction is greater than any other possible reaction. Obviously, the potential for each response can be strong in one situation and weak in another. High-pitched screams and screams may have high potential in a boxing match, but very little potential at a funeral (at least in American culture).
Expectation.
According to Rotter, expectancy refers to the subjective likelihood that a particular reinforcement will occur as a result of a specific behavior. For example, before you decide whether to go to a party or not, you are likely to try to calculate the likelihood that you will have a good time. Also, when deciding whether to study for an exam on a weekend, you'll likely ask yourself whether studying will help you do better on the exam. From Rotter's point of view, the value of expectancy strength can vary from 0 to 100 (0% to 100%) and is generally based on previous experience of the same or similar situation. So, if you have never enjoyed a party, the expectation that you will enjoy it is very low. Also, if studying on the weekends has always helped you do better on an exam, you will likely have a high expectation that you will score well again.
Rotter's expectancy concept clearly states that if people have been reinforced in the past for behavior in a given situation, they are more likely to repeat that behavior. For example, if you always have a great time at parties, then in all likelihood you will agree to accept an invitation to a day out. But how can expectation explain behavior in a situation we are faced with for the first time? According to Rotter, in this case the expectation is based on our experience in a similar situation. A recent college graduate who received praise for working on a semester test over the weekend probably expects to be rewarded for finishing a report for his boss over the weekend. This example shows how waiting can lead to consistent patterns of behavior, regardless of time or situation. In fact, Rotter says that a stable expectation, generalized on the basis of past experience, does explain the stability and unity of personality. However, it should be noted that expectations do not always correspond to reality. Some people, for example, may have unrealistically high expectations for their success, regardless of the situation. And others may be so insecure that they constantly underestimate their chances of success in a given situation. In any case, Rotter argues that if we want to accurately predict an individual's behavior, we should rely on his own subjective assessment of success and failure, rather than on someone else's assessment.
Rotter makes a distinction between those expectations that are specific to one situation and those that are most general or applicable to a range of situations. The first, called specific expectations, reflect the experience of one specific situation and are not applicable to the prediction of behavior. The latter, called generalized expectations, reflect experience various situations and are very suitable for studying personality in Rotter's sense. Later in this section we will look at a generalized expectancy called internal-external locus of control.
The value of reinforcement.
Rotter defines reinforcement value as the degree to which, given equal probability of receipt, we prefer one reinforcer to another. Using this concept, he argues that people differ in their assessment of the importance of an activity and its results. Given the choice, for some, watching basketball on television is more important than playing bridge with friends. Also, some people like long walks, while others don't.
Like expectations, the value of various reinforcers is based on our previous experience. Moreover, the value of reinforcement certain activities may change from situation to situation and over time. For example, social contact will probably have great value, if we are alone, and less if we are not alone. However, Rotter argues that there are relatively stable individual differences in our preference for one reinforcer over another. Some people always take free tickets to a movie rather than to an opera. Accordingly, forms of behavior can also be traced in relatively stable emotional and cognitive reactions to what constitutes the main rewarded activities in life.
It should be emphasized that in Rotter's theory the value of reinforcement does not depend on expectation. In other words: what a person knows about the value of a particular reinforcer in no way indicates the degree of expectation of this reinforcement. For example, a student knows that good academic performance It has high value and still waiting to receive high marks may be low due to his lack of initiative or ability. According to Rotter, the value of reinforcement is related to motivation, and expectancy is related to cognitive processes.
Psychological situation.
The fourth and final variable used by Rotter to predict behavior is the psychological situation from the individual's point of view. Rotter argues that social situations are as the observer perceives them to be. Rotter believes that if given environmental circumstances are perceived by a person in a certain way, then for him this situation will be exactly the way he perceives it, no matter how strange his interpretation may seem to others.
Rotter emphasizes important role situational context and its influence on human behavior. He builds a theory that a set of key stimuli in a given social situation causes a person to expect the results of behavior - reinforcement. Thus, a student might expect that she will perform poorly in a social psychology seminar, and as a result, the teacher will grade her low rating, and her colleagues will make fun of her. Therefore, we can predict that she will drop out of school or take some other action aimed at preventing the expected unpleasant outcome.
The theme of a person’s interaction with his significant environment is deeply embedded in Rotter’s vision of personality. As an interactionist, he argues that the psychological situation must be considered along with expectations and the value of reinforcement, predicting the possibility of any alternative behavior. He joins Bandura's opinion that personal factors and environmental events in interaction best predict human behavior.
Already in the works of E. Tolman and B. Skinner, questions were raised about the need to study and manage social behavior. Analysis of the process of socialization, the factors that determine and guide the acquisition of social experience and norms of behavior, determined the content of the concepts of a wide range of scientists, especially in the second half of the 20th century.
One of the first to address these problems D.G.Mead(1863-1931). After graduating from Harvard University (1888), where he studied psychology and philosophy, Mead interned in Europe. Returning to America, he worked with Dewey at the University of Chicago, where he received a doctorate in psychology in 1894.
Mead, in his works, first addressed the problem of personality, showing how awareness of one’s “I” is born. He argued that a person’s personality is formed in the process of his interaction with other people, being a model of those interpersonal relationships that are most often repeated in his life. Since in communication with different people the subject plays different “roles”, his personality is a kind of unification of various roles that he constantly “assumes”, and language is of the utmost importance.
At first, the child has no self-awareness, but through social interaction, communication and language, he develops it, learns to play roles and experiences social interaction. This experience allows him to objectively evaluate his behavior, i.e., he develops awareness of himself as social subject. Of great importance both in the formation and awareness of oneself and one’s roles is story game, in which children first learn to take on various roles and follow certain rules of the game. Thus, the idea of "I" arises from the social environment, and due to the existence of many social environments there is the possibility of developing many different types of selves.
Mead's theory is also called expectancy theory because, in his opinion, people play their roles taking into account the expectations of others. It is precisely depending on expectations and past experience (observation of parents, acquaintances) that children play the same roles differently. Thus, the role of a student is played by a child, from whom his parents expect only excellent grades, in a completely different way from the role of a child who is “passed” to school only because it is necessary and so that he does not get underfoot at home for at least half a day.
Mead also distinguishes between story games and games with rules. Story games teach children to accept and play different roles, change them during the game, just as they will later have to do in life. Before the start of these games, children know only one role - a child in their family, now they learn to be a mother, a pilot, a cook, and a student. Games with rules help children develop arbitrary behavior and master the norms that are accepted in society, since in these games there is, as Mead writes, a “generalized other,” that is, a rule that children must follow. Concept generalized other was introduced by Mead to explain why children follow the rules in a game, but cannot yet follow them in real life. From his point of view, in a game the rule is like another generalized partner who monitors the children’s activities from the outside, not allowing them to deviate from the norm.
Mead first addressed the problems social learning and had a significant influence on many prominent psychologists, especially G. Sullivan.
Of great interest are studies of antisocial (aggressive) and prosocial behavior undertaken by psychologists in this area. This problem was at the center scientific interests D.Dollard(1900-1980). After graduating from the University of Wisconsin and receiving his doctorate, he began work at Yale University, where he became interested in Hull's ideas. His goal was to combine reinforcement theory and psychoanalysis. Already in his first works, he expressed the idea of the connection between aggression and frustration, which formed the basis of his frustration theories . According to this theory, holding back weak manifestations of aggressiveness (which were the result of past frustrations) can lead to their compounding and creating very powerful aggressiveness. Dollard also suggested that all the frustrations experienced in childhood and which, according to frustration theory, always lead to aggression, can lead to aggression in mature age. However, this widely held belief is now being questioned and considered controversial.
Dollard considered his best work to be the book “Personality and Psychotherapy” (1950), written in collaboration with N. Miller.
Scientific interests N.Miller(b. 1909) were associated with the development of problems of motivation, drives and the nature of reinforcement. His experiments aimed at studying motivation examined various types of instrumental learning related to the satisfaction of basic human needs. The principles of teaching socially adaptive behavior that he developed formed the basis of his concept of psychotherapy, considered as a process of acquiring more adaptive social and personal skills. Miller's work stripped psychotherapy of its purely medical aura and provided it with a rational basis based on the principles of behavioral learning.
In their joint books Social Learning and Imitation (1941), Personality and Psychotherapy, Dollard and Miller attempted to interpret Freud's basic concepts (addiction , aggression, identification, conscience) in terms of learning theory. Dollard and Miller sought to create a psychotherapy based on the principles of social learning theory; Much of Dollard's research was devoted to this subject in the 50s of the 20th century. Their work was the first to develop the foundations of the concept of social learning, including the concept of skill, which laid the foundation for social learning theory in the 60s.
One of the first terms social learning used D.B.Rotter(b. 1916). He specialized in chemistry, but an interest in psychology and a meeting with A. Adler led him to graduate school at the University of Illinois. After serving as a military psychologist during World War II, he pursued scientific and teaching work at various universities in the USA.
Rotter's main research concerns the study of individual differences in people's beliefs about sources of reinforcement. These ideas depend on who people hold responsible for what happens to them. He introduced the concept expectations , those. confidence (or subjective probability) that a particular behavior in a given psychological situation will be reinforced. Some people are confident that they can influence the reinforcements they receive, and these are people with internal (internal) locus of control . The other part believes that reinforcements are a matter of chance or fate, these are people with external locus of control.
Rotter's work has shown that people with an internal locus of control are not only more successful, but also healthier, both mentally and physically. It has also been shown that locus of control is established in childhood and is largely determined by parenting style. Rotter developed the widely used Internality-Externality Scale test, as well as a number of other popular personality tests.
The most significant works in the field of social learning belong to A. Bandura(1925-1988). Bandura was born and received his high school education in Canada, then moved to the United States, where he graduated from the University of Iowa, receiving a degree in 1952. doctorate in clinical psychology. In 1953, he began working at Stanford University, where he became acquainted with the works of Miller and Dollard, which had a significant influence on him.
Early in his career, Bandura focused primarily on problems of learning as a consequence of direct experience. This interest led to a research program devoted to studying the mechanisms of learning. Starting with the stimulus-response methodology, he came to the conclusion that this model was not entirely applicable to human behavior, and proposed his own model that better explains the observed behavior. Based on numerous studies, he came to the conclusion that people do not always need direct reinforcement to learn; they can also learn from the experiences of others. Observational learning is necessary in situations where mistakes can lead to unpleasant or even fatal consequences.
This is how the concept important for Bandura’s theory appeared indirect reinforcement , based on observing the behavior of other people and the consequences of this behavior. In other words, a significant role in social learning is played by cognitive processes, what a person thinks about the reinforcement scheme given to him, anticipating the consequences of specific actions. Based on this, Bandura paid special attention to the study of imitation. He found that role models tend to be people of the same gender and about the same age who have successfully solved problems similar to those of them. that they confront the subject himself. Imitation of people in high positions is widespread. At the same time, more accessible, i.e. simpler, samples, as well as those with which the subject is in direct contact, are imitated more often.
Research has shown that children tend to imitate adults first and then peers whose behavior has led to success, i.e. to achieve what the child is striving for. Bandura also found that children often imitate even behavior that they have seen that did not lead to success, that is, they learn new behavior patterns as if “in reserve.”
A special role in the formation of behavior patterns is played by the media, which disseminate symbolic models in a wide social space.
Imitation of aggressive behavior is also easy to provoke, especially in children. Thus, fathers of hyper-aggressive teenagers serve as models of such behavior, encouraging them to display aggression outside the home. Research by Bandura and his first graduate student, R. Walters, into the causes of aggression in the family demonstrated the roles of reward and imitation in the formation of certain behavior patterns in children. At the same time, Walters came to the conclusion that one-time reinforcements are more effective (at least in the development of aggression) than constant ones.
Bandura's work was the first to explore the mechanisms of self-reinforcement associated with assessmentown efficiency , decision skills complex problems. These studies have shown that human behavior is motivated and regulated by internal standards and a sense of adequacy (or inadequacy) to them. People with a high assessment of their own effectiveness are more able to control their behavior and the actions of others, and are more successful in their careers and communications. People with a low assessment of personal effectiveness, on the contrary, are passive, cannot overcome obstacles and influence others. Thus, Bandura comes to the conclusion that the most significant mechanism of personal action is the person’s perceived effectiveness of attempts to control various aspects of human existence.
Of great importance are the works of F. Peterman, A. Bandura and other scientists dedicated to correction of deviant behavior. Lesson plans were developed to reduce aggression in children aged 8-12 years, which consisted of six lessons of 45 minutes each, taught individually or in a group. In individual lessons, alternatives to aggressive behavior are discussed, videos and problem games are used. In group classes, various behavior options are played out using role playing game in situations close to life. In addition, the classes included a “model child” who had already “acquired a set of well-adjusted social behavior skills” and whose behavior children began to imitate.
Bandura is also the author of a psychotherapeutic method called “systematic desensitization.” At the same time, people observe the behavior of the “model” in situations that seem dangerous to them, causing a feeling of tension and anxiety (for example, indoors, in the presence of a snake, an angry dog, etc.). Successful activity evokes a desire to imitate and gradually relieves tension in the client. These methods have found wide application not only in education or treatment, but also in business, helping to adapt to complex work situations.
Bandura's contribution to the development and modern modification of behaviorism is undoubted and is recognized by all scientists who consider him the most significant figure of this movement at the end of the 20th century.
Behaviorism became the leading psychological school of the 20th century. in USA. It has not lost its significance to this day, despite various (and often serious) criticisms from representatives of other directions. Although during the last 60 years there has been a major modification of the principles of behaviorism laid down by Watson, the basic postulates of this school have remained unchanged. This is the idea of the predominantly intravital nature of the psyche (although the presence of innate elements is now recognized), the idea of the need to study reactions mainly accessible to experiment and observation (although the content of internal variables and their significance is not denied), as well as the belief in the possibility of influencing the process formation of the psyche using a number of well-thought-out technologies.
Confidence in the need and possibility of directed training that forms a certain type of personality, as well as the methods that carry out the learning process, are one of the most important advantages of this direction. Learning theories (operant, social, role), as well as various trainings to correct behavior, ensured not only the vitality of behaviorism in the United States, but also its spread throughout the world, although this school did not receive wide recognition in Europe.